Faculty of Commerce Common syllabus

FUNDAMENTALS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Exam Hours: 1 ½ Marks: 50U+35P+15I

UNIT-I: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

Introduction, Definition, Characteristics of computer, Evolution of Computer, Block Diagram of a
computer, Generations of Computer, Classification Of Computers, Applications of Computer, Capabilities and
limitations of computer.
Role of I/O devices in a computer system. Input Units: Keyboard, Terminals and its types. Pointing
Devices, Scanners and its types, Voice Recognition Systems, Vision Input System, Touch Screen, Output Units:
Monitors and its types. Printers: Impact Printers and its types. Non-Impact Printers and its types, Plotters, types
of plotters, Sound cards, Speakers.

UNIT -II: COMPUTER ARITHMETIC & STORAGE FUNDAMENTALS

Binary, Binary Arithmetic, Number System: Positional & Non Positional, Binary, Octal, Decimal,
Hexadecimal, Converting from one number system to another.
Primary Vs Secondary Storage, Data storage & retrieval methods. Primary Storage: RAM ROM,
PROM, EPROM, EEPROM. Secondary Storage: Magnetic Tapes, Magnetic Disks. Cartridge tape, hard disks,
Floppy disks Optical Disks, Compact Disks, Zip Drive, Flash Drives.

UNIT-III: SOFTWARE
Software and its needs, Types of S/W. System Software: Operating System, Utility Programs
Programming Language: Machine Language, Assembly Language, High Level Language their advantages &
disadvantages.
Application S/W and its types: Word Processing, Spread Sheets Presentation, Graphics, DBMS s/w.

UNIT-IV: OPERATING SYSTEM

Functions, Measuring System Performance, Assemblers, Compilers and Interpreters. Batch Processing,
Multiprogramming, Multi-Tasking, Multiprocessing, Time Sharing, DOS, Windows, Unix/Linux.

UNIT-V: DATA COMMUNICATION

Data, Communication, Basic Networking Devices, Communication Process, Data Transmission speed,
Communication Types(modes), Data Transmission Medias, Modem and its working, characteristics, Types of
Networks, LAN Topologies, Computer Protocols, Concepts relating to networking.

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 UNIT-I

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

Introduction, Definition, Characteristics of computer, Evolution of Computer, Block Diagram of a

computer, Generations of Computer, Classification Of Computers, Applications of Computer, Capabilities

and limitations of computer.

Role of I/O devices in a computer system. Input Units: Keyboard, Terminals and its types. Pointing

Devices, Scanners and its types, Voice Recognition Systems, Vision Input System, Touch Screen, Output

Units: Monitors and its types. Printers: Impact Printers and its types. Non-Impact Printers and its types,

Plotters, types of plotters, Sound cards, Speakers.

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Computer Definition:
A computer is an electronic machine that accepts information, stores it until the information is needed,
processes the information according to the instructions provided by the user, and finally returns the
results to the user. The computer can store and manipulate large quantities of data at very high speed,
but a computer cannot think. A computer makes decisions based on simple comparisons such as one
number being larger than another. Although the computer can help solve a wonderful variety of
problems, it is simply a machine. It cannot solve problems on its own.
COMPUTER stands for:
 C – Common
 O – Oriented
 M – Machine
 P – Particularly
 U - Used For
 T – Trade
 E - Education And
 R - Research
Characteristics of computer
Computer has the following characteristics:
 Automation
 Speed
 Accuracy
 Memory
 Storage power
 Versatility
 Reliability
 Micro size
 Thoughtless

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Speed
A computer works with much higher speed and accuracy compared to humans while performing
mathematical calculations. Computers can process millions (1,000,000) of instructions per second. The time
taken by computers for their operations is microseconds and nanoseconds.
Accuracy
Computers perform calculations with 100% accuracy. Errors may occur due to data inconsistency or
inaccuracy.
Diligence
A computer can perform millions of tasks or calculations with the same consistency and accuracy. It doesn‟t
feel any tiredness or lack of concentration. Its memory also makes it superior to that of human beings.
Versatility
Versatility refers to the capability of a computer to perform different kinds of works with same accuracy and
efficiency.
Reliability
A computer is reliable as it gives consistent result for similar set of data i.e., if we give same set of input any
number of times, we will get the same result.
Automation
Computer performs all the tasks automatically i.e. it performs tasks without manual intervention.
Memory
A computer has built-in memory called primary memory where it stores data. Secondary storage are
removable devices such as CDs, pen drives, etc., which are also used to store data.
Block Diagram of Computer

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  A computer is an information processing machine. It can perform arithmetic operations (+,-,*, /) and
logical operations (<,>,<=, >=, ==, AND, OR).
 It has Memory and it can storage a lot of information.
 The stored information maybe retrieval, moved, delete operations any time.
 Calculations are very fast which reliability and accuracy.
 The operational of CPU having 3 parts. They are
i. Memory Unit (MU)
ii. Control Unit (CU)
iii. Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU)
 The Block Diagram of computer contain INPUT, OUTPUT and CPU parts.

 INPUT:
This unit is used to enter data and instructions into the computer, which receive the data from the user, this
enters data send to the CPU.

 CPU: (Central Processing Unit)

This Unit is used to store the data and interact to processing calculations and present the OUTPUT data.
CPU consists of 3 parts. They are
i. Memory Unit (MU)
ii. Control Unit (CU)
iii. Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU)
i. Memory Unit (MU):
 It Receive the data from INPUT Unit, like Keyboard, Mouse and it store the data, it
data send to the Control Unit.
 Again the Memory Unit receives the regular data from Control Unit. It data stored in
MU and it data send to the OUTPUT Unit.
ii. Control Unit (CU):
 It receives the data from Memory Unit. It‟s data converted into machine language
data.
 It machine language data send to the ALU
 Again CU receives the resulted data from ALU. It‟s resulted data in form of Machine
language. It machine language result data converted in to user readable language, and
it user readable result send to the memory unit.
iii. Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU):
 It receives the data from CU. It can perform calculations of the computer those are + -
* , /, <, >, <=, >=, == and the result data send to the control unit.

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 OUTPUT: it receives the data from Memory Unit. It OUTPUT Unit is used for display the
information or Result to Outside World.

Generations of Computer
The evolution of computer technology is often divided into five generations.
Five Generations of Computers
Generations of computers Generations timeline Evolving hardware
First generation 1940s-1950s Vacuum tube based
Second generation 1950s-1960s Transistor based
Third generation 1960s-1970s Integrated circuit based
Fourth generation 1970s-present Microprocessor based
Fifth generation The present and the future Artificial intelligence based

First generation Computers:

The main characteristics of first generation of computers (1940s-1950s)
 Main electronic component – vacuum tube
 Main memory – magnetic drums and magnetic tapes
 Programming language – machine language
 Power – consume a lot of electricity and generate a lot of heat.
 Speed and size – very slow and very large in size (often taking up entire room).
 Input/output devices – punched cards and paper tape.
 Examples – ENIAC, UNIVAC1, IBM 650, IBM 701, etc.
 Quantity – there were about 100 different vacuum tube computers produced between 1942 and1963.
Second Generation of Computers
The main characteristics of second generation of computers (1950s-1960s)
 Main electronic component – transistor
 Memory – magnetic core and magnetic tape / disk
 Programming language – assembly language
 Power and size – low power consumption, generated less heat, and smaller in size (in comparison with
the first generation computers)
 Speed – improvement of speed and reliability (in comparison with the first generation computers).
 Input/output devices – punched cards and magnetic tape.

 Examples – IBM 1401, IBM 7090 and 7094, UNIVAC 1107, etc.

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 Third Generation of Computers
The main characteristics of third generation of computers (1960s-1970s)
 Main electronic component – integrated circuits (ICs)
 Memory – large magnetic core, magnetic tape / disk
 Programming language – high level language (FORTRAN, BASIC, Pascal, COBOL, C, etc.)
 Size – smaller, cheaper, and more efficient than second generation computers (they were called
minicomputers).
 Speed – improvement of speed and reliability (in comparison with the second generation computers).
 Input / output devices – magnetic tape, keyboard, monitor, printer, etc.
 Examples – IBM 360, IBM 370, PDP-11, UNIVAC 1108, etc.
Fourth Generation of Computers
The main characteristics of fourth generation of computers (1970s-present)
 Main electronic component – very large-scale integration (VLSI) and microprocessor.
 VLSI– thousands of transistors on a single microchip.
 Memory – semiconductor memory (such as RAM, ROM, etc.)
o RAM (random-access memory) – a type of data storage (memory element) used in computers
those temporary stores of programs and data (volatile: its contents are lost when the computer
is turned off).
o ROM (read-only memory) – a type of data storage used in computers that permanently stores
data and programs (non-volatile: its contents are retained even when the computer is turned
off).
 Programming language – high level language (Python, C#, Java, JavaScript, Rust, Kotlin, etc.).
o A mix of both third- and fourth-generation languages
 Size – smaller, cheaper and more efficient than third generation computers.
 Speed – improvement of speed, accuracy, and reliability (in comparison with the third generation
computers).
 Input / output devices – keyboard, pointing devices, optical scanning, monitor, printer, etc.
 Network – a group of two or more computer systems linked together.
 Examples – IBM PC, STAR 1000, APPLE II, Apple Macintosh, etc.
Fifth Generation of Computers
The main characteristics of fifth generation of computers (the present and the future)
 Main electronic component: based on artificial intelligence, uses the Ultra Large-Scale Integration
(ULSI) technology and parallel processing method.
o ULSI – millions of transistors on a single microchip

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 o Parallel processing method – use two or more microprocessors to run tasks simultaneously.
 Language – understand natural language (human language).
 Power – consume less power and generate less heat.
 Speed – remarkable improvement of speed, accuracy and reliability (in comparison with the fourth
generation computers).
 Size – portable and small in size, and have a huge storage capacity.
 Input / output device – keyboard, monitor, mouse, track pad (or touchpad), touchscreen, pen, speech
input (recognize voice / speech), light scanner, printer, etc.
 Example – desktops, laptops, tablets, smartphones, etc.

Classification Of Computers
We can classify the computers according to the following 3 categories:
Classifications of Computers System:-
1. On the Basis of Size and Capacity, [Supercomputer, Mainframe, Mini, and Micro Computer].
2. On the Basis of Purposes, [General and Special Purpose].
3. On the Basis of Hardware Design and Type [Analog, Digital, and Hybrid Computer].

Computers on the Basis of Size and Capacity

1. Super Computer
 A Supercomputer is the very fastest and powerful, and expensive type of computer for processing
data.
 Supercomputers‟ size and storage capacity are also huge (can occupy huge premises) designed to
process vast amounts of data in a short time with high productivity.
 These are specially made to perform multi-specific tasks. Therefore, many CPUs work in parallel
order on these supercomputers.

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  . These computers include engineering applications, chemistry applications, and medicine and
physics applications.

