PROVINCE OF KWAZULU-NATAL

TRANSPORT
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DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORT
STRUCTURES DESIGN MANUAL

PREFACE

This manual was first published in 1985. The original contents have been revised and a new
section on hydraulics has been added. Reference has been made to other manuals and guidelines
and it is hoped that this will meet the needs of users of this manual.

The Bridge Engineer acknowledges the assistance of VKE in redrafting the Manual.

The requirements specified in this Structures Design Manual are intended as a guide to be applied
to the Department of Transport's Bridges, Culverts and other structures.

Rigid application of the Code is not intended. It is in fact considered the responsibility of the
designer to investigate any deviations which may be to the advantage of the design project in
hand. Any such deviations should be fully motivated and have the Bridge Engineer's approval.

The document is compiled in loose leaf format to enable amended pages and sections to be issued
as and when necessary.

The date of printing is at the bottom of each page in order to check the latest issue.

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DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORT

STRUCTURES DESIGN MANUAL

INDEX

PAGE
SECTION 1 INTRODUCTION 7

1.1 INTRODUCTION 7

1.2 DEFINITIONS 7
1.2.1 Bridges 7
1.2.2 Minor structures 8

SECTION 2 PROCEDURES 9

2.1 APPOINTMENTS 9
2.1.1 National Road Structures 9
2.1.2 Provincial Road Structures 9
2.1.3 Road over Rail or Rail over Road Structures 10
2.1.4 Structures for other Local Authorities 10

2.2. DRAWINGS 11
2.2.1 Drawing Requirements 11
2.2.2 Drawing Standards 12
2.2.3 Structure Numbering 13
2.2.4 Drawing Titleblocks and Numbering 13
2.2.5 Drawing Content 15

2.3. APPROVAL PROCEDURES 17

2.3.1 Discussions regarding drawings submitted 17

2.4. GENERAL 18
2.4.1 Progress Reports 18
2.4.2 Designs carried out by Other Authorities 18
2.4.3 Materials Investigations 18

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PAGE
2.5 FEES 19
2.5.1 Scales of fees 19
2.5.2 Fee claims 19
2.5.3 Estimating rates 19

SECTION 3 LOADING 20

3.1 SCOPE 20

3.2 DESIGN LOAD SPECIFICATION 20

3.2.1 General 20
3.2.2 Nominal superimposed dead load (Clause 2.3.1) 20
3.2.3 Traffic Loading (Section 2.6) 20
3.2.4 Traffic Load Intensities 21
3.2.5 Elements supporting sidewalks or cycle tracks on
highways (Clause 2.7.2) 22
3.2.6 Forces on balustrades (Clause 3.5.1.2) 22
3.2.7 Associated nominal primary live load (Clause 3.5.2) 22
3.2.8 Impact forces on bridge supports (Clause 3.7) 22
3.2.9 Flood forces (Clause 3.9.2) 22
3.2.10 Minimum and maximum shade air temperatures (Clause 4.5.2) 23
3.2.11 Design forces for temperature restrain (Clause 4.5.8.2) 23
3.2.12 Design forces for frictional bearing restraint (Clause 4.5.8.3) 23
3.2.13 Design effects for temperature difference or
gradient (Clause 4.5.8.4) 23
3.2.14 Table 17 on page 87 of TMH7 part 2 24

3.3. ASSESSMENT LOAD SPECIFICATION 24

APPENDIX A : TMH7 : TRAFFIC LOADING (1991) 25-34

APPENDIX B : KZN TRAFFIC LOADING (1993) 35-37

SECTION 4 DESIGN CRITERIA 38

4.1 SCOPE 38

4.2 DESIGN CODES 38

4.2.1 Concrete Structures 38

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4.2.2 Steel Structures 38

PAGE
4.2.3 Composite Bridges 38
4.2.4 Foundations 38
4.2.5 Supplementary Codes 38

4.3 SPECIAL DESIGN PROVISIONS FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES 39

4.3.1 Cracking (Clause 2.1.2.1) 39
4.3.2 Crack Control of Launched Reinforced Concrete Bridge Deck 39
4.3.3 Effective Breadth of Flanged Beams (Clause 3.3.1.2) 40
4.3.4 Torsion (Clauses 3.3.4 and 4.3.5) 41
4.3.5 Pre-stressed Concrete : Serviceability Limit State Requirements 41
4.3.6 Cracking (Clause 4.3.2.4) 41
4.3.7 Shear Resistance of Beams (Clause 4.3.4) 41
4.3.8 Security Protection Requirements 42

SECTION 5 ANCILLARY REQUIREMENTS 43

5.1 SCOPE 43

5.2 STANDARD STRUCTURAL DETAIL DRAWINGS 43

5.3 SPECIAL DETAILS 43

5.3.1 Parapets 43

SECTION 6 HYDROLOGY 44

6.1 SCOPE 44

6.2 METHODS OF FLOOD ANALYSIS 44

6.3 EMPIRICAL FLOOD ANALYSIS METHODS 46

6.3.1 Modified Francou-Rodier 46

6.4 DETERMINISTIC FLOOD ANALYSIS METHODS 46

6.4.1 Empirical deterministic peak discharge formula 46
6.4.2 Rational method 47
6.4.3 SCS method 47

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6.4.4 Synthetic hydrograph method 48

6.4.5 Local Flood observations 48
PAGE
6.5 STATISTICAL FLOOD ANALYSIS METHODS 49

6.6 DESIGN FLOOD FREQUENCY 49

6.7 DESIGN FLOOD MAGNITUDE 50

6.8 HYDROLOGICAL DATA 50

SECTION 7 HYDRAULICS 51

7.1 SCOPE 51

7.2 WATERWAY HYDRAULICS 51

7.2.1 General
7.2.2 Siting and Alignment 51

7.3 BRIDGES 52
7.3.1 Opening Width 52
7.3.2 Freeboard and vertical openings 52
7.3.3 Backwater and velocity 53
7.3.4 Submersible Bridges 53

7.4 CULVERTS 54

7.5 SCOUR 54
7.5.1 Bridges 54
7.5.2 Culverts 55

7.6 BANK PROTECTION 55

SECTION 8 APPENDICES 56

8.1 FOUR MONTHLY REPORT PROFORMA

8.2 DRAWING CHECK LISTS

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8.2.1 Bridges: Preliminary Proposal/General Arrangement

8.2.2 Culverts: Preliminary Proposal/General Arrangement
8.2.3 Road over rail bridges: Site Plan
PAGE
8.2.4 Rail over road bridges: Site Plan
8.2.5 Road over rail bridges: General Arrangement
8.2.6 Rail over road bridges: General Arrangement

