Manufacturing Processes I

Introduction to Forging

Date : 24-02-2025
Basic Types of Metal Forming Processes

Metal Forming Processes

Bulk Forming Sheet Forming Processes

Rolling Processes Bending operations

Forging Processes Cup or Deep drawing

Extrusion Processes Shearing processes

Wire and Bar Drawing Processes Miscellaneous processes

Forging
Forging is working of metal into a useful shape by hammering or pressing
It is one of the oldest metal working processes (8000 B.C)

Deformation is induced by external compressive forces

Link : https://vagabond-arts.artstation.com/projects/A8PNV (Accessed on 15-02-2024)

Forged components
 Forged components : Widely used in various engineering applications

Crankshaft Nuts Bolt

Connecting rod Pipe Fitting Socket

Source : Google Images

Forging process

 Cold, Warm and hot forging (usually hot)

Source : YouTube (Accessed on 15-02-2024)

Categories of forging processes
 Categories of forging processes

 Open die forging

 Closed die forging

Source : Google Images

Open die forging
 Open die forging : Work piece in between dies, which are not enclosed

No lateral
constraints

Advantages Limitations
 Simple and inexpensive dies  Limited to simple shapes
 Wide range of part sizes  Difficult to hold close tolerances
 Good strength characteristics  Machining to final shape necessary
 Generally for small quantities  Low production rate
 Relatively poor utilization of material
 High degree of skill required

Source : Google Images

Closed die forging
 Closed die forging : Work piece in between enclosed dies

Lateral constraints

 Final product takes the shape of dies

Advantages Limitations
 Relatively good utilization of material  High die cost,
 Generally better properties than open-die forgings  Not economical for small quantities
 good dimensional Accuracy  Machining often necessary
 high production rates
 Good reproducibility

Source : Google Images

Open die forging
Process is carried out between flat dies, also known as upsetting process

Ideal deformation Actual deformation

Die

ℎ1
ℎ2

Die
Barreling

Source : Google Images

Open die forging

What causes Barrelling ??

How to minimize it ??

Source : YouTube (Accessed on 15-02-2024)

Inhomogeneous deformation : Barreling
Barreling
1. Frictional effect
 Can be minimized by effective lubrication
2. Thermal effect

 Can be minimized by pre-heating the dies

 Microstructural evidence of Inhomogeneous deformation

Source : Google images

Forging load
Important Assumptions

 Plane strain deformation condition

 Isotropic material
𝝉 = 𝝁𝝈𝒏
 Low friction
𝜎
 Perfectly plastic
𝜀

2𝜇𝑟 𝜎𝑓 :Flow stress of material

𝐹 = 𝜎𝑓 𝜋𝑟 2 1+ 𝜇: Coefficient of friction between workpiece and die
3ℎ
𝑟, ℎ: Instantaneous radius and height of workpiece

𝑟0 −𝑟 Τℎ
𝑝 = 𝜎𝑓 𝑒 2𝜇

Source : Kalpakjain and Schmid, Manufacturing processes for Engg. Materials

Pressure distribution

𝑒 2𝜇𝑎Τℎ 𝑝Τ𝜎𝑦

h
Workpiece

Based on the appearance of press distribution it is termed as Hill

Friction hill : Parametric studies : Take Home
𝑎
𝑝 2𝜇 ℎ 1−𝑥Τ𝑎 Effect of friction coefficient
=𝑒
𝜎𝑓

𝑎 : Width of workpiece
ℎ ∶ Height of workpiece

Ideal work
(Frictionless condition)
𝑎
=1
ℎ
Friction hill : Parametric studies : Take Home
𝑎
𝑝 2𝜇 ℎ 1−𝑥Τ𝑎 Effect of aspect ratio of workpiece
=𝑒
𝜎𝑓

𝑎 : Width of workpiece
ℎ ∶ Height of workpiece

𝑝
: More sensitive to workpiece aspect ratio compared to 𝜇
𝜎𝑓

A very high forming load is required if we try to forge a sheet metal

Calculation of Forging Force in Upsetting
Q1) A solid cylindrical workpiece made of 304 stainless steel is 150 mm in diameter and
100 mm in height. It is reduced in height by 50%, at room temperature, in an open-die
forging operation with flat dies. Assume that the coefficient of friction is 0.2.
Find: What is the forging force at the end of the stroke?

From volume constancy,

𝜋 752 100 = 𝜋 𝑟 2 50

𝑟 = 106 𝑚𝑚

𝜎𝑓 :Flow stress of material

2𝜇𝑟
𝐹 = 𝜎𝑓 𝜋𝑟 2 1+
3ℎ

𝐾 ∶ 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝜎𝑓 = 𝐾𝜀 𝑛
𝑛: 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡

Source : Kalpakjain and Schmid, Manufacturing processes for Engg. Materials

Calculation of Forging Force in Upsetting
ℎ2
𝜀 = 𝑙𝑛
ℎ1

100
𝜀 = 𝑙𝑛 = 0.69
50 𝐾 = 1275 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑛 = 0.45

𝜎𝑓 = 1275 0.690.45 = 1100 𝑀𝑃𝑎

2𝜇 0.106
𝐹= 1100. 106 𝜋 0.1062 1+
3 0.05

Source : Kalpakjain and Schmid, Manufacturing processes for Engg. Materials

Grain flow

Casting Forging

Material flow pattern

Source : Kalpakjain and Schmid, Manufacturing processes for Engg. Materials

Forgeability
Forgeability is generally defined as the capability of a material to undergo deformation in
forging without cracking

Upsetting test : Cylindrical specimen is upset between flat dies to the reduction in height
at which cracks on the barreled surfaces begin to develop. The greater the deformation
prior to cracking, the greater the forgeability of the metal.

Hot-twist test : A round specimen is twisted continuously and in the same direction until
it fails. This test is performed on a number of specimens and at different temperatures,
and the number of complete turns that each specimen undergoes before failure at each
temperature is plotted. The temperature at which the maximum number of turns occurs
then becomes the forging temperature for maximum forgeability.
Forging defects
Defect : Laps formed by web buckling during forging

Internal defects caused by an oversized billet

Source : Kalpakjain and Schmid, Manufacturing processes for Engg. Materials

Factors : Die Design

The design of forging dies requires considerations of following important factors

(a) The shape and complexity of the workpiece.

(b) Forgeability analysis of workpiece.
(c) Strength and its sensitivity to deformation rate.
(d) Temperature.
(e) Frictional characteristics at the die–workpiece interfaces.
(f) Die distortion under the forging loads.

Source : Kalpakjain and Schmid, Manufacturing processes for Engg. Materials

Factors : Die Design

Source : Kalpakjain and Schmid, Manufacturing processes for Engg. Materials

Die Materials

General requirements for die materials are:

a) Strength and toughness, especially at elevated temperatures.

b) Hardenability and ability to be hardened uniformly.
c) Resistance to mechanical and thermal shock.
d) Wear resistance, particularly abrasive wear, because of the presence of hard
scale on the surfaces of hot forgings.

Source : Kalpakjain and Schmid, Manufacturing processes for Engg. Materials