2. Mainframe Computer
 Mainframe computers are multi-programming, high-performance computers, and multi-user,
which means it can handle the workload of more than 100 users at a time on the computer.
 The storage capacity of the mainframe is huge, with a high-speed data process as well. As well as
handling hundreds of input and output devices at a time.
 The mainframe is fast of our conventional modern Personal computers in almost every metric.
 It computer are supported in terminals.

3. Mini Computer
 Minicomputer is a digital and multi-user computer system with the connection of more than one
CPU.
 Thus, many people can work on these computers simultaneously instead of a single person. Also, it
can process with other accessories like a printer, plotter, etc.
 Minicomputers are the medium type of computers that have more functionality power and expensive
than microcomputers.
 On the other hand, the size, storage, and speed of minicomputers are large but less than the
mainframe and supercomputers.

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4. Micro Computer
 Today we are using many computers at home is also the most common microcomputer.
 With this invention of the microprocessors in the year 1970, it became possible to use computers for
people personally at a low cost and reasonable price known as Digital Personal Computer.
 The design of microcomputers is minimal in size and storage capacity. These computers consist of
many parts like Input and Output devices, Software, operating systems, networks, and Servers all
these need to connect to form a complete Personal Digital Computer.
 There is not only a PC or laptops are examples of microcomputers.
 Other examples of the microcomputer are smartphone, Tablet, PDA, server, palmtop, and
workstation.
This can be installed in any work area or even at home for personal use.

Computers on the Basis Purpose

1. General Purpose
 General computers can do various everyday tasks such as writing a word processing letter,
Document preparation, recording, financial analysis, Printing documents, creating databases, and
calculations with accuracy and consistency.
 The size, storage capacity, and cost of such computers are mainly less. The ability of these
computers is limited in performing specialized tasks. Still, it has flexibility and useful for serving
people‟s basic needs at home or in the workplace in the environment.

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Examples:
The desktops, laptops, smartphones, and tablets are used on daily basis for general purposes.
2. Special Purpose
 These computers are designed to perform a particular or specialized task. The size, storage capacity,
and cost of such computers mainly depend on the nature and size of the work. The function of these
computers is consistent with any particular task.
 The special computer needs specific processors and input and devices to conduct work efficiently.
 These computers are used for special purposes in weather forecasting, space research, agriculture,
engineering, meteorology, satellite operation, traffic control, and research in chemical sciences.
Examples:
 Automatic teller machines (ATM),
 Washing machines,
 Surveillance equipment,
 Weather-forecasting simulators,
 Traffic-control computers,
 Defense-oriented applications,
 Oil-exploration systems,
 Military planes controlling computers.

Computers on the Basis of Hardware Design and Data Handling

1. Analog Computer
Analog computers process data input in a continuous form. Data such as voltage resistance or
temperature are represented in the computer as a continues unbroken flow of information. Analog computers
are mainly used for measuring purpose.

Examples:
An analog computer installed on a petrol pump measures the amount of petrol coming out of the pump and
appears in liters. And calculates its value. These quantities vary continuously while measuring the amount,
such as the temperature of a human body changes consistently.
A simple clock, the vehicle’s speedometer, Voltmeter, etc. are examples of analog computing.
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2. Digital Computer
A Digital computer can count and accept numbers and letters through various input devices. The
input devices convert the data into electronic pulses, and perform arithmetical operations on numbers.
Digital computers can be used for both scientific and business applications.
One of the major advantages in the use of digital computers is that any desired level of accuracy can be
achieved.

Other Examples of Digital Computers

 Personal Desktop Computers,
 Calculators,
 Laptops, Smartphones, and Tablets,
 Digital watch,
 Accounting machines,
 Workstations,
 Digital clock, etc.

Application of computer
The various applications of computers in today's arena:
1. Business
2. Education
3. Marketing
4. Banking
5. Insurance
6. Communication
7. Health Care
8. Military
9. Engineering Design
1.Business
A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or versatility which made it an
integrated part in all business organisations. Computer is used in business organisations for: Payroll

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calculations, Sales analysis, Budgeting, Financial forecasting, Managing employees database and
Maintenance of stocks etc.
2.Education
Computers have its dominant use in the education field which can significantly enhance performance in
learning. Even distance learning is made productive and effective through internet and video-based classes.
Researchers have massive usage of these computers in their work from the starting to till the end of their
scholarly work.
3. Marketing
In marketing, uses of computer are:
Advertising - With computers, advertising professionals create art and graphics, write and revise copy, and
print and disseminate ads with the goal of selling more products.
Home Shopping - Home shopping has been made possible through use of computerised catalogues that
provide access to product information and permit direct entry of orders to be filled by the customers.
4. Banking
Today banking is almost totally dependent on computer. Banks provide the facilities of: Banks provide
online accounting facility, which includes current balances, deposits, overdrafts, interest charges, shares, and
trustee records. ATM machines are making it even easier for customers to deal with banks.
5. Insurance
Companies are keeping all records up-to-date with the help of computers. The insurance companies, finance
houses and stock broking firms are widely using computers for their concerns.
6.Communication
Communication means to convey a message, an idea, a picture or speech that is received and understood
clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is meant for. Some main areas in this category are: Chatting,
E-mail, Usenet, FTP, Video-conferencing and Telnet.
7. HealthCare
Most of the medical information can now be digitized from the prescription to reports. Computation in the
field of medicine allows us to offer varied miraculous therapies to the patients. ECG‟s, radiotherapy wasn‟t
possible without computers.
8. Military
Computers are the main tools which help in developing missiles and other equipment in the deference
system. Designing and the maintenance are possible only through computers. Computer builds the links
between the soldiers and commanders through the satellite. Construction of weapons and controlling their
function is not possible without the aid of computers. The list of the criminals and the records of the cops are
maintained regularly in the system.

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9. EngineeringDesign
As per the title, computers aid in designing buildings, magazines, prints, newspapers, books and many
others. The construction layouts are designed beautifully on system using different tools and software‟s.

CAPABILITIES of Computer
1. Can process data faster than any other machine designed to perform a similar task.
2. Can tirelessly perform the similar operations million of times in exactly the same way without
getting bored.
3. Can make decisions based on alternative courses of action.
4. Can store facts, instructions, and information.
5. Can verify the accuracy of its own work by means of a parity check.
6. Capable of executing the instructions on its own, without human intervention
7. Provides new time dimension.

Limitations of Computer
1. Cannot generate information on its own.
2. Cannot correct wrong instructions.
3. Cannot come out with an original decision

Input/output Devices
The computer will be of no use unless it is able to communicate with the outside world.
Input/output devices are required for users to communicate with the computer. In simple terms, input
devices bring information INTO the computer and output devices bring information OUT of a
computer system. These input/output devices are also known as peripherals since they surround the CPU
and memory of a computer system.
Input Devices:- In Keyboard, mouse, joystick, scanners, digital camera, bar code reader,
touch Screen, Speech input device (microphone)
(a) Keyboard: It is a text base input device that allows the user to input alphabets, numbers and
other characters. It consists of a set of keys mounted on a board.

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Alphanumeric Keypad:
It consists of keys for English alphabets, 0 to 9 numbers, and special characters like + − / * ( ) etc.
Function Keys:
There are twelve function keys labeled F1, F2, F3... F12. The functions assigned to these keys differ
from one software package to another. These keys are also user programmable keys.
Special-function Keys: These keys have special functions assigned to them and can be used only
for those specific purposes. Functions of some of the important keys are defined below.
Enter Key:
It is similar to the „return‟ key of the typewriter and is used to execute a command or program.
Spacebar Key: It is used to enter a space at the current cursor location.
Backspace Key: This key is used to move the cursor one position to the left and also delete the
character in that position.
Delete Key: It is used to delete the character at the cursor position.
Insert key: It is used to toggle between insert and overwrite mode during data entry.
Shift Key: This key is used to type capital letters when pressed along with an alphabet key. Also
used to type the special characters located on the upper-side of a key that has two characters defined
on the same key.
Caps Lock Key: Cap Lock is used to toggle between the capital lock features. When „on‟, it locks
the alphanumeric keypad for capital letters input only.
Tab Key: Tab is used to move the cursor to the next tab position defined in the document. Also, it
is used to insert indentation into a document.
Ctrl Key: Control key is used in conjunction with other keys to provide additional functionality on
the keyboard. Alt Also like the control key, Alt key is always used in combination with other keys to
perform specific tasks.
Esc Key: This key is usually used to negate a command. Also used to cancel or abort executing
programs.
Numeric Keypad: Numeric keypad is located on the right side of the keyboard and consists of
keys having numbers (0 to 9) and mathematical operators (+ − * /) defined on them. This keypad is
provided to support quick entry for numeric data.
Cursor Movement Keys: These are arrow keys and are used to move the cursor in the direction
indicated by the arrow (up, down, left, right).

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(b) Mouse:
The mouse is a small device used to point to a particular place on the screen and select in order to
perform one or more actions. It can be used to select menu commands, size windows, start programs
etc. The most conventional kind of mouse has two buttons on top: the left one being used most
frequently.
Mouse Actions Left Click: Used to select an item.
Double Click: Used to start a program or open a file.
Right Click: Usually used to display a set of commands.
Drag and Drop: It allows you to select and move an item from one location to another. To
achieve this place the cursor over an item on the screen, click the left mouse button and while holding
the button down move the cursor to where you want to place the item, and then release it.

(c) Joystick
The joystick is a vertical stick which moves the graphic cursor in a direction the stick is moved. It typically
has a button on top that is used to select the option pointed by the cursor. Joystick is used as an input device
primarily used with video games, training simulators and controlling robots

(d)Scanner
Scanner is an input device used for direct data entry from the source document into the computer
system. It converts the document image into digital form so that it can be fed into the computer.
Capturing information like this reduces the possibility of errors typically experienced during large
data entry.

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Hand-held scanners are commonly seen in big stores to scan codes and price information for each of
the items. They are also termed the bar code readers.

(e) Bar code Readers

A bar code is a set of lines of different thicknesses that represent a number. Bar Code Readers are
used to input data from bar codes. Most products in shops have bar codes on them. Bar code readers
work by shining a beam of light on the lines that make up the bar code and detecting the amount of
light that is reflected back

(f) Light Pen

It is a pen shaped device used to select objects on a display screen. It is quite like the mouse (in its
functionality) but uses a light pen to move the pointer and select any object on the screen by pointing
to the object. Users of Computer Aided Design (CAD) applications commonly use the light pens to
directly draw on screen.

(g) Touch Screen

It allows the user to operate/make selections by simply touching the display screen. Common
examples of touch screen include information kiosks, and bank ATMs.

(h)Digital camera
A digital camera can store many more pictures than an ordinary camera. Pictures taken using a digital
camera are stored inside its memory and can be transferred to a computer by connecting the camera
to it. A digital camera takes pictures by converting the light passing through the lens at the front into
a digital image.

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(i)The Speech Input Device
The “Microphones - Speech Recognition” is a speech Input device. To operate it we require using a
microphone to talk to the computer. Also we need to add a sound card to the computer. The Sound
card digitizes audio input into 0/1s .A speech recognition program can process the input and convert
it into machine-recognized commands or input.