8.3 COST ESTIMATES

8.3.1 Bridge
8.3.2 Culvert

8.4 INVENTORY SHEETS

8.4.1 Bridge
8.4.2 Culvert

SECTION 9 STANDARD STRUCTURAL DETAIL DRAWINGS

SSD 1.1 Title-block

SSD 2.1 Bridge deck widths - Type 1A: Rural Provincial Freeway
SSD 2.2 Bridge deck widths - Type 1B: Rural Provincial Freeway
SSD 2.3 Bridge deck widths - Type 1C: Urban Divided Arterial
SSD 2.4 Bridge deck widths - Type 2A: 4 Lane Undivided Arterial
SSD 2.5 Bridge deck widths - Type 2B: High Standard Primary Road
SSD 2.6 Bridge deck widths - Type 2C: Primary Road
SSD 2.7 Bridge deck widths - Type 3: Secondary Road
SSD 2.8 Bridge deck widths - Type 4: Low Standard Secondary or
Tertiary Road
- Types 5, 6 and 7: Gravel Roads
SSD 3.1 Pedestrian, Agricultural and Low Level bridges - dimensions
SSD 4.1 Minor structures - dimensions
SSD 5.1 Typical clearance diagram
SSD 6.1 N.J. parapet for bridges longer than 12m - Concrete details
SSD 6.2 N.J. parapet for bridges longer than 12m - Reinforcement details
SSD 6.3 N.J. parapet - Steel handrail details
SSD 6.4 Parapet and handrail details for bridges shorter than 12m
SSD 6.5 Pedestrian footwalk, kerb and handrail details
SSD 6.6 Steel pedestrian handrail details
SSD 6.7 Pre-tensioned concrete pedestrian handrail details

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SSD 6.8 N.J. parapet details for bridges over Spoornet tracks
SSD 6.9 Department of Transport balustrade details
SSD 6.10 Parapet loading application
SSD 6.11 Service duct details
SSD 6.12 Bollard kerb, concrete and reinforcement details
PAGE
SSD 7.1 Weep hole protection and scupper details
SSD 7.2 Abutment drainage details
SSD 7.3 Culvert drainage details
SSD 8.1 Approach slab details
SSD 9.1 Typical gabion details
SSD 10.1 Hydrological and hydraulic data

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SECTION 1

INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITIONS

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The requirements specified in this Manual are intended as a guide to be applied to the
design and documentation of Department of Transport's structures.

Design shall be based on the CSRA Code of Practice for the Design of Highway Bridges
& Culverts in South Africa - TMH7 Parts 1, 2, 3.

Documentation should where possible be based on the provisions of the latest edition
of "COLTA". Where it is considered necessary to deviate from the "Standard
Specification", "Project Specifications" shall be written to cover that aspect of the
project, and shall be kept to a minimum.

Where Spoornet, the South African National Roads Agency and/or other local
authorities have an interest in the project, their requirements must also be adhered to.

1.2 DEFINITIONS

Structures are either defined as bridges or minor structures for the purpose of the
allocation of structure numbers.

1.2.1 Bridges

A structure complying with any of the following criteria is defined as a bridge :

(a) Total length of deck measured along the road centre line : 20m or greater.

(b) Any one span measured along the road centre line : Greater than 5m.

(c) Height from top of footing to deck soffit : 6m or greater.

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1.2.2. Minor Structures

(a) Any structure not complying with the criteria for a bridge.

In general these are limited to box culverts, other types of culverts with a span greater
than 2m, retaining walls, overhead sign structure and concrete lined canals.

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SECTION 2

PROCEDURES

2.1. APPOINTMENTS

2.1.1 National Road Structures

National Road designs within the Province of Natal are carried out in one of the
following ways:

(a) The South African National Roads Agency appoints a consultant and approves
the design.

(b) The Department of Transport appoints the consultant, approves the design
and acts as agent for the South African National Roads Agency.

Where the South African National Roads Agency makes a direct appointment this
Department does not require copies of proposals at the design stage. However, 'As
Built' transparencies are required at the completion stage. Approval at the preliminary
project stage must be obtained from the Bridge Engineer for Grade Separation
structures affecting Provincial roads.

Where this Department acts as agent for the South African National Roads Agency all
appointments and approvals shall be given through this office. Paper print submissions
shall be made at the Preliminary Proposal and Working Drawing stages. Joint
discussions will then be held with the Bridge Engineer of the Department of Transport
and the Regional Engineer of the South African National Roads Agency or his
representative.

After discussions the drawings shall be submitted with any required modifications on
original polyester film transparencies, together with the paper prints as annotated for
modification. Copies will then be forwarded to the South African National Roads
Agency's Regional Engineer by this office for final acceptance and approval.

2.1.2 Provincial Road Structures

The procedures adopted for Provincial Road structures are the same as those required

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for National Roads except that liaison with the Regional Engineer, South African
National Roads Agency is not required.

2.1.3 Road over Rail or Rail over Road Structures

The procedures to be adopted for structures involving Spoornet are clearly laid out in
their Code of Procedure and must be followed if delays are to be avoided.

Discussions at the various stages of submission of drawings (e.g. Site Plan, General
Arrangement, Working Drawings) will be held in the normal manner. Original polyester
film transparencies must be submitted in the same manner as for other structures. The
Bridge Engineer will forward copies of approved prints to Spoornet for their approval,
together with copies for the South African National Roads Agency where applicable.

It should be noted that in view of the necessary dual approval system every effort must
be made to expedite the submission of drawings at each stage of the project. To this
end drawings must be carefully checked to ensure that each item required by Spoornet
is complied with. Failure to do this will only result in the return of the drawings,
requiring re-submissions, with consequent loss of valuable time. Completed checklists
in the form shown in the Appendices shall be submitted with each stage of drawing
submission.

2.1.4 Structures for Other Local Authorities

Where the design of a structure over or under a Provincial Road is being carried out by
or on behalf of a local authority or Spoornet, discussions at the preliminary proposal
and working drawing stage will be required as previously described.

If possible, for the convenience of the drawing filing system, it would be preferred that
the Department's standard title block be used. Where this is not possible a separate
approval block as indicated below shall be incorporated on the drawings providing for
the Department's bridge name, number and approval signatures. This block should be
120 mm x 100 mm, and placed along the right hand edge as near to the bottom of the
drawing sheets as possible, for example:

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DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORT APPROVAL

Road No. P197 - 1 km 12,5

UMBILO GRADE SEPARATION

Approved Date 93.07.05

Sheet No. 1 of 3
BRIDGE ENGINEER

Bridge No. 2451

DEPUTY DIRECTOR-GENERAL: TRANSPORT

2.2. DRAWINGS

2.2.1 Drawing Requirements

The Department has adopted a policy of filing plans for record purposes on microfilm.
It should be noted that this requires a high standard of drawing to produce originals
that can reprint adequately.