Output Devices
(a) Monitor
Monitor is an output device that resembles the television screen and uses a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) to
display information. The monitor is associated with a keyboard for manual input of characters and displays
the information as it is keyed in. It also displays the program or application output. Like the television,
monitors are also available in different sizes.
(b) Liquid Crystal Display
(LCD)LCD was introduced in the 1970s and is now applied to display terminals also. Its advantages like low
energy consumption, smaller and lighter have paved its way for usage in portable computers (laptops).

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(c) Printer
Printers are used to produce paper (commonly known as hardcopy) output. Based on the technology used,
they can be classified as Impact or Non-impact printers. Impact printers use the typewriting printing
mechanism wherein a hammer strikes the paper through a ribbon in order to produce output. Dot-matrix and
Character printers fall under this category. Non-impact printers do not touch the paper while printing. They
use chemical, heat or electrical signals to etch the symbols on paper. Inkjet, Deskjet, Laser, Thermal printers
fall under this category of printers. When we talk about printers we refer to two basic qualities associated
with printers: resolution, and speed. Print resolution is measured in terms of number of dots per inch (dpi).
Print speed is measured in terms of number of characters printed in a unit of time and is represented as
characters-per-second (cps), lines-per-minute (lpm), or pages-per-minute (ppm)

(d) Plotter
Plotters are used to print graphical output on paper. It interprets computer commands and makes line
drawings on paper using multicolored automated pens. It is capable of producing graphs, drawings, charts,
maps etc. Computer Aided Engineering (CAE) applications like CAD (Computer Aided Design) and CAM
(Computer Aided Manufacturing) are typical usage areas for plotters

(e) Audio Output:

Sound Cards and Speakers: The Audio output is the ability of the computer to output sound. Two
components are needed: Sound card – Plays contents of digitized recordings, Speakers – Attached to sound
card.

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 UNIT –II

COMPUTER ARITHMETIC & STORAGE FUNDAMENTALS

Binary, Binary Arithmetic, Number System: Positional & Non Positional, Binary, Octal, Decimal,

Hexadecimal, Converting from one number system to another.

Primary Vs Secondary Storage, Data storage & retrieval methods. Primary Storage: RAM ROM,

PROM, EPROM, EEPROM. Secondary Storage: Magnetic Tapes, Magnetic Disks. Cartridge tape, hard disks,

Floppy disks Optical Disks, Compact Disks, Zip Drive, Flash Drives.

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Number System
When we type some letters or words, the computer translate them in numbers as computer can
understand only number‟s language. A computer can understand the number system language, where in
number system language consists of 0 to 9 numbers, some few symbols and A to F letters only. In computer
number system having four different types of number system. They are
i. Decimal Number System (base 10)
ii. Binary Number System (base 2)
iii. Octal Number System (base 8)
iv. Hexa Decimal Number System (base 16)

I. Decimal Number System: The Number System that we use in our day to day life is the
Decimal Number System. Decimal Number System as a base value “10” , it uses ten digits from “0
to 9” digits. The position of the decimal Number System follow Right to left units One‟s, Ten‟s,
Hundred‟s, Thousand‟s and so on. Each position represents a specific power of 10.
Example: The decimal Number 1234. It number “1234” consists of four digits number. In the decimal
number unit position is 4(one‟ position), 3(ten‟s position), 2(Hundred‟s position) and 1(Thousand‟s
position). The value can write in computer decimal number system as follow.
1234 = (1*103) + (2*102) + (3*101) + (4*100)
= (1*1000) + (2*100) + (3*10) + (4*1)
= 1000 + 200 + 30 + 4
=123410
II. Binary Number System: Digital Computer s represents all kind of data and information in
the binary system. Binary Number System consists of only 2 digits that are “ 0‟s and 1‟s. Every digit
or bit in Binary Number System can be 1‟s or 0‟s. A combination of Number system may be used to
represent in binary system like “0001001”. In Binary Number System each position to multiply
power of 2.

Characteristics of Binary Number System:

1. Use 2 digit, 0‟s and 1‟s.
2. It is also called as base 2 number system.
3. Each position in a Binary Number System represent “ 1‟s or 0‟s” and to multiply power of 2
increasing the power value right to left.
Example: Binary Number System: 110102
Calculating Binary Number to equaling Decimal Number

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In any binary number, the rightmost digit is called least significant bit (LSB) and leftmost digit is called
most significant bit (MSB).
And decimal equivalent of this number is sum of product of each digit with its positional value.
110102 = 1*24 + 1*23 + 0*22 + 1*21 + 0*20
= 1*16 +1* 8 + 0*4 + 1*2 + 0*1
= 16 + 8 + 0 + 2 + 0
= 2610

III. Octal Number System: It consists of 8 digits from 0 to 7. The base of Octal Number system
is base 8. Each digit position of 8 value increasing form right to left. Any digit in this number system less
than 8.

Characteristics of Octal Number System:

1. Use 8 digits from 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7.
2. It is also called Base 8 Number System.
3. Every position in Octal Number System to multiply power of 8 to start from 80 increasing from right
to left.
Example: Octal Number System: 125708 or (12570)8
Calculating Octal Number System = Decimal Number System.
125708 = (1 * 84) + (2 * 83) + (5 * 82) + (7 * 81) + (0 * 80)
= (1 * 4096) + (2 * 512) + (5 * 64) + (7 * 8) + (0 * 1)
= 4096 + 1024 + 320 + 56 + 0
(12570)8= (5496)10
IV. Octal Number System: The Hexadecimal Number System consists of 16 digits from 0 to 9
and A to F characters. The alphabets A to F represent 10 to 15. The base of in this number system is
16. Each digit in Hexadecimal number system to multiply power of 16.

Characteristics of Hexadecimal Number System:

1. Use 16 digits from 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9, and A,B,C,D,E,F
2. The alphabets A to F represents the number system from A=10, B=11, C=12, D=13, E=14, F=15
3. It is also called Base 16 Number System.
4. Every position in Hexadecimal Number System to multiply power of 16 to start from 160 increasing
from right to left.
Example: Hexadecimal Number System: 19FDE16 or (19FDE)8
Calculating Hexadecimal Number System = Decimal Number System.

22
19FDE16 (19FDE)16 = (1 * 164) + (9 * 163) + (F * 162) + (D * 161) + (E * 160)
= (1 * 164) + (9 * 163) + (15 * 162) + (13 * 161) + (14 * 160)
= (1 * 65536) + (9 * 4096) + (15 * 256) + (13 * 16) + (14 * 1)
= 65536 + 36864 + 3840 + 208 + 14
19FDE16 (19FDE)16 = (106462)10
Numbers Conversion
There are many methods which can be used to convert one number system to another number system. In
computer environment having 6 types of number conversions. They are

i. Decimal to Binary Number System

ii. Decimal to Octal Number System
iii. Decimal to Hexadecimal Number System
iv. Binary to Decimal Number System
v. Octal to Decimal Number System
vi. Hexadecimal to Decimal Number System

i. Decimal Number System to Binary Number System:

Step 1 − Divide the decimal number which is to be converted by 2, which is base of Binary Number. .
Step 2 − Get the remainder from Step 1 as the Least Significant Bit (LSB) of the new Binary Number.
Step 3 − Divide the quotient which is obtain from Step2 and the remainder obtain second Least
Significant Bit of Binary Number.
Step 4 − Record the remainder from Step 3 as the next digit (to the left) of the new base number.
Repeat Steps 3 and 4, getting remainders from right to left, until the quotient becomes zero in Step 3.
The last remainder thus obtained will be the Most Significant Digit (MSD) of the new base number.
Example
Decimal Number: 2910
Calculating Binary Equivalent −

Step Operation Result Remainder

Step 1 29 / 2 14 1

Step 2 14 / 2 7 0

Step 3 7/2 3 1

Step 4 3/2 1 1

Step 5 1/2 0 1

23
As mentioned in Steps 2 and 4, the remainders have to be arranged in the reverse order so that the first
remainder becomes the Least Significant Digit (LSD) and the last remainder becomes the Most Significant
Digit (MSD).
Decimal Number: 2910 = Binary Number: 111012.

ii. Decimal Number System to Octal Number System:

Step-1: Divide the Decimal Number which is to be converted by 8 which is the base of Octal Number
System.
Step-2: The remainder which is obtained from Step-1 is the least significant bit (LSB) of the new Octal
Number which is obtained.
Step-3: Divide the Quotient from the Step-2. The Remainder obtain this is the second Lease Significant Bit
(LSB) of Octal Number.
Step-4: Repeat the process until the quotient becomes Zero.
Step-5: The last Remainder obtained from the division is the Most Significant Bit (MSB) to the Least
Significant Bit (LSB). i.e, Bottom to top.
Example:
Decimal Number: (1592)10
To Conversion from Decimal to Octal Number System as Follow

Step Operation Result Remainder

Step 1 1592 / 8 199 0

Step 2 199 / 8 24 7

Step 3 24 / 8 3 0

Step 4 3/8 0 3

Step 5 None 0 0

Decimal Number: (1592)10 = Octal Number: (03070)8

iii. Decimal Number System to Hexadecimal Number System:

Step-1: Divide the Decimal Number which is to be converted by 16 which is the base of Hexadecimal
Number System.
Step-2: The remainder which is obtained from Step-1 is the least significant bit (LSB) of the new
Hexadecimal Number which is obtained.
Step-3: Divide the Quotient from the Step-2. The Remainder obtain this is the second Lease Significant Bit
(LSB) of Hexadecimal Number.

24
Step-4: Incase the remainder is 10 to 15 presents to given the value represent as follow 10 A, 11  B,
12C, 13  D, 14  E, 15  F.
Step-4: Repeat the process until the quotient becomes Zero.
Step-5: The last Remainder obtained from the division is the Most Significant Bit (MSB) to the Least
Significant Bit (LSB). i.e, Bottom to top.
Example:
Decimal Number: (25468)10
To Conversion from Decimal to Hexadecimal l Number System as Follow

Step Operation Result Remainder

Step 1 25468 / 16 1591 12 (C)

Step 2 1591 / 16 99 7

Step 3 99 / 16 6 3

Step 4 6 / 16 0 6

Step 5 None 0 0

Decimal Number: (25468)10 = Hexadecimal Number: (0637C) 16

Memory Hierarchy
In Computer keep the data in a storage memory in two ways. They are
i. Primary Memory or Main Memory or Temporary memory
ii. Secondary Memory or Permanent Memory

i. Primary Memory:
This memory always available in the computer. This memory data will be loss when the power is off. It
also known as temporary Memory. Its Memory consists of 3 types. They are
i.) CPU ii) RAM iii) ROM

25
26
 i) CPU: It is part of the Primary Memory. It having small amount of storage, it consists of 2
types. They are Register and Cache memory.

a. Register: It is part of the CPU. They have least capacity of the storage, it having small
amount of instructions.

b. Cache Memory: It is high speed memory. That processor can access more than speed
of other memory. Cache memory is a place to the CPU where in Computer.

ii) RAM: RAM means “Random Access Memory”. It used to read and write the instructions in
the memory. But this memory is volatile. It means the data will be loss when the power is off.
RAM having 2 types. They are Static Ram and Dynamic RAM.

iii) ROM: ROM means “Read Only Memory”. It is used to read the instructions but not write the
instructions in the memory. It memory consist of 4 types. They are

a. PROM: Programmable Read Only Memory

b. EPROM: Electrically Programmable Read Only Memory

c. EEPROM: Erasable Electrically Programmable Read Only Memory

d. Flash Memory

ii. Secondary Memory:

This memory can store the data with permanently. This memory also divided into 2 types. They are
1. Sequential Memory
2. Random Memory

1. Sequential Memory: In this memory can store and read the instructions and programs
and data in sequential order. It means one after another.