In this respect attention is drawn to BS 5536: Specification for preparation of technical

drawings and diagrams for microfilming.

The following points must be noted:

(a) Portions cut out and replaced overlays are not acceptable.

(b) Pencil drawings are not acceptable.

(c) Shading of drawings or high-density patterning is not acceptable as it results

in illegible areas on reduced prints.

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It should be noted that as this Department maintains all National Road structures,
copies of the original working drawings amended for "as built" changes must be
forwarded to the Bridge Engineer on completion of the structure.

2.2.2 Drawing Standards

The following standards are required:

(a) Drawing Materials:

All drawings shall be submitted on size A0 film of 0,05mm (not less than
0,075mm for National Roads) thickness. Polyester based drawing material in
ink is required. Transparent film prints are only acceptable for Preliminary
Proposals and drawings for temporary works.

Drawing sheets are to be punched on the right hand side for the "Suspendex"
filing system.

(b) Drawing Title Blocks

The Department's standard title block (see Standard Detail Drawings) shall be
used for all Provincial road projects. In addition on all Spoornet drawings a
block shall be provided for approval signatures, near the bottom right hand
corner as specified in the Spoornet Bridge Code.

(c) Line thickness:

Concrete form - 0,35 mm

Reinforcement detail - 0,70 mm
Dimension and other lines - 0,25 mm

For enlarged detail, concrete and reinforcement may be drawn in 0,35mm and
0,5mm respectively. A minimum line thickness of 0,25mm is specified for
microfilming purposes.

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(d) Lettering

Lettering standard to be ISO or closest equivalent.

Lettering heights to comply with the following heights:
2.5, 3.5, 5.0, 7.0
Lettering may be condensed in width to a minimum of 70% on bending
schedules.

2.2.3 Structure Numbering

The Bridge Engineer shall allocate each bridge a name and number. Minor structures
shall be provided with numbers only and shall be prefixed with STC.

Structure numbers shall be applied for in writing and shall include the road number,
kilometre distance, feature being crossed and, if available, structure sizes.

Structure numbers are only allocated once a project has been approved for design and
site surveys have been requested. Structure numbers are not issued at Basic Planning
Report stage.

The Bridge Engineer must be advised of any changes to the recorded particulars or
where structures with allocated numbers are withdrawn or cancelled.

For National Road projects structure numbers shall be obtained in accordance with the
requirements of the SANRA Bridge Planning Manual B1.

2.2.4 Drawing Titleblocks and Numbering

Provincial structure numbers also form part of the drawing numbers.

A space is provided in the title block for the Consulting Firm's Title and Partner's
signature. (See Standard Detail Drawings).

A print reduction scale shall be inserted in the bottom right hand corner above the title
block on National Road structures.
All drawings shall be signed in the block by the designer and draughtsperson, and in
particular by the checkers of the design and the drawing. Stencilled initials of the
checkers are not acceptable.

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The following is a summary of the titling and numbering system to be used in the
submission of Drawings:

0000 representing the structure number.

Nature of Drawing Title Block Legend Drawing No.
Bridge or Culvert Site Site Survey 0000/SS
Survey

Preliminary Proposal Preliminary Proposal 0000/P

Alternative Preliminary Preliminary Proposal No. 1 0000/P1

Proposals etc. 0000/P2

Working Drawings General Arrangement etc. 0000/1

0000/2 etc.

Spoornet Site Plan 0000/SP

Temporary Deviation Temporary Rail (Road) 0000/TD

(Rail or Road) Deviation

Spoornet General General Arrangement 0000/GA

Arrangement

Spoornet Working General Arrangement 0000/GA/1;

Drawings next sheet 0000/2

Alternative Design (Alt. Design No. 1) 0000/D/1;

(Put out to tender) 0000/D/2 etc.

(Alt. Design No. 2) 0000/D/1;

0000/D/2 etc.

Where additional drawings are required for an existing structure, for repairs, widening
or whatever reason, the new set of drawing numbers shall continue from the last
drawing number. The block just above the drawing number shall be amended to read
"Additional Sheet of “ and the numbers recorded in the space
accordingly. Example: The drawings for Bridge No 1784 originally comprised 11
drawings is now being widened requiring six more drawings, the first drawing for the
widening is to be numbered as follows :

The first drawing for Additional The second drawing Additional

the widening is to be Sheet/Vel:-1 for the widening is to Sheet/Vel:-2
numbered : of/van:- 6 be numbered : of/van:- 6

Plan No./Nr. Plan No./Nr.

1784/12 1784/13

Where the relevant details cannot be accommodated on one sheet, as in the case of Site
Surveys, Spoornet Site Plans, Preliminary Proposals, and Spoornet General

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Arrangement Drawings, the basic drawing number is followed by numerals in

ascending order, e.g. 0000/SS/1; 0000/SS/2 etc.

2.2.5 Drawing Content

(a) Site Survey - (Structure No./SS/Sheet No.)

This drawing shall be prepared in accordance with the latest edition of the
Department of Transport Survey Manual.

It shall be used in the first instance to locate the soil investigation holes required, and
be issued to the department or firm carrying out the investigation. The investigation
results shall be indicated on the Site Survey or the General Arrangement Drawing.

(b) Preliminary Proposals - (Structure No./P/Sheet No.)

The Preliminary Proposal is the accepted scheme, which must be submitted in the
usual way for record purposes until the final design is completed. A checklist shall
accompany the Preliminary Proposal drawing.

The numbering must not be confused with the various proposals submitted at
discussion or basic planning stage. ---/P shall represent the accepted proposal and
shall not become ---/P2 unless the scheme is substantially altered for some reason at
a later date.

(c) General Arrangement - (Structure No./Sheet No.)

The General Arrangement will normally be of a similar format to the Preliminary

Proposal except for amendments, which become necessary as the final design
progresses.

The checklist summarises the requirements and a completed copy shall accompany
the drawings when submitted for approval.

(d) Working Drawings - (Structure No./Sheet No.)

These drawings shall be of sufficient detail and information to enable the structure to
be constructed without delays or unnecessary reference to the designer.

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(e) Amendments to Drawings

Where amendments are made to drawings a brief description of the type of

amendment made shall be inserted in the block at the bottom left hand corner of the
sheet on which the amendment is made. Amendments made shall start from the
bottom line of the block labelled A, B etc. successively working upwards for each
amendment. With each amendment the relative letter A, B etc shall be inserted after
the drawing number. Each amendment shall be dated and signed by a partner from
the Consulting Firm.

(f) Completion Information (As Built)

Completion information indicating the final details of the structure as built, shall be
inserted on the original transparencies in black ink. These details shall be regarded
as a further amendment and recorded in the amendment block as such. Original
work should be crossed out and not erased. Changes are to be detailed in the
amendment column. These shall be checked and initialled by a partner of the
Consulting Firm and submitted to this office for record purposes.

(g) Reinforcement Schedules

These shall form part of the set of working drawings, which shall be produced on an
A0 size transparent film for record purposes. SABS 082 Shape Codes shall be used
and in addition the shapes shall be shown either:

(i) By inserting a diagram adjacent to each bar details, or

(ii) Including a complete list of the shapes used on the drawing sheet.

The schedules shall include summaries of the total length and weight of each bar
diameter for both mild and high yield stress steels for each principle structural
component, e.g. Abutments, piers, deck, etc., as well as an overall mass summary of
the steel types in the structure.

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2.3 APPROVAL PROCEDURES

2.3.1 Discussions regarding drawings submitted

The procedure for approval of drawings for all structures is therefore:

(a) One (1) paper print of each Preliminary Proposal together with check list and
cost estimate, (See Appendices), shall be submitted prior to a discussion.

(b) An appointment shall be made for a meeting with the Department's Bridge
Engineer (and South African National Roads Agency Engineer when
applicable). An annotated print will be returned after discussion for
amendment. Note that at this meeting a representative of the Consultant's
geometric design team should attend to answer any queries that may arise.

(c) A signed transparency of the Preliminary Proposal shall be submitted together

with the annotated print for final approval.

(d) The completed Working Drawings shall be signed and checked by a Partner or
Associate of the Firm. One paper print of each of the signed drawings shall be
submitted to the Bridge Engineer together with a Cost Estimate (see Appendix
8.3), priced schedule of quantities, Project Specifications, and Inventory
Sheets (see Appendix 8.4) for perusal and comment.

(e) A further appointment shall be made for a meeting with the Department's
Bridge Engineer (and South African National Roads Agency Engineer when
applicable) to discuss the working drawings. Annotated prints will be returned
after discussion for amendment.

(f) Amended original drawings together with the annotated prints shall be returned to
the Bridge Engineer who will arrange for the necessary departmental
signatures.

For submissions concerning Rail Grade Separations the above procedures apply except
that the submission stages are as required in the Spoornet Code of Procedure viz. - Site
Plan - General Arrangement - Working Drawings.

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2.4 GENERAL

2.4.1 Progress Reports

A progress report (see Appendix) will be required at four-monthly intervals to assist the
Department in overall control of planning. All structures in hand must be listed,
especially those with designs complete but which for various reasons, have not yet
been constructed.

2.4.2 Designs carried out by Other Authorities

Where other authorities such as local authorities, Spoornet, etc. requires to encroach on
the Provincial Road Reserve, agreement must first be reached with the Department's
Chief Engineer: Design Directorate regarding the feasibility of the project and the
standards required. In the case of Spoornet, coloured up drawings of similar type to
their Site Plan will be required for "Legal Agreement Purposes". Thereafter a
preliminary proposal for the scheme shall be submitted for approval on the lines
indicated. On approval of the "Preliminary Proposal", or "Site Plan" in the case of
Spoornet, a 0,05mm polyester transparency shall be submitted for record purposes.

Drawing submission procedures shall be as per 2.2.4 and 2.3.1.

2.4.3 Materials Investigations

To assist the Department's Materials Engineer in assessing foundation

recommendations for grade separation structures in particular, the following
information is required when submitting requests for foundation investigations:

(i) Site Survey Drawing, setting out positions of test holes.

(ii) Type of structure under consideration.

(iii) Type of foundation envisaged.

(iv) Respective road levels at the crossing points, i.e. minimum depth of hole.

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2.5 FEES

2.5.1 Scale of fees

Fees for structural designs shall be paid in accordance with the scale of fees referred to
in the agreement between the Department and Consultant.

2.5.2 Fee Claims

Fee claims shall be submitted on the prescribed forms as agreed to with the Consultants
Liaison Committee.

2.5.3 Estimating Rates

Fee claims may be submitted on the basis of the estimated cost of the structure. The
rates to be used shall be those issued by the Department from time to time.

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SECTION 3

LOADING

3.1 SCOPE

This section covers the loads to be used in the design and assessment of road
structures (bridges and minor structures) and provides guidance as to the intensity of
these loads to be provided for structures on various classes of routes.

3.2 DESIGN LOAD SPECIFICATION

3.2.1 General

The quantitative and qualitative description of loads to be used in the design of road
structures shall be in accordance with TMH7 Parts 1 and 2 of 1981 unless substituted or
otherwise amended in this document.

For the substitution or amendments specified in the following clauses reference is made
to the relevant sections or clauses of TMH7 Part 2.

3.2.2 Nominal superimposed dead load (Clause 2.3.1)

The bituminous premix carpet shall be assumed to be 80mm thick of density

2100 kg/m³.

3.2.3 Traffic Loading (Section 2.6)

This section shall be substituted in its entirety by either of the following traffic load
specifications:

(a) TMH7 TRAFFIC LOADING (1991)

This live load specification is a revision of the TMH7 Traffic Loading as amended in
1988. The revision provides basically for a simplification of the NA live load
application with certain additional modifications. The main features of the revision
are:
◼ Notional lane widths to be constant at 3,0m.
◼ A limited number of lanes to be considered.

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◼ An increase in the axle or knife edge load.

◼ Omission of partial loading of parts of influence lines and straddling of loaded

lanes.
◼ Omission of the variable axle spacing for the NB vehicle.
◼ A rationalisation of the loading on culverts.

The specification for this traffic loading is attached as Appendix A to this section.

(b) KZN TRAFFIC LOADING (1993)

This live loading due to traffic consists of two types; the type MA loading for
normal traffic and the type NC loading for super loading.

The model for the type MA loading has been developed by a probabilistic method
taking into account traffic patterns and vehicle loads and configurations for South
African conditions (ref. SARB report 91/004/02 of April 1993). It contains a 10%
contingency allowance for possible future increases in vehicle loads and/or traffic
densities.

The load model eliminates the deficiency of the NA loading of TMH7 in the short
span range and thus obviates the need to consider the NB loading. NC loading has
however still to be considered where specified.