Example: Magnetic Tapes

2. Random Memory: In this Memory programs, instructions and data can store and reading
with randomly. These are also called as “Direct Access Memory”. In this Memory consists of 2
types. They are Magnetic Disks and Optical Disks.

a. Magnetic Disks: It provides facility to reading as well as writing on magnetic

Disks. It made up half plastic material coated with ferrous oxide material. It memory
consists of 2 types.

i. Floppy Disks: it is made up plastic material in Rounded shape and coated

with ferrous oxide material. It is used for storing and retrieving information by the

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 user. They are 2 types of floppy disks. They are Based on Sector format and
Based on size and capacity.

ii. Hard Disks: This is a collection of disk compressed together having different
types of disks. The capacity of hard disks range from 4GB to 1TB.

b. Optical Disk: These are made up with optical material. These optical disks are
divided into 4 types, they are CD-ROM, CR-R/W, DVD-ROM, DVD-R/W.

i. CD-ROM: CD-ROM means Compact Disk Read only Memory. It disk is

perform by using laser light rays. It CD-ROM allowing only read operation but
not Write operation. It means the information in the CD-ROM cannot be modify.
The capacity of ther CD-ROM range from 650MB to 700MB.

ii. CD-R/W: CD-R/W means Compact Disk Read and Write. It disk is perform
by using laser light rays. It CD-R/W allowing both read and Write operation. It
means the information in the CD-R/W can be modified. The capacity of the CD-
R/W range from 650MB to 700MB.

iii. DVD-ROM: DVD-ROM means Digital Video Disk Read only Memory. It
disk is perform by using laser light rays. It DVD-ROM allowing only read
operation but not Write operation. It means the information in the DVD-ROM
cannot be modify. The capacity of the DVD-ROM range from 4.3GB to 4.5GB.

iv. DVD-R/W: DVD-R/W means Digital Video Disk Read Write. It disk is
perform by using laser light rays. It DVD-R/W allowing both read operation and
Write operation. It means the information in the DVD-ROM can be modified. The
capacity of the DVD-R/W range from 4.3GB to 4.5GB.

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 UNIT-III

SOFTWARE

Software and its needs, Types of S/W. System Software: Operating System, Utility Programs

Programming Language: Machine Language, Assembly Language, High Level Language their advantages &

disadvantages.

Application S/W and its types: Word Processing, Spread Sheets Presentation, Graphics, DBMS s/w.

29
 Computer Software
Software:
Software is a collection of instructions that enable the user to interact with a computer, its hardware,
or perform tasks. Without software, most computers would be useless. For example, without our
Internet browser software, you could not use the Internet. Without an operating system, the browser could
not run on our computer.
Computer software, or just software, is a collection of computer programs and related data that
provides the instructions for telling a computer what to do and how to do it. Any set of instructions that
guides the hardware and tells it how to complete each task

Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined function. A program is a

sequence of instructions written to solve a particular problem.
There are two types of software −
 System Software
 Application Software

System Software
The system software is a collection of programs designed to operate, control, and extend the processing
capabilities of the computer itself. System software is generally prepared by the computer manufacturers.
These software products comprise of programs written in low-level languages, which interact with the
hardware at a very basic level. System software serves as the interface between the hardware and the end
users.
Some examples of system software are Operating System, Compilers, Interpreter, Assemblers, etc.

Operating System (OS)

An operating system (OS), in its most general sense, is software that allows a user to run other applications
on a computing device. While it is possible for a software application to interface directly with hardware, the
vast majority of applications are written for an OS, which allows them to take advantage of common
libraries and not worry about specific hardware details.
The operating system manages a computer's hardware resources, including:
 Input devices such as a keyboard and mouse
 Output devices such as display monitors, printers and scanners
 Network devices such as modems, routers and network connections
 Storage devices such as internal and external drives
The OS also provides services to facilitate the efficient execution and management of, and memory
allocations for, any additional installed software application programs.

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Utility Programs
A utility program is a small program that does something useful.
As operating systems have improved, utility programs that once had to be bought separately from the main
operating system are now included, so now appear as an integral part of it.
Examples of utility programs are:
 Repairing damaged files
 Detecting and removing computer viruses
 Reorganising files (defragmenting files)
 Compressing files (making them smaller)
 Formatting disks
 Disk Backup/Restore
 Printer Driver (An instance of a device driver)

What is a language?
Language is the medium of communication to share ideas, opinion with each other. For an example, if we
want to communicate with someone, we need a language it may be English, Hindi, Spanish or another
language. But you need at least one language to communicate with someone (human/person).

Programming language
To communicate with a person, you need a language. Same if you need to communicate with the computer,
you need a programming language. Without any programming language you cannot communicate with the
computer.
Types of computer programming languages
There are basically three types of computer programming languages, they are
1. Low level programming languages
2. High level programming languages
3. Middle level programming languages

1) Low level programming languages

These are machine dependent programming languages such as Binary (Machine code) and Assembly
language.
Since computer only understand the Binary language that means instructions in the form of 0‟s and
1‟s, so these programming languages are the best way to give signals (Binary Instructions) to the computer
directly.
Machine Code (Binary Language) does not need any interpreter or compiler to convert language in
any form because computer understands these signals directly.

31
 But, Assembly language needs to be converted in equivalent Binary code, so that computer can
understand the instructions written in Assembly. Assembler is used to convert an assembly code to its
equivalent Binary code.
The codes written in such kind of languages are difficult to write, read, edit and understand; the
programs are not portable to any other computer system.
Low Level programming language programs are faster than High Level programming
language programs as they have less keyword, symbols and no need (less need) to convert into
Machine Code.

2) High level programming languages

These are the machine independent programming languages, which are easy to write, read, edit and
understand by the user. The languages like Java, .Net, Pascal, COBOL, C++, C, C# and other (which are
very popular now to develop user end applications). These languages come under the high level
programming language category.
High level programming languages have some special keywords, functions and class libraries by
using them we can easily build a program for the computer.
Computer does not understand program written in such languages directly, computer understands
only Machine code. So, here programming translators are required to convert a high level program to its
equivalent Machine code.
Programming translators such as Compilers and Interpreters are the system software‟s which
converts a program written in particular programming languages to its equivalent Machine code.

3) Middle Level programming language

Since, there is no such category of computer programming languages, but the programming
languages that have features of low level and high level programming languages come under this category.
Hence, we can say that the programming languages which have features of Low Level as well as
High Level programming languages known as "Middle Level" programming language.
C programming languages is the best example of Low Level Programming languages as it has
features of low level and high level programming languages both.

Advantage and disadvantage of a programming language

Advantages:
1. It's very productive to program
2. It's fun to program if you're into it
3. Programming usually gets us good money, especially if we build a good money making application or
website
4. We know how something works when we see it

32
5. It's easy to code/program once we know the syntax of the programming language
6. We get to platform our work
7. If we can program/type code, that means ours smart enough to interpret the language which is a good
thing.
8. Programming code are the instructions to tell the computer what to do
9. Most programming languages are fairly easy to learn and use
11. We learn a lot from it
12. We get better at it over time

Disadvantages:
1. Bugs can get annoying and hard to solve sometimes
2. If you're not good at math then it won't be easy to program
3. Lots of thinking involved
4. If you don't have a good memory, then it will be hard to memorize the syntax of the programming
language
5. If you type slow, then you will take much longer to program something. (I can type lots of code in
seconds since I know the syntax, but it requires thinking and logic)
6. Some programming languages are hard to learn

2. Application Software
Applications software is capable of dealing with user inputs and helps the user to complete the task.
It is also called end-user programs or only an app. It resides above system software. First user deal with
system software after that he/she deals with application software. The end user uses applications software
for a specific purpose. It programmed for simple as well as complex tasks. It either be installed or access
online. It can be a single program or a group of small programs that referred to as an application suite. Some
examples of Application Software are Word processing software, Spreadsheets Software, Presentation,
Graphics, CAD/CAM, Sending email etc.

Types of Application Software: According to the need of users it is categorized into following types.
1) Presentation Software: Presentation program is a program to show the information in the form of slides.
We can add text, graphics video and images to slides to make them more informative.
The software has three components:
1) Text editor for inputting and formatting text.

2) Inserting graphics, text, video and other multimedia files.

3) Slideshow to display the information.
Presentation software helps the presenter to present their ideas with ease and visual information easy to
understand. Example of presentation software: Microsoft's PowerPoint and Apple's Keynote.
33
2) Spreadsheet Software: Spreadsheet software is used to perform manipulate and calculations. In
spreadsheet software data is stored in intersection row and column. The intersection of row and column is
known as a cell. The cell labeled with the row and column label like A1, A2 etc. While entering data into the
cell, we can also define the data value like text, date, time, number. It provides many formula and function
to perform calculations like arithmetic operations, logical operations, text operation etc. It provides charts,
graphs to display data graphically. For example Microsoft Excel, lotus 1-2-3 for windows and number for
MAC OS.
3) Database Software: Database is a collection of data related to any applications. Today is environment
every application has some database where data regarding users stored. For this purpose, we used database
software. When we operate the application data is accessed from the database, and after manipulation, it gets
back stored in the database.
Database Management System (DBMS) software tool used for storing, modifying extracting and searching
for information within a database. MySQL, MS Access, Microsoft SQL Server and Oracle is the example of
database application Software.
4) Multimedia Software: Multimedia is a combination of text, graphics, audio and Multimedia software
used in the editing of video, audio and text. Multimedia software used in the growth of business, educations,
information, remote system and entertainment.
Entertainment: This area deal with the general public, media and telecommunication. With the growth
entertainment mode, much application is available for mobile phone as well as the system. Like Music and
video entertainment app, navigation app, social networking application, news and weather application,
educational apps and e-book reader‟s app for preparation of any type of exams.
5) Simulation Software: Simulation is an imitation of real world and environment. The simulation creates a
physical environment of the real world to represent the similar behavior, function and key nature of the
selected topic. Simulation is technology for education, engineering, testing, training, video games and
for scientific modelling of natural systems to gain insight into their functioning. The simulation used in the
area of the real world where the real system cannot be accessible or may be dangerous or unacceptable. Area
of technology flight, economics, automobiles, Robotics, digital lifecycle, Space Shuttle Navigation, weather.
6) Word Processing Software: Word Processing software is used to manipulate, format the text, to create
memos, letters, faxes and documents. Processing Software is used to format and beautify the text. It provides
a list of features. Likethesaurus, the option provides synonyms, antonyms and related words for
chosen word or phrase. Find and replace feature enables users to scan and replace selected words or
phrases in the document. Font option provides font colour, font style, font effect, font size to modify
the txt. Word Art option to modify or animated titles, hyphens, columns and text boxes in
documents. Grammar and Spelling check option available for checking errors. Many more option is
listed here in software.
For example Microsoft Word, Lotus Word Pro, Word pad and Corel WordPerfect.
34
 Word Processing
➢ A word processor helps a user to perform word processing.
➢ MS-Word is a most commonly used word processing application.

➢ This application can be used to prepare documentation, notes, reports, officials, letters, files, memos, etc.
➢ The documents in MS-Word can be created with the help of various menus and toolbars present on a
Ribbon.
➢ A Ribbon is present at top of a word document. It arranges group of tools and commands into various
categories referred to as tab
➢ The various other features of MS-Word are formatting text in a document.
➢ Moving, Copying, Saving, Searching word in a document, Mail Merge, Importing and Exporting.

Features of word processing

Entering text:
When entering text in word, users make some mistakes, which is not a matter of worry in MS-Word. This is
because incorrect or mistyped words are highlighted with a red marker. Another feature of MS Word the
automatic word wrap', i.e., users need not have to press enter at end of each line; word automatically carts a
new line on behalf. There are certain points that should be considered when typing text in word,
❖ Use ruler instead of TAB or SPACE BAR to indent paragraphs.
❖ Use center-alignment button instead of SPACE BAR to position the text in center.
❖ Use tables or word multi column features instead of SPACE BAR to make column.
❖ Use break command from insert menu to begin a new page instead of repeatedly pressing ENTER.
❖ Use paragraph spacing feature to space paragraph instead of using carriage returns.
Editing Text
Editing is a powerful feature of MS Word that allows user to rectify their mistakes made at the time typłng
text.
The different options for editing documents are as follows,
1. Insert and Delete
Insert command is used for adding an object, picture, file, clip art to the document.
2. Find and Replace
Find/search command is used to search and locate a specific text or part of a text in the document.
3. Cut/Copy and Paste
With word processing the users can select (highlight) the portion of text they want to copy or move. Then,
they can use the copy or cut command to move it to a special area in the computer's memory called the
clipboard.

35
Once the material is on the clipboard, they can “paste” or transfer it anywhere in the existing document or to
a new document.

Graphic Packages
A graphics package allows user to utilize a computer system for creating, editing, viewing, storing,
retrieving and printing designs, drawings, pictures, graphics,
Following are the characteristics aided by graphic packages. .
1. Draw Designs :-
It allows users in outlining the graphics objects like lines, circles, rectangles, arc and so on in order to draw
diagrams designs
2. Paint Drawings and Pictures :-
It helps users to alter the drawings and pictures in the form of an image,
The images that are linked over the screen mainly depends on the binary bits called as bit mapping. The
images that are represented in terms of pixels are referred to as bitmap images graphics. Bitmapped file
format is used to store the bitmap images.
The formats GIF, JPEG, Bitmap (BMP), Post Script (PS), IRIS and Tagged Image File Format (TIFF) can
store the bitmap graphics files.
3. Present Graphs :-
It allows users to design graphs and charts by importing the numerical information from software like a
spreadsheet or a database.
Line graphs, bar charts and pie charts are mostly used by the users for representing numerical data
graphically.
Line graphs consists of several lines which internally links the data points placed
4. Drag-and-Drop Objects:-
It allows user to develop all the designs and pictures quickly by enabling them to use ready-made graphic
objects or images that are provided with a software
drawing software is provided with additional ready-made shapes such as line, rectangle, circle and so on
which can be utilized by the user while designing based on their requirement.
5. Import Objects :-
It allows users to develop all the designs and pictures much quickly by enabling them to not only access
graphic objects or images provided along with a software but also those objects that are provided by some
other software.
6. Screen Capture :-
This technique allows user to capture the screenshot of a display screen and translate it into an image
referred as a bit-mapped image which can be saved in a file and can be imported later whenever required.
This is beneficial at the time of writing books or manuals which involves the screen images.

36
 UNIT-IV

OPERATING SYSTEM

Functions, Measuring System Performance, Assemblers, Compilers and Interpreters. Batch Processing,

Multiprogramming, Multi-Tasking, Multiprocessing, Time Sharing, DOS, Windows, Unix/Linux.

37
 OPERATING SYSTEM
Operating System: An Operating System (OS) is an interface between user and computer
hardware. An operating system is software which performs all the basic tasks like file management, memory
management, process management, handling input and output, and controlling peripheral devices such as
disk drives and printers. Some popular Operating Systems include Linux Operating System, Windows
Operating System, VMS, OS/400, AIX, z/OS, and etc.

Definition
An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user and the computer hardware and
controls the execution of all kinds of programs

Functions of Operating System

Following are some of important functions of an operating System.
1. Memory Management
2. Processor Management
3. Device Management
4. File Management
5. Security
6. Error detecting aids
7. Coordination between other software and users
1. Memory Management:
Memory management refers to management of Primary Memory or Main Memory. Main memory
provides temporary memory and a fast storage that can be accessed directly by the CPU. For a program to be
executed, it must in the main memory.
An Operating System does the following activities for memory management:

38
  Keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e., what part of it are in use by whom, what parts are not in
use?
 In multiprogramming, the OS decides which process will get memory when and how much.
 Allocates the memory when a process requests it to do.
 De-allocates the memory when approaches no longer needs it or has been terminated.

2. Processor Management:
In multiprogramming environment, the OS decides which process gets the processor when and for how
much time. This function is called process scheduling. An Operating System does the following activities
for processor management:
 Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. The program responsible for this task is known
as traffic controller.
 Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process.
 De-allocates processor when a process sis no longer required.

3. Input / Output Device Management:

An Operating System manages device communication via their respective drivers. It does the following
activities for device management:
 Keeps tracks of all devices. The program responsible for this task is known as the I/O controller.
 Decides which process gets the device when and for how much time.
 Allocates the device in the most efficient way.
 De-allocates devices.

4. File Management:
A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage. These directories may
contain files and other directions.
An Operating System does the following activities for file management:
 Keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc. The collective facilities are often known as file
system.
 Decides who gets the resources.
 Allocates the resources.
 De-allocates the resources

5. Security: It means of password and similar other techniques, it checks unauthorized access to
programs and data.

6. Error detecting: Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and other debugging and error
detecting aids.

39
 Language Processors: Assembler, Compiler and Interpreter
Assembly language is machine dependent. That are being used to represent instructions in it are not
directly understandable by machine and high Level language is machine independent. A computer
understands instructions in machine code, i.e. in the form of 0s and 1s. It is write a computer program
directly in machine code. The programs are written mostly in high level languages like Java, C++, Python
etc. and are called source code. This source code cannot be executed directly by the computer and must be
converted into machine language to be executed. Hence, a special translator system software is used to
translate the program written in high-level language into machine code is called Language Processor and
the program after translated into machine code (object program / object code).
The language processors can be any of the following three types:
1. Compiler –
The language processor that reads the complete source program written in high level language as a
whole in one go and translates it into an equivalent program in machine language is called as a
Compiler.
Example: C, C++, C#, Java
In a compiler, the source code is translated to object code successfully if it is free of errors. The compiler
specifies the errors at the end of compilation with line numbers when there are any errors in the source code.
The errors must be removed before the compiler can successfully recompile the source code again.

2. Assembler –
The Assembler is used to translate the program written in Assembly language into machine code. The source
program is a input of assembler that contains assembly language instructions. The output generated by
assembler is the object code or machine code understandable by the computer.

3. Interpreter
The translation of single statement of source program into machine code is done by language processor

40
 and executes it immediately before moving on to the next line is called an interpreter. If there is an error
in the statement, the interpreter terminates its translating process at that statement and displays an error
message. The interpreter moves on to the next line for execution only after removal of the error. An
Interpreter directly executes instructions written in a programming or scripting language without
previously converting them to an object code or machine code.
Example: Perl, Python and Matlab.
Types of Operating Systems
An Operating System performs all the basic tasks like managing file,process, and memory. Thus operating
system acts as manager of all the resources, i.e. resource manager. Thus operating system becomes an
interface between user and machine.

1. Batch Operating System –

This type of operating system does not interact with the computer directly. There is an operator which
takes similar jobs having same requirement and group them into batches. It is the responsibility of
operator to sort the jobs with similar needs.

Advantages of Batch Operating System:

 It is very difficult to guess or know the time required by any job to complete. Processors of the batch
systems know how long the job would be when it is in queue
 Multiple users can share the batch systems
 The idle time for batch system is very less
 It is easy to manage large work repeatedly in batch systems
Disadvantages of Batch Operating System:
 The computer operators should be well known with batch systems
 Batch systems are hard to debug
 It is sometime costly
 The other jobs will have to wait for an unknown time if any job fails\

2. Multiprogramming Operating Systems

 In this the operating system picks up and begins to execute one of the jobs from memory.

41
  Once this job needs an I/O operation operating system switches to another job (CPU and OS always
busy).
 Jobs in the memory are always less than the number of jobs on disk(Job Pool).
 If several jobs are ready to run at the same time, then the system chooses which one to run through
the process of CPU Scheduling.
 In Non-multiprogrammed system, there are moments when CPU sits idle and does not do any work.
 In Multiprogramming system, CPU will never be idle and keeps on processing.

3. Multiprocessor Operating Systems

A Multiprocessor system consists of several processors that share a common physical memory.
Multiprocessor system provides higher computing power and speed. In multiprocessor system all processors
operate under single operating system. Multiplicity of the processors and how they do act together are
transparent to the others.
Advantages of Multiprocessor Systems
 Enhanced performance
 Execution of several tasks by different processors concurrently, increases the system's throughput
without speeding up the execution of a single task.
 If possible, system divides task into many subtasks and then these subtasks can be executed in
parallel in different processors. Thereby speeding up the execution of single tasks.

4. Time-Sharing Operating Systems –

Each task is given some time to execute, so that all the tasks work smoothly. Each user gets time of CPU
as they use single system. These systems are also known as Multitasking Systems. The task can be from
single user or from different users also. The time that each task gets to execute is called quantum. After this
time interval is over OS switches over to next task.

Advantages of Time-Sharing OS:

 Each task gets an equal opportunity
 Less chances of duplication of software
 CPU idle time can be reduced

42
Disadvantages of Time-Sharing OS:
 Reliability problem
 One must have to take care of security and integrity of user programs and data
 Data communication problem
Examples of Time-Sharing OSs are: Multics, Unix etc.

5. Distributed Operating System –

These types of operating system is a recent advancement in the world of computer technology and are being
widely accepted all-over the world and, that too, with a great pace. Various autonomous interconnected
computers communicate each other using a shared communication network. Independent systems possess
their own memory unit and CPU. These are referred as loosely coupled systems or distributed systems.
These system‟s processors differ in size and function. The major benefit of working with these types of
operating system is that it is always possible that one user can access the files or software which are not
actually present on his system but on some other system connected within this network i.e., remote access is
enabled within the devices connected in that network.