The MA loading is suitable for the verification of global and local conditions.

Partial load factors γfL applied in conjunction with the MA loading shall be identical
to those specified for the NA loading in TMH7 part 2.

The specification for this traffic loading is attached as appendix B to this section.

3.2.4 Traffic Load Intensities

In all cases the traffic route classification shall be confirmed with the Department.

The applied traffic loads shall be the most severe generated by one of the load cases in
Table 3.1 for either TMH7 or KZN loading as agreed with the Bridge Engineer.

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TABLE 3.1: ROUTE CLASSIFICATION

TRAFFIC LOAD SPECIFICATION

ROUTE
CLASSIFICATION TMH7 (1991) KZN (1993)
APPENDIX A APPENDIX B

Minor NA MA
66,7% NB

Normal NA MA
83,3% NB
NC 24 x 5 x 50 NC 24 x 5 x 40

Abnormal Load NA MA
NB
NC 30 x 5 x 40 NC 30 x 5 x 40

Special Superload NA MA
NB
NC 35 x 5 x 40 NC 35 X 5 X 40

3.2.5 Elements supporting sidewalks or cycle tracks on highways (Clause 2.7.2)

To allow for future widening, footwalks and/or cycle tracks shall be designed for full
traffic loading.

3.2.6 Forces on balustrades (Clause 3.5.1.2)

Design forces on balustrades shall be in accordance with Standard Detail

Drawing No SSD 6.10 : Parapet and Handrail Loading Application.

3.2.7 Associated nominal primary live load (Clause 3.5.2)

The associated nominal primary live load shall be 80% of the traffic loading specified for
local effects.

3.2.8 Impact forces on bridge supports (Clause 3.7)

The design speed for underpass roadways in subclause 3.7.2(i) shall be not less than
120 km/h.

3.2.9 Flood forces (Clause 3.9.2)

The horizontal force due to debris in subclause 3.9.2.2 shall be 180 kN unless a specific

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case can be made for reducing this value.

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3.2.10 Minimum and maximum shade air temperatures (Clause 4.5.2)

The extremes of shade air temperature in C shall be as follows :

Min. Max. Daily Mean

Coastal +6 + 40 + 23

Inland +3 + 43 + 23

Extreme Areas - 3 + 43 + 20

No adjustments for altitude need be made to these figures.

3.2.11 Design forces for temperature restraint (Clause 4.5.8.2)

For combinations 2 and 3, γfL shall be taken as follows :

γfL Ultimate Limit State Serviceability Limit State

Combination 2 3 2 3
s

1,0 1,3 0,7 1,0

3.2.12 Design forces for frictional bearing restraint (Clause 4.5.8.3)

The γfL factors quoted refer to combination 3.

3.2.13 Design effects for temperature difference or gradient (Clause 4.5.8.4)

For combinations 2 and 3, γfL shall be taken as follows :

γfL Ultimate Limit State Serviceability Limit State

Combination 2 3 2 3
s

0,8 1,0 0,6 0,8

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3.2.14 Table 17 on page 87 of TMH7 part 2

The last two lines for SHORT TERM INDIRECT ACTION shall be replaced by the
following three lines.

Normal actions, Fk Notatio Clause Limit γfL in combinations

n No. State
1 2 3

Temperature range Ftr 4.5.8.2 ULS - 1,0 1,3

SLS - 0,7 1,0

Temperature gradient Ftg 4.5.8.4 ULS - 0,8 1,0

SLS - 0,6 0,8

Frictional bearing restraint Fbr 4.5.8.3 ULS - - 1,3

SLS - - 1,0

3.3 ASSESSMENT LOAD SPECIFICATION

The assessment load for the verification of the load-carrying capacity of old structures
shall be identical in all respects to the type MA loading except that the 10% contingency
allowance shall be omitted. The assessment load is thus equivalent to 91% of the MA
loading.

Since old structures have had a considerable serviceable life span in most cases,
generally only the ultimate load limits of old structures need to be assessed. The partial
action factor γfL for the assessment load shall be identical to those specified for type NA
loading in TMH7 Part 2.

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APPENDIX A Page 1 of 10

TMH7: TRAFFIC LOADING (1991)

2.6 Traffic Loading

2.6.1 General

2.6.1.1 Live loading due to traffic on highway bridges consists of three types:

(A) Normal Loading (NA) (refer to 2.6.3)

(B) Abnormal Loading (NB)(refer to 2.6.4)
(C) Super Loading (NC) (refer to 2.6.5)

Whereas the NC loading may be omitted on certain routes, all highway bridges
shall be designed for NA loading and also for NB loading as specified by the
responsible authorities (refer to 2.6.4.2).

2.6.1.2 Impact allowances and dynamic effects

No additional allowances need be made for the effects of wheel impact. These
effects, together with an allowance for the dynamic effect of moving traffic, are
included in the NA loading. Whereas the allowance for the latter effect as provided
by the Swiss impact factor.

2 = 0,5 (100 + Ls) (where Ls is the equivalent span length in metres)

10 + Ls

Will in most cases be sufficient, it may be necessary in the case of certain

structures with members whose natural frequencies of vibration correspond with
the frequency of passage of vehicles or groups of vehicles, to carry out an
investigation with an applied loading which simulates the NA loading reduced by a
factor equal to the reciprocal of (1 + Ø2). Likewise, when assessing the load-bearing
capacity of any bridge designed for NB loading in terms of real vehicles,
cognisance must be taken of the fact that the specified design loads include an
allowance for impact. The impact of dynamic effects of the slow-moving multi-
wheeled trailers simulated by the NC loading can be considered to be negligible if
the maximum speed when bridges are crossed is limited to 10 km/h.

2.6.1.3 Application of traffic loading

Each element and structure shall be examined under the effects of forces which can
coexist in every possible combination. Design forces shall be selected and applied
in such a way that the most severe effect is caused in the elements of the structure
under consideration. The NA, NB and NC loadings shall be applied separately,
except as provided for in 2.6.5.2.

Attention is drawn to the requirement that the effects of traffic load or parts of
traffic load shall not be taken into account where the most severe effect on the
element will be diminished by its presence, except in the case of NC loading as
described in 2.6.5.2.

2.6.2 Width and number of loaded traffic lanes to be used in conjunction with type
NA loading

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(1) The width of loaded lanes shall be 3,0m.

APPENDIX A Page 2 of 10

(2) The following number of loaded lanes shall be considered over the width
of a bridge deck between kerbs (between kerbs is deemed to include
footwalks and/or hard shoulders to allow for future widening).