Advantages of Distributed Operating System:

 Failure of one will not affect the other network communication, as all systems are independent from
each other
 Electronic mail increases the data exchange speed
 Since resources are being shared, computation is highly fast and durable
 Load on host computer reduces
 These systems are easily scalable as many systems can be easily added to the network
 Delay in data processing reduces

Disadvantages of Distributed Operating System:

 Failure of the main network will stop the entire communication
 To establish distributed systems the language which are used are not well defined yet
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  These types of systems are not readily available as they are very expensive. Not only that the
underlying software is highly complex and not understood well yet
Examples of Distributed Operating System are- LOCUS etc.
DISK OPERATING SYSTEM (DOS)
DISK OPERATING SYSTEM (DOS) is system software, which is closely associated with the computer
hardware and provides the interface between the user and resources of the computer, such as central
processing unit, memory, files and I/O devices. In simple words, we can say that it is a program which
supervises and controls the operation of a computer.
Dos has 2 types commands
1.Internal commands
2.External commands

1. Internal commands
Internal commands are stored in the COMMAND.COM file. Which is loaded into the memory (RAM),
when you start your system. They include the simpler, more commonly used commands you need on a
regular basis.

1.Copy con: This command is used to create a new file.

Syntax: C:\> copy con <filename>

<Information>

F6

1 file (s) copied

Ex: C:\> copy con Niveditha

Niveditha Degree College

F6

1 file (s) copied

2.Dir (Disk Information Report): This command is used to see the list of files including with date,
time and bytes.
Ex: C:\> Dir

3.Type : This command is used to open an existing file. Because to see the information Of a file.
Syntax: C:\> type <filename>

Ex: C:\> Type Niveditha

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 Niveditha Degree College

4.CLS: It is used to clears the screen.

Ex: C:\> cls

5.Ren (Rename): This command is used to change the new file name.

Syntax: C:\> Ren <source filename> <Target filename>

Ex:: C:\> Ren NDC Niveditha

C:\>Dir

6.Copy: This command is used to create a duplicate file name

Syntax: C:\> Copy <source file name> <Target file name>

Ex: C:\> copy NDC Niveditha

1 file (s) copied

C:\> Dir

7.Date: It displays or sets the current system date

Ex: C:\> Date

8.Time: It displays or sets the current system time

Ex: C:\> time

9.Ver (Version): It displays current version of the system

Ex: C:\> Ver
10.Mem (Memory): It displays the amount of used and free memory in your system.

Ex: C:\> mem

11.Del (Delete): This command is used to delete one or more files.
Syntax: C:\> del <filename>

Ex: C:\> del Niveditha

C:\> dir

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Wild card characters:
These are the special type characters, which are used to identify the filenames with primary and secondary
names. These are 2 types.
1.Question (?)

2.Asterick (*)

1.Question mark: It is one of the wild card. This question mark is used instead of giving the names with
letters in files.
Ex: C:\>Dir R???

Raju

Ravi
Raja
2.Asterick: It is also one of the special characters. It is used to identify the primary or secondary names.
Ex: C:\>Dir R*
Rajesh
Raja
Ravi

External commands:
External commands are exist as separate files on your disk. When you use the dir command to view the files
on your MS-DOS system disk, you see the external command in the list of filenames and directory name.
The filename of an external command is a .COM, .EXE or .BAT extension. External commands needs
special Dos files for execution.
More commonly used commands you need on a regular basis.

1.Attrib: This command is used to hide/shows the files.In these we can use 4 types of modes
1. +H
2. –H
3. +R
4. -R
1. +H: (Hide): using following command uses this mode to hide a file
Syntax: C:\> attrib <mode> <filename>
Ex: C:\> attrib +h India
C:\dir

46
To see the list of hidden files using following command.
Ex: C:\> dir/ah

2. –H (Unhide)
Using following command uses this mode to unhide the files
Syntax: C:\> attrib <mode> <filename>
Ex: C:\> attrib –h India
Ex: C:\ dir
2.FIND:
This command is used to search the particular field or string of a text find has some options.
Find/v -> number
Find/c -> count
Find/v -> vanish
Syntax: C:/>Find “<field>” <filename>
3.After recording the given commands if we want to want to stop the recording press ALT+F7 key.

4. CHKDSK: It creates and displays a status report for a disk. The status report shows logical errors found
in the file allocation table and file system.
Syntax: C:\> chkdsk [drive] [path] [filename]
5. FORMAT: When you purchase new floppies they have to be formatted before the can be used. The
format command is executed b typing format followed by a space and then drive you want to format.
Syntax:
C:\> format [drive]:
6.DISK COMP: The disk comp command is an external command that compares the contents of two
floppy disks to ensure they are identical. DISKCOMP is available on all version of DOS.
Syntax:
C:\> disk comp A: B:

Microsoft Windows Operating System

All computers and computer like devices have operating systems, including our laptop, tablet, desktop,
Smartphone, smart watch, router etc. Windows is operating system from Microsoft. It is a system program
that controls, coordinates and manipulates overall desktop publishing operations. It serves as an interface
between the hardware and other software on the computer system. It allocates memory locations to data and
other computer programs. It controls other computer resources like files and programs, input/output devices,
computer memories etc during data processing operations. It also performs the hardware and software
diagnosis to detect faults and errors

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Versions of windows
Windows provides a graphical user interface (GUI), and support many peripheral devices. In addition to
windows operating system for personal computers, Microsoft also offers operating system for servers and
personal computers.
1. Windows 1.0- 2.0 (1985-1992).
2. Windows 3.0-3.1 (1990-1994).
3. Windows 95 (August 1995).
4. Windows 98 (June 1998).
5. Windows ME- Millennium Edition (September 2000).
6. Windows NT 3.1-4.0 (1993-1996).
7. Windows 2000 or W2k. (February 2000).
8. Windows XP (October 2001).
9. Windows Vista (November 2006).
10. Windows 7 (October 2009).
11. Windows 8 (August 2012).
12. Windows 10 (2015).

Characteristics of Windows operating System

The following are the characteristics of MS Windows,
1. The original interface of windows GUI (Graphical User Interface) which have made learning
and using of computer system easy and for the user.
2. MS Windows possess operating environment completely. Here, each individual program
follows a standard form of operation. For instance, MS Windows word processors run in the
same manager as MS Windows spreadsheet.
3. It is considered as single-user multi-tasking operating system. This means that a user can
execute one or more programs simultaneously. For instance user can modify a file in the
foreground while executing the sorting program in the background. Thus, user can divide the
system‟s screen into several windows and can see the status of various programs over varios
windows.
4. It supports filenames containing about 255 characters and also some special characters like
commas, semicolons and etc.
Introduction to UNIX System
Unix is an Operating System which is truly the base of all Operating Systems like Ubuntu, Solaris, POSIX,
etc. It was developed in the 1970s by Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, and others in the AT&T Laboratories.
It was originally meant for programmers developing software rather than non-programmers.

48
Unix and the C were found by AT&T and distributed to government and academic institutions, which led to
both being ported to a wider variety of machine families than any other operating system. The main focus
that was brought by the developers in this operating system was the Kernel. Unix was considered to be the
heart of the operating System. System Structure of Unix OS are as follows:

Figure – system structure

 Layer-1: Hardware –
It consists of all hardware related information.
 Layer-2: Kernel –
It interacts with hardware and most of the tasks like memory management, task scheduling, and
management are done by the kernel.
 Layer-3: Shell commands –
Shell is the utility that processes your requests. When you type in a command at the terminal, the
shell interprets the command and calls the program that you want.
There are various commands like cp, mv, cat, grep, id, wc, nroff, a.out and more.
 Layer-4: Application Layer –
It is the outermost layer that executes the given external applications.
Operating System - Linux
Linux is one of popular version of UNIX operating System. It is open source as its source code is freely
available. It is free to use. Linux was designed considering UNIX compatibility. Its functionality list is quite
similar to that of UNIX.

Components of Linux System

Linux Operating System has primarily three components
 Kernel − Kernel is the core part of Linux. It is responsible for all major activities of this operating
system. It consists of various modules and it interacts directly with the underlying hardware. Kernel

49
 provides the required abstraction to hide low level hardware details to system or application
programs.

 System Library − System libraries are special functions or programs using which application
programs or system utilities accesses Kernel's features. These libraries implement most of the
functionalities of the operating system and do not requires kernel module's code access rights.

 System Utility − System Utility programs are responsible to do specialized, individual level tasks.

Basic Features
Following are some of the important features of Linux Operating System.
 Portable − Portability means software can works on different types of hardware in same way. Linux
kernel and application programs supports their installation on any kind of hardware platform.
 Open Source − Linux source code is freely available and it is community based development
project. Multiple teams work in collaboration to enhance the capability of Linux operating system
and it is continuously evolving.
 Multi-User − Linux is a multiuser system means multiple users can access system resources like
memory/ ram/ application programs at same time.
 Multiprogramming − Linux is a multiprogramming system means multiple applications can run at
same time.
 Hierarchical File System − Linux provides a standard file structure in which system files/ user files
are arranged.
 Shell − Linux provides a special interpreter program which can be used to execute commands of the
operating system. It can be used to do various types of operations, call application programs. etc.
 Security − Linux provides user security using authentication features like password protection/
controlled access to specific files/ encryption of data.

Architecture
The following illustration shows the architecture of a Linux system −

The architecture of a Linux System consists of the following layers −

50
 Hardware layer − Hardware consists of all peripheral devices (RAM/ HDD/ CPU etc).

 Kernel − It is the core component of Operating System, interacts directly with hardware, provides
low level services to upper layer components.

 Shell − An interface to kernel, hiding complexity of kernel's functions from users. The shell takes
commands from the user and executes kernel's functions.

 Utilities − Utility programs that provide the user most of the functionalities of an operating systems.

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 UNIT-V

DATA COMMUNICATION

Data, Communication, Basic Networking Devices, Communication Process, Data Transmission speed,

Communication Types(modes), Data Transmission Medias, Modem and its working, characteristics, Types of

Networks, LAN Topologies, Computer Protocols, Concepts relating to networking.