Bridge deck width (m) Number of loaded

lanes

from 3,0m to less than 6,0m 1

from 6,0m to less than 9,0m 2
from 9,0m to less than 12,0m 3
12,0m and greater 4

(3) Any widths of a bridge deck not occupied by loaded lanes shall be loaded
with a uniformly distributed load as specified in 2.6.3.1.

(4) The loaded lanes shall be parallel to the direction of traffic. They shall be
positioned transversely on the bridge deck such that the most severe
effect occurs for the element or member under consideration.

(5) Where dual carriageways are carried on a single superstructure, the

maximum number of loaded lanes on the bridge deck shall remain as 4.
In the case where a unified substructure carries two separate
superstructures of a dual carriageway or carries multilevel
superstructures, the maximum number of loaded lanes shall remain 4.
The loaded lanes shall be placed on any superstructure in such a way as
to cause extreme effects for the substructure or its members.

2.6.3 Type NA loading

2.6.3.1 Definition of NA loading

Type NA loading represents normal traffic loading. The structure and its elements
shall be designed to resist the effect of (1) and (2) combined, and shall be checked
for (3) for local effects only.

(1) (a) Loaded lanes

A uniformly distributed load across the width of loaded lanes.

The average amount of the uniformly distributed load per linear

metre of loaded lane shall be Qa = 36kN/m for loaded lengths up to
36m, and for loaded lengths in excess of 36m shall be derived from
the formula

Qa = 180 + 6
L

Where L = the effective loaded length in metres

and Qa = average load per metre of loaded lane in kN.

Fig. 1 is a curve illustrating this loading.

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APPENDIX A Page 3 of 10

(b) Areas outside loaded lanes for deck widths up to 12,0m

The area shall be loaded with uniformly distributed load of an

intensity equal to _ the intensity per square metre of the uniformly
distributed load in the least loaded lane in the same span.

(c) Areas outside loaded lanes for deck widths exceeding 12,0m

The area shall be loaded with uniformly distributed load of 3kN/m²

intensity.

36
Qa = AVERAGE LOAD PER METRE
OF LOADED LANE IN kN

Qa =(180) +6
L

0 36

(2) A nominal axle load applied in conjunction with the loading under (1) of

180 kN
n
per loaded lane, where n is the loading sequence number of the relevant
lane, i.e. n = 1 for the first lane loaded with the axle load,
n = 2 for the second lane etc. up to n = 4.

(3) For local effects the following loads shall be considered:

(i) An axle load of 180kN converted into two wheel loads of 90kN at
1,9m spacing with a circular or square contact area of 0,09m² with a
load intensity of 1,0MPa representing dual wheels of an axle
together with

(ii) a uniformly distributed load of 12kN/m² intensity.

The axle load shall be placed at right angles to the direction of traffic in a
position causing the most severe effect for the member under
consideration, e.g. with the edge of a wheel placed close against the front
face of a balustrade.

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APPENDIX A Page 4 of 10
2.6.3.2 Application of NA loading

2.6.3.2.1 Distributed load

(A) Longitudinal distribution. In the longitudinal direction, the distributed part

(1) of type NA loading shall be applied to those parts of any combination
of loaded lanes and areas outside loaded lanes which will result in the
most severe effect for the element or structure under consideration.
Effective loaded lengths shall be determined by the application of
influence surfaces or lines. Where an element or structure has an
influence line consisting of both positive and negative parts, in the
consideration of loading effects which are positive, the positive areas of
the influence line are referred to as adverse areas and their effects as
adverse effects and the negative areas of the influence line are referred to
as relieving areas and their effects as relieving effects. Conversely, in the
consideration of loading effects which are negative, the negative areas of
the influence line are referred to as adverse areas and their effects as
adverse effects and the positive areas of the influence line are referred to
as relieving areas and their effects as relieving effects.

Generally, the loaded length for the member under consideration shall be
the full base length of the adverse area. Where there is more than one
adverse area, as for example in continuous construction, the maximum
effect should be determined by consideration of the adverse area or
combination of adverse areas. In this case only two adverse areas in any
one lane need be loaded.

To determine the maximum effect of the distributed lane loading, each

separate loaded length of the loaded lanes shall be ranked according to
the magnitude of its adverse area of the influence line.

The loaded length with the maximum adverse area shall be loaded
uniformly with the distributed lane loading Qa as determined from the
loading curve in Figure 1.

Thereafter the loaded length with the next highest adverse influence line
area shall be loaded with a uniform lane load intensity such that the total
load on the two loaded lengths corresponds to the lane loading Qa for an
effective loaded length equal to the sum, i.e. aggregate, of the two loaded
lengths.

The procedure is continued until all selected lengths of lanes are loaded,
the intensity of distributed loading for any separate loaded length
remaining constant over its length, as follows:
P
If Σ Li is the sum of all loaded lengths up to and including the p th loaded
i=1
length, the intensity of loading Qap on the p th loaded length Lp is:

p p-1

Qap = [Qa Σ Li - Σ QiLi] /Lp

i=1 i=1

where Qa is the intensity of loading obtained from the curve in

p

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Figure 1 for Σ Li
i=1

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APPENDIX A Page 5 of 10

Qi is the intensity of loading applied to any previously

calculated base length portion i

Li is the dimension of any previously calculated base length

portion i.

In this procedure Qap reduces with an increase of p which has a limiting

value of 8.

(B) Transverse distribution. In the transverse direction, the uniformly

distributed lane loading may be applied over the full width of the loaded
lane or in the form of two equal and parallel line loads of ½Qa per metre
spaced at 1,9m apart and placed symmetrically about the centre line of the
loaded lane.

The uniformly distributed load outside the loaded lanes may also be
converted into a single line load or several line loads placed parallel to the
loaded lanes. Each line load shall be placed at the centre of the loaded
area represented by it. The maximum intensity of such a line load shall be
½ Qa of the least loaded lane in the same span for deck widths up to
12,0m, and 6,0kN/m being equivalent to a loaded area of 2m² for deck
widths in excess of 12,0m.

The concentration of stresses under the line loads, which are obvious
abstractions, need not be considered.

2.6.3.2.2 Axle load

The nominal axle load of a loaded lane shall be applied in the form of two equal
point loads spaced 1,9m apart symmetrically about the centre line of the loaded
lane. Only one axle load shall be applied to a single loaded lane as specified in
2.6.3.1(2).

Where the transverse distribution has no significant effect on the element being
considered, the axle loading may be applied as a knife-edge load uniformly
distributed over the full width of the loaded lane.

The concentration of stress under point loads or knife edge load need not be
considered, except as specified in 2.6.3.1(3).

2.6.3.3 Design NA loading

For design NA loading, γfL shall be taken as follows:

γfL Ultimate Limit State Serviceability Limit State

Combination 1 2 3 1 2 3
s

1,5 1,3 - 1,0 1,0 -

For the total design action effect , the γfL values shall be combined with γf3 values as
specified in TMH7 Part 3.

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APPENDIX A Page 6 of 10

2.6.4 Type NB loading

2.6.4.1 Definition of NB loading

Nominal NB loading represents a single abnormally heavy vehicle.

(1) Fig. 2 shows the plan and axle arrangement for this loading.

(2) No allowance shall be made for impact.

(3) The design wheel shall be applied to a circular or square contact area
derived by assuming a uniformly distributed effective pressure of 1,0 MPa.

LOADS
1m
90 kN per wheel
1m 360 kN per axle
1440 kN per vehicle
1m

2m 6m 2m

Fig. 2

2.6.4.2 Application of NB loading

The NB loading shall be applied with axles at right angles to the direction of traffic
and shall be taken to occupy any transverse position on a bridge deck up to a
distance of 0,6m from the face of a kerb. No other traffic loading shall be
considered to act in conjunction with this loading. In positioning the NB vehicle,
account shall be taken of future incorporation of sidewalks into the roadway.

The responsible authorities may amend the intensity of the NB loading for a
specific bridge by specifying a percentage of the loading.

Type NB loading need not be considered for local effects in slabs supported by
other members.

2.6.4.3 Design NB loading:

For design NB loading, γfL shall be taken as follows:

γfL Ultimate Limit State Serviceability Limit State

Combination 1 2 3 1 2 3
s

1,2 1,1 - 1,0 1,0 -

For the total design action effect, the γfL values shall be combined with γfL values as

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specified in TMH7 Part 3.

APPENDIX A Page 7 of 10

2.6.5 Type NC loading

2.6.5.1 Definition of NC loading

Nominal NC loading is a loading representing multi-wheeled trailer combinations

(or self-propelled multi-wheeled vehicles) with controlled hydraulic suspension and
steering intended to transport very heavy indivisible payloads.

(1) Fig. 3 shows the plan arrangement of Standard Type NC-30x5x40 loading.
The loading is uniformly distributed over the area shown with an intensity
of 30 kN/m², e.g. 150 kN/m if b is 5 m.

(2) No allowance shall be made for impact.

(3) The dimensions 'a', 'b' and 'c' shall be selected, between the limits shown,
to have the most severe effect.

Note that this loading excludes the effects of separate mechanical horses; these
have been omitted for the sake of simplicity. Where in practice this problem is
critical for an existing bridge and cannot be overcome by using extended towbars,
the permissible load on the trailers shall be determined by analysis of the effects of
the actual complete train, in comparison with NC loading.

The responsible authorities may amend the configuration and loading intensity of
type NC loading for a specific bridge.

a c a

‘a’ varies from 5 to 20m

‘b’ varies from 3 to 5m
‘c’ varies from 0 to 25m

Figure 3

2.6.5.2 Application of NC loading

TYPE NC30 x 5 x 40 LOADING

Type NC loading shall be directed along the centre line of any carriageway unless
otherwise dictated by road geometrics, with an allowance for moving off-line by
1m in either direction and in such a position as to cause the most severe effect on
the member being analysed. Subject to the above restriction of movement, the
loading may be placed hard up against a kerb, but it shall not, however, be placed
closer than 0,45m from a balustrade. For loading on the line of travel as defined
above, the dimensions 'a', 'b' and 'c' in Fig. 3 shall, however, be varied to cause the

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most severe effect on any structural member. No other traffic loading shall be
considered to act in conjunction with this loading in any single carriageway, but
where dual carriageway are carried by a single superstructure or where a unified
substructure carries separate superstructures, an additional loading case shall be
considered consisting of NC loading only on any one carriageway with two-
thirds.......
APPENDIX A Page 8 of 10

of the intensity of NA loading on the whole or parts of the other carriageways.

Contrary to clause 2.6.1.3 parts of the NC loading which have a relieving effect may
be taken into account, but the engineer shall use his discretion depending on the
case.

2.6.5.3 Design NC and (NC + 2/3 NA) loading

For design NC and (NC + 2/3 NA) loading γfL shall be taken as follows:

γfL Ultimate Limit State Serviceability Limit State

Combinations 1 2 3 1 2 3

1,2 1,1 - 1,0 1,0 -

For the total design action effect, the γfL values shall be combined with γf3 values as
specified in TMH7 Part 3

2.6.6 Primary traffic loading on culverts

2.6.6.1 General

Culverts shall be designed to resist earth loading in accordance with the principles
described in 2.3.3 of TMH7 Part 2 (1981). Types NA, NB and NC traffic loading shall
be applied where necessary in terms of the requirements of 2.6.1 to 2.6.5. The
approximate methods given below may be used. The assumption is made that the
perimeter of the area over which the pressure acts spreads out at approximately 45
degrees with an increase of depth in directions normal to the perimeter, but that
the pressure remains uniformly distributed.

2.6.6.2 Approximate methods for determining the effect of traffic loading on rigid culverts

(A) Type NA Loading applied to rigid culverts :

Culverts and their elements shall be designed to resist the more severe
effect of (i) and (ii) combined, or only (iii).

Nominal NA Loading intensity applied to culverts shall consist of

(i) A uniformly distributed pressure of intensity

qa1 = 12br kN/m²

br + 2h

where br = width of carriageway in metres

h = minimum soil cover to the culvert in metres.

(ii) A strip of uniformly distributed pressure of intensity

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qa2 = 60br kN/m² of width (2h+0,3) metres

(br+2h)(2h+0,3)

superimposed on (1) and extending over the full length of the

culvert in the direction of the centre line of the culvert, where
symbols are as for (i) above.

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APPENDIX A Page 9 of 10

(iii) The loading specified for load effects under 2.6.3.1(3) placed onto
the top surface of the culvert with the axle load parallel to the
centre line of the culvert so as to obtain the worst effect.

(B) The equivalent type NB loading applied to culverts :

NB loading shall only be applied to culverts with span widths in excess of

3,6m and earth cover of 1,0m or less. Such culverts shall also be checked
for 2/3 of the NB loading with 0,1m of earth cover to allow for construction
loads.

The equivalent NB loading shall consist of a single load

Qb  1,25 (90 + 12 Ls 1,8) kN where

Ls = effective span of the culvert in metres.