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 Data Communication:
Data Communication technologies deal with means and methods of data transfer from one location
to another. Connection between computing and data communication technologies is one of the most exciting
developments that have revolution information stage. This development gave delivery to Computer
Networks.
In Data Communications, data generally are defined as information that is stored in digital form.
Data communication is the process of transferring digital information between two or more devices.
Information is defined as the knowledge or intelligence. Data communications can be summarized as the
transmission, response, and processing of digital information. For data communications to occur, the
communicating devices must be part of a communication system made up of a combination of hardware
(physical equipment) and software (programs). The effectiveness of a data communications system depends
on four fundamental characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.
A data communications system has five components:
1. Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of information
include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2. Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels
from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial
cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.
5. Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that manage data communications. It represents an agreement
between the communicating devices.
Computer Network:
A computer Network is a network of computers. It connects multiple computers in a meaningful
manner to enable transmission and exchange of data among them. Sharing of information, resources (both
hardware and software), and processing load among the connected computers is the main objective of a
computer network.
Basic Networking Devices:
Basic Network devices, or networking hardware, are physical devices that are required for
communication and interaction between hardware on a computer network.
Types of network devices
Here is the common network device list:

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  Hub
 Switch
 Router
 Bridge
 Modem

Hub
Hubs connect multiple computer networking devices together. A hub also acts as a repeater in that it
amplifies signals that fade after traveling long distances over connecting cables. A hub is the simplest in the
family of network connecting devices because it connects LAN components with identical protocols.
A hub can be used with both digital and analog data, provided its settings have been configured to
prepare for the formatting of the incoming data. For example, if the incoming data is in digital format, the
hub must pass it on as packets; however, if the incoming data is analog, then the hub passes it on in signal
form.

Switch
Switches generally have a more intelligent role than hubs. A switch is a multiport device that
improves network efficiency. The switch maintains limited routing information about nodes in the internal
network, and it allows connections to systems like hubs or routers. Strands of LANs are usually connected
using switches. Generally, switches can read the hardware addresses of incoming packets to transmit them to
the appropriate destination.

Router
Routers help transmit packets to their destinations by charting a path through the deep of
interconnected networking devices using different network topologies. Routers are intelligent devices, and
they store information about the networks they are connected to most routers can be configured to operate as
packet-filtering firewalls and use access control lists (ACLs).
Routers are also used to divide internal networks into two or more sub networks. Routers can also be
connected internally to other routers, creating zones that operate independently. Routers establish
communication by maintaining tables about destinations and local connections. A router contains
information about the systems connected to it and where to send requests if the destination isn‟t known.
Routers usually communicate routing and other information using one of three standard protocols: Routing
Information Protocol (RIP), Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) or Open Shortest Path First (OSPF).

Bridge
Bridges are used to connect two or more hosts or network segments together. The basic role of
bridges in network architecture is storing and forwarding frames between the different segments that the
bridge connects. They use hardware Media Access Control (MAC) addresses for transferring frames. By
54
looking at the MAC address of the devices connected to each segment, bridges can forward the data or block
it from crossing. Bridges can also be used to connect two physical LANs into a larger logical LAN.

Modem
Modems (modulators-demodulators) are used to transmit digital signals over analog telephone lines.
Thus, digital signals are converted by the modem into analog signals of different frequencies and transmitted
to a modem at the receiving location. The receiving modem performs the reverse transformation and
provides a digital output to a device connected to a modem, usually a computer.

Communication Process (or) Basic Elements of a Communication System

Communication is the process of transferring a message from one point to another. The three basic elements
of any communication system are
i. A sender (source) that creates and sends a message.
ii. A medium that carries the message
iii. A receiver (sink) that receives the message.

For example, when we speak to our friend on telephone, we are the sender, telephone line is the medium,
and our friend is the receiver. This is a simple example of voice communication. Similarly, in data
communication, sender and receiver are normally machines (such as computers, terminals, peripherals
devices like printers, plotters, disks etc.), and transmission medium is a wired / wireless data communication
channels. Electronics Systems that transfer data from one point to another are called data communication
systems. Unlike computers that process data, data communication systems transmit data from one point to
another.
Data Transmission speed:
Bandwidth of a communication system refers to its data transfer rate (amount of data that it can
transfer per unit of time). It is similar to a road‟s width. Wider a road, the more traffic it can handle in a
given time. Similarly, higher the bandwidth of a communication system, the more data it can transfer in a
given time.
Bandwidth is measured in bits per second (bps) (also called baud). Generally, baud is identical to bits
per second (bps). Hence, a rate of 300 baud means 300 bps. However, technically, baud refers to number of
signal (state) change per second. Hence, using more coding techniques 1 baud can represent 2 or 3 bps.
Based on data transmission speeds, three basic categories of communication channels (paths) are:

55
 1. Narrowband: Narrowband or sub – voice grade channel have speed in the range of 45 to 300 baud. Low
– speed devices (such as low – speed terminals) and communication system for slow data volumes (such as
telegraph lines) use Narrowband channels.

2. Voice – band: Voice – band channels have speed up to 9600 baud. Their major application is in
ordinary telephone voice communication, hence the name “Voice – Band”. Communication system
for data transmission from slows I / O devices to CPU or vice-versa use voice – band channels.
3. Broadband: Broadband channel have speed of 1 million baud or more. Communication system
for transmission of large volumes of data at high speed (such as high speed computer to computer
communication or data transmission to several different devices simultaneously) use broadband
channels.

Communication Types (modes):

They are three modes (types) of data transmission available in communication network. They are
1. Simplex
2. Half – duplex
3. Full – duplex
1. Simplex: A Simplex communication system can transmit data in one direction only. It is suitable for
connecting send – only (such as keyboard) or receive – only (such as printer) devices. At first supposed,
this mode may appear suitable for application in which flow of information is unidirectional. However,
almost all data processing application require bidirectional communication because even when flow of
data unidirectional, an application requires a return path to send acknowledgement, control, or error
signals. Without this capability, a sender might send data and never know that the receiver never
received it due to some problem somewhere. Hence, simplex circuits are rarely used.

2. Half – duplex: A Half – duplex communication system can transmit data in both direction, but in
only one direction at a time. Hence, it can alternately send and receive data. It requires two wires. It is
suitable for voice communication using telephones in which only one person speaks at a time. It is
suitable also for connecting a terminal to a computer responds with an acknowledgement.

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3. Full – duplex: A half – duplex system needs to switch direction each time the direction of data transfer
reverses. This requires a special switching circuit and delay of about 150 milliseconds. When compared with high
processing capabilities of modern computers, this delay is often unacceptable. Moreover, some application
requires bidirectional data transfer simultaneously. System with such requirement uses a full – duplex
communication system, which allows data to flow in both directions simultaneously. It requires four wires. It
improves efficiency because it eliminates the direction switching delay of a half – duplex system.

Data Transmission Medias

The sender – medium – receiver concept has been with us for long time. For example, shouting to another
person involves voice transmission on the medium air that carries voice as sound waves. Telephone lines (as
a transmission medium) enhance possible communication distance considerably. Like telephone lines, there
are several types of physical channels (communication media) used for data transmission from one point to
another. Some popular data transmission media are described below.
i. Twisted – Pair Wire
ii. Coaxial Cable
iii. Communications Satellite
iv. Optical Fibers
i. Twisted – Pair Wire: A Twisted – wire consists of two groups of thin wires, each group
enclosed separately in plastic separation, then twisted around each other to reduce interference by
adjacent wires. It also called unshielded twisted – pair (UTP) cable because other than the plastic
insulation around the two individual groups of copper wires, nothing else shields it from outside
interference. UTP Cables are inexpensive, and easy to install and use. However, their use is
limited because they transmit the signals (data transmit) up to 100 meters. But not long distance
for transmit data. It transmit data up to 9600bps and for long distance up to 1200bps.

ii. Coaxial Cable: Coaxial cable consists of central copper wires surrounded by a PVC insulation
over which there is a cover of copper mesh. The copper mesh sleeve is shielded again by an outer
shield of thick PVC material. Signal is transmitted by inner copper wire, and is electrically

57
 shielded by the outer mesh cover. Coaxial cables offer much higher bandwidth compare than
UTP cables and it can transmit digital signals up to 10 mega bps. They are used extensively in
long distance telephone line for both voice and data transmission. Telephone companies often
package several cables into a very large cable, which can handle over 40,000 telephone calls
simultaneously.

iii. Optical Fibers: Optical fibers are hair-thin of glass or plastic used as data transmission
medium like copper wires or coaxial cables. However, unlike copper wires or coaxial cables,
they transmit light signals instead of electrical singles. As light travels much faster than
electricity, optical fibers can transmit data at much higher speed than copper wires or coaxial
cables with no significant loss of intensity over long distances.
Optical fibers are made of glass, plastic, or silica. Plastic fibers or least efficient, but are
cheaper and more rough. Glass or silica fibers are much smaller, and their lower tempering
makes them more suitable for high capacity channels.

iv. Microwave Communication System: Microwave communication systems are the actual line of
sight system which provides point-to-point communication through microwave signals. These
systems are capable of handling long-distance communication for voice telephone service,
metropolitan area networks, wide area networks and the internet. The transmission frequencies of
microwave signals from 1000MHz to 3000MHz which operates at distances varying from
15miles to 4000miles.

58
Advantages of Microwave Communication System.
1. Right-of way acquisition between station are not required in microwave radio system.
2. The station occupies very small space.
3. Microwave radio systems are capable of carrying large information of data due to it high operating
frequencies.
4. Due to its short wavelength, it need very small antennas.
5. These system employ less number of repeaters for amplification of signals.
6. Switching centers are closely spaced.
Dis-Advantages of Microwave Communication System.
1. The analysis of electronic circuits used with microwave frequencies is very difficult.
2. The manufacturing and implementation of conventional components like resistors, inductors, and
capacitors over microwave frequencies is complex.
3. The cost of microwave components is high.
4. Microwave devices often suffer with problems of transistor transit time.
5. The amplification of signals at microwave frequencies is not easy.
V. Satellite Communication System: A satellite communication can be specified as a transmission of
data using electro radio wave that passes through free space. It operates through a device called
transponders which receives a radio signals and automatically produces different signals, which
called frequency band. Such type of transmission is concern which two types of frequencies, one is
uplink frequency, and another one is down link frequency. For this type of transmission, a
geosynchronous satellite is used which is stationary in relative to earth surface and the speed that is
used for rotating is same as that of earth‟s rotation speed. The quality of transmission is very high
and it is extremely reliable. The basic task of satellite is to accept a signal from one earth station and
amplify it and transmit it back to another earth station. Satellite communication can be classified into
two type. They are

59
 1. C-Band
2. Ku-Band
1. C-Band: the frequency range of C-Band satellite is from 3.7GHz to 4.2GHz and from 5.9GHZ to
6.4GHz. C-Bands are more reliable than Ku-Band.
2. Ku-Band: The frequency range of Ku-Band satellite is from 11 to 12GHz.

Modem and its working

Modem:
Modem is an electronic device which is abbreviated from of Modulator and Demodulator. The function of a
modem is transmitting the digital information through an analog carrier signal. Modulation and
Demodulation method converts analog signals to digital signals without any loss in the information.

In general, the information is exchanged between the computers in a network using telephone line. The
computer produces digital signals. So, the telephone line con not transmits the digital data and the computer
cannot analyses the analog data. Thus, the modem is connected to transmit the data between telephone line
and computer through a internet. In this, at the computer terminal, modem modulates the digital data into
analog data and sends it to the telephone line. At the receiving end, modem demodulate analog data into
digital data and send it to the computers.

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Characteristics of Modem
1. Speed: It specific the rate of data transmission. It the rate of transmission is high then the speed of
modem can be measured in terms of bits per second(bps) otherwise, it is measured in terms of baud
rates. Mostly, the high speed of modem run at 57,600 bps whereas the low speed modem run at
300bauds (i.e., about 25cps).
2. Flash Memory: There are some modems which have flash Memory also called as flash RAM. And
because of this, communication protocol can reprogram, whenever required. The presence of flash
memory in modem wills benefits the manufacture to support new protocol as they become
standardized.
3. Modem and its working: there are certain modems that can perform data compression. Due to the
compression of data, modems can transfer data at high speed. If a modem utilize some data
compression technique at the transmitting end then it should employ same technology to decompress
the compressed data at the receiving end.
4. Voice / Data: Many modems are provided with a switch known as voice / data switch which is used
to change the modem of the modem either in voice modem or in data modem. If a modem switched
to data mode, then it behaves like a regular modem. And if it is in voice mode then it behaves like a
regular telephone. A modem in voice mode contain built-in loud speaker and micro phone to support
the voice communication.
5. Auto Answers: The modem processing auto-answering characteristic will enable the system to
receive calls without any external interference in the absence of the user.

Types of Networks
The classification of network is done based on its size or range it covers. The networks can be classified into
following type below
i) Local Area Network (LAN)
ii) Wide Area Network (WAN)
iii) Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
iv) Campus / Corporate Network (CAN)
v) Personal Area Network (PAN)

I) Local Area Network: A Local Area Network (LAN) is a privately owned network. It link in
a single office, building or campus. LANs are designed to allow personal computers or workstations
in an organizations to share resources like printers, modems etc. it also allow users to exchange
information within a network.

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Advantages of LAN:
1. It allow users to share resources like printers, modems, ROM drives, Hard disks over networked
computers.
2. It allows users to share software applications over networked computers with high speed.
3. It allows applications to transfer data and massages over a networked computers at low cost.
4. It facilities the usage of single internet among multiple LAN users.
5. It is easy to set up.
Disadvantages of LAN:
1. It consumes high installation cost.
2. It disturbs privacy rules.
3. It breaks data security.
4. It suffer from various hardware and software failure.
5. It covers only small areas.

II) Wide Area Network (WAN): A Wide Area Network (WAN) distances a very large area
that includes geographical areas like a country, a region or even the whole world.

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Advantages of WAN:
1. It allows users to transfer messages like data, pictures and sounds over a network.
2. It allows users to share different peripheral devices like printer, phone line on network.
3. It allows many users to share same data on network.
Disadvantages of WAN:
1. Network setup in WANs can be expensive and complicated.
2. It provides less security.
3. It requires complex and expensive data protection standards.
4. Processing speed is restively low,
III) Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a
network similar to LAN. It is larger than LAN and smaller than WAN. The Area covered by MAN is
up to a city or country which might be either privately owned by groups or can be publicly utilized.
A MAN transmits both voice as well as data. It is simple network with one or two cables to which all
the computers are connected.

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Advantages of MAN:
1. It provides high bandwidth (speed) for connections.
2. It provides quick access to data stored on databases
3. It allows multiple uses to share high speed internet connections.
Disadvantages of MAN:
1. It services high cost.
2. It allows limited sharing of resources.
IV) Campus / Corporate Area Network (CAN): Campus/Corporate Area Network (CAN) is
developed through interconnection of LAN‟s within a specific geographical region. Such as campus
of an enterprises, university, government, military and so on. This type of network is mainly
constructed for areas with highest point level.
For instance, University which have several labs, many building (blocks) known as campus
area network and organization which several offices or several departments in the same blocks
known as corporate area work.
V) Personal Area Network (PAN): PAN introduces a new form of communication network
called Bluetooth based PAN. It evolves new development into the mobile network so as to service
the user domain. It offers GPRS/UTMS services on mobile phone with which the user can connect to
internet or to join IP network. However in difference to mobile phone network, the PAN networks
are always fully loaded at the time of traffic blocking. This problem can easily be solved by
interconnecting the Bluetooth PAN‟s with scatter nets.

LAN Topologies (or) Network Topologies

Network topology is defined as the logical connection of various computers in a network. The different
types of network (LAN) topologies are listed below.

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 1. BUS Topology
2. RING Topology
3. STAR Topology
4. MESH Topology
5. HYBRID Topology
1. BUS Topology:

 The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are connected through a single cable
known as a backbone cable.
 Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or directly connected to the
backbone cable.
 When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a message over the network. All the
stations available in the network will receive the message whether it has been addressed or not.
 The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to other topologies.
 The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through which the message is broadcast to all
the stations.
The most common access method Advantages of Bus topology:
 Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to the cable without passing through a
hub. Therefore, the initial cost of installation is low.

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  Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that
support up to 10 Mbps.
 Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as the installation and troubleshooting
techniques are well known, and hardware components are easily available.
 Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on other nodes.
Disadvantages of Bus topology:
 Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it requires a lot of cabling.
 Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable faults. If any
fault occurs in the cable, then it would disturb the communication for all the nodes.
 Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages simultaneously, then the signals of both the
nodes crash with each other.
 Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the network.
2. RING Topology:

 Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.

 The node that receives the message from the previous computer will retransmit to the next node.
 The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
 The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
 It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and having no termination point.
 The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
Advantages of Ring topology:
 Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed from the network without bringing the
network down.
 Product availability: Many hardware and software tools for network operation and monitoring are
available.
 Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available. Therefore, the installation cost is very
low.

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  Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication system is not dependent on the
single host computer.
Disadvantages of Ring topology:
 Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable faults. If any
fault occurs in the cable, then it would disturb the communication for all the nodes.
 Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall network.
 Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the network.
 Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of nodes. Adding new devices
increases the communication delay.
3. STAR Topology:

 Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is connected to the central hub,
switch or a central computer.
 The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices attached to the server are
known as clients.
 Coaxial cable cables are used to connect the computers.
 Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical star topology.
 Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.
Advantages of Star topology
 Efficient troubleshooting: Troubleshooting is quite efficient in a star topology as compared to bus
topology. In a bus topology, the manager has to check the kilometers of cable. In a star topology, all
the stations are connected to the centralized network. Therefore, the network administrator has to go
to the single station to troubleshoot the problem.
 Network control: Complex network control features can be easily implemented in the star topology.
Any changes made in the star topology are automatically accommodated.
 Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub with its own cable, therefore failure
in one cable will not affect the entire network.
 Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations can be added to the open ports on the
hub.
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Disadvantages of Star topology
 A Central point of failure: If the central hub or switch goes down, then all the connected nodes will
not be able to communicate with each other.
 Cable: Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult when a significant amount of routing is required.
4. MESH Topology:

 Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are interconnected with each
other through various redundant connections.
 There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
 It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a central point of
communication.
 The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
 Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where communication failures are a
critical concern.
 Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
 Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:
Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;
Advantages of Mesh topology:
Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link breakdown will not affect the
communication between connected computers.
Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the nodes.
Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not disrupt the communication between other devices.
Disadvantages of Mesh topology
 Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices such as a router and more
transmission media than other topologies.

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  Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very difficult to maintain and manage. If
the network is not monitored carefully, then the communication link failure goes undetected.
 Efficiency: In this topology, redundant connections are high that reduces the efficiency of the
network.
5. HYBRID Topology:

 The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid topology.

 A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to transfer the data.
 When two or more different topologies are combined together is termed as Hybrid topology and if
similar topologies are connected with each other will not result in Hybrid topology. For example, if
there exist a ring topology in one branch of ICICI bank and bus topology in another branch of ICICI
bank, connecting these two topologies will result in Hybrid topology.
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
 Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect the functioning of the rest of the
network.
 Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices without affecting the
functionality of the existing network.
 Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it can be designed according to the requirements of the
organization.
 Effective: Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed in such a way that the strength of
the network is maximized and weakness of the network is minimized.
Disadvantages of Hybrid topology
 Complex design: The major drawback of the Hybrid topology is the design of the Hybrid network.
It is very difficult to design the architecture of the Hybrid network.
 Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very expensive as these hubs are different
from usual Hubs used in other topologies.
 Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of
cabling, network devices, etc.
Computer Protocols (or) Communication Protocols
Communication Protocol refers to a set of communications rules using with the data can be efficiently
exchanged or transmitted among several computers. It also provides formatting rules which defines the way
of packaging the data into sent and receiving messages.
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The different communication protocols used for the transmission are listed below
1. Data Sequencing: This Protocol is used to fragment a long message into small number of data
packets of fixed size. These packets are sequentially transmitted from sender to receiver without any
error or fault.
2. Flow Control: This protocol is used to control the flow of data to be transmitted between sender and
receiver. Generally, the speed of transmission of all the computers is not equally efficient. Thus, the
data is transmitted between a faster sender and slow receiver.
3. Data Routing: This protocol is used to identify an efficient route between the source and destination
so as to transmit the data.
4. Error Control: This Protocol is used to detect and remove the errors that occur during the data
transmission. Thus, the data is transmitted without any errors.
5. Data Formatting: These are the rules which specify the way of packaging the data into sent and
received messages.
6. Connection establishment and Termination: There are the rules that specifies the establishment,
maintenance and termination of the connection take place when two different nodes within a network
wants to interact with another.
7. Data Security: These are the rule that specifies the process of providing message security as well as
privacy while sending and receiving message over the networks.

Concept of Layered Protocols in Network Design (OSI Model)

Networks usually consists of series of layers, it type of model is called as OSL Model. OSI means Open
System Interconnection. This model consists of series of layers.

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 1. Physical Layer:
 Transports data using electrical, mechanical or procedural interfaces.
 This layer is responsible for sending computer bits from one device to another along the
network.
 It determines how physical connections to the network are set up and how bits are represented
into predictable signals as they are transmitted either electrically, optically or via radio waves.
2. Data Link Layer:
 It is a layer above the physical layer, whose function is to break the input into frames and take
care of acknowledgements.
 It regulates the flow of traffic in case of fast sender transmitting and slow receiver.
 It provide error-free transmission for the network layer and solves the problems that results
from frames (i.e., damage, lost and duplication)
3. Network Layer:
 It lies above the data link layer, whose function is to route packet from source to destination
by applying routing algorithms.
 it also maintains the according information about the data sent by each user.
 Its establish the connection with other heterogeneous networks.
4. Transport Layer:
Is responsible for transferring data across a network and provides error-checking mechanisms and
data flow controls. It determines how much data to send, where it gets sent and at what rate. The
Transmission Control Protocol is the best known example of the transport layer.
5. Session Layer:
Sets up, coordinates and terminates conversations between applications. Its services include
authentication and reconnection after an interruption. This layer determines how long a system will wait for
another application to respond. Examples of session layer protocols include X.225, AppleTalk and Zone
Information Protocol (ZIP).
6. Presentation Layer:
Presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the application layer is
extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network.
The functions of the presentation layer are :
1. Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
2. Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or code. The
encrypted data is known as the cipher text and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key value
is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.
3. Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.
7. Application Layer:
It lies above the presentation layer and it contains the implementation of various protocols that are used in
user interaction such as Telnet, FTP, SMTP etc.
The functions of the Application layer are:
1. Network Virtual Terminal
2. FTAM-File transfer access and management
3. Mail Services
4. Directory Services.

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