The load shall be distributed over a contact area of 300 x 300 mm² at such
positions on the surface of the road as to cause the maximum
adverse effects and spread through the depth of fill only, taken under the
conditions of minimum cover, at an angle of 45 degrees,
i.e. bh = 1h = (0,3 + 2h)
where bh and 1h are respectively the load width and load length at the
level of the top of the culvert. Further:

(a) In the case of rigid monolithic culverts and flexible culverts, the
load width, measured in the direction of the centre line of the
culvert, shall be increased by 0,7 (Ls - bh + 0,3) and 0,35 (Ls - bh +
0,3) respectively for bh< (Ls + 0,3).

(b) In the case of interconnected non-monolithic box culverts which

permit adequate shear transference between units, the load width
shall be increased by 0,5 (Ls - bh + 0,3) for bh< (Ls + 0,3).

(c) In the case of unconnected non-monolithic box culverts and pipe

culverts where the load width is less than the width of the unit, the
load width shall be increased by 0,35 of the span or to the width of
the unit, whichever is smaller.

(d) Where the load length, measured at right angles to the centre line
of the culvert, exceeds the outside span of the culvert, the load
length shall be reduced by one half the excess.

(C) Type NC loading applied to culverts:

Type NC-30x5x40 loading applied to culverts shall consist of a uniformly

distributed loading of intensity

qc  150 kN/m²
5 + 2h

applied over the full span and a length of (5 + 2h) metres of the culvert.
The pressure shall be applied to the top surface of the culvert in such a

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position as to cause the most severe effects.

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APPENDIX A Page 10 of 10

2.6.6.3 Design traffic loading on culverts

For design traffic loading on culverts, γfL shall be taken as follows:

γfL Ultimate Limit State Serviceability Limit State

Combinations 1 2 3 1 2 2

NA 1,5 1,3 - 1,0 1,0 -

NB 1,2 1,1 - 1,0 1,0 -

NC 1,2 1,1 - 1,0 1,0 -

For the total design action effect, the γfL values shall be combined with γf3 values as
specified in TMH7 Part 3.

2.6.6.4 Horizontal effects of primary traffic loadings on culvert

The horizontal effects of primary traffic loading on culverts shall be determined in

accordance with the principles of soil mechanics or, in the absence of such an
analysis, shall be estimated in accordance with 2.4.2 of TMH7 Part 2 (1981).

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APPENDIX B Page 1 of 3

KZN TRAFFIC LOADING (1993)

1. TYPE MA LOADING

1.1 The loading represents normal traffic loading and consists of two partial systems
applied simultaneously:

(i) A double-axle concentrated load model (Tandem system), each axle having a
weight P kN. The complete tandem shall always be considered.

(ii) A uniformly distributed load (UDL system), having a weight density w kN per
square metre. This shall be applied only in the unfavourable parts of the influence
area, longitudinally and transversally.

Each axle of the tandem model has two identical wheels 1,80m apart. The contact area
of each wheel is a 0,35 x 0,35m square. The tandem axles are spaced at 1.30m.

1.2 This model should be applied on each notional lane and on the remaining areas. On
notional lane number j, the load magnitudes are referred to as P j and wj.

1.3 The dynamic magnification is included in the values for Pj and wj.

1.4 For the assessment of general effects, the tandems are assumed to travel along the axis
of the notional lanes.

1.5 Notional lanes have a constant width of 3,00m. They shall be parallel to the direction of
traffic.

1.6 Notional lanes are not necessarily adjacent but may be separated by remaining areas.
They shall be positioned transversely on the bridge deck such that the most severe
effect occurs for the element or member under consideration.

1.7 The tandem load can be shifted within a notional lane so that the minimum distance
between the centre of the individual wheel loads and the edge of the lane is 0,40m.

1.8 The basic load values are indicated in Table 1 and Figure B.1. These loads are to be
applied using the partial action factors γfL specified for the type NA loading in TMH7
Part 2.

TABLE 1 : BASIC LOAD VALUES

LOCATION TANDEM LOAD UDL

Pj (kN) wj (kN/m²)

Lane number 1 240 6,5

Lane number 2 140 4

Other lanes 0 3

Remaining area Not relevant 3

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APPENDIX B Page 2 of 3

1.9 For the verification of local effects, the tandem load of lane number 1 shall be applied
anywhere on the carriageway. The axles shall be placed at right angles to the direction
of traffic in a position causing the most severe effect for the member under
consideration, but with the centre of the wheels not closer than 0,40m from the front
face of a kerb.

In addition an accidental wheel load of 100 kN with a square contact area of 0,1m²
placed with the edge of the wheel against the front face of the kerb shall be considered
for short cantilevers with effective lengths < 1,50m.

1.10 The concentrated wheel loads may be dispersed through the pavement and concrete
slab at a spread-to-depth ratio of 1:1 up to the level of the centroid of the flange.

0.35

Direction of
1.80

Traffic

0.35
1.30

P1 P1
W1
a*

LANE No. 1
3.00
1.80

P1 = 240 kN
W1 = 6.5 kN
a*

LANE No. 2
3.00
1.80

P2 = 140 kN
W2 = 4.0 kN

FIGURE B.1 : ARRANGEMENT OF TYPE MA TRAFFIC LOAD * 0.40  a  0.80

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APPENDIX B Page 3 of 3

2. TYPE NC LOADING

NC Loading shall be applied as specified in clause 2.6.5 of Appendix A except that it

shall be combined with 2/3MA instead of 2/3NA loading.

3. LOADING ON CULVERTS

The loading shall in the interim remain as specified in clause 2.6.6 of Appendix A.

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SECTION 4

DESIGN CRITERIA

4.1 SCOPE

This section covers design codes and special design provisions for structures.

4.2 DESIGN CODES

The following codes shall be used in the design of road structures.

4.2.1 Concrete Structures

TMH7 Part 3 : Code of Practice for the Design of Highway Bridges and Culverts in South
Africa (1989).

4.2.2 Steel Structures

BS 5400 Part 3 : Code of Practice for design of steel bridges.

For minor structural elements not carrying road traffic

SABS 0162-1 : 1993 : The structural use of steel.

4.2.3 Composite Bridges

BS 5400 : Part 5 : Code of practice for design of composite bridges.

4.2.4 Foundations

CP 2004 : Code of Practice for Foundations

SABS 088 : Code of Practice for Pile Foundations

4.2.5 Supplementary Codes

Where designs are not covered by the above Codes, a suitable Supplementary Code, to
be approved by the Bridge Engineer, may be used.

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4.3 SPECIAL DESIGN PROVISIONS FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES

Concrete structures shall generally comply with the requirements of TMH7 Part 3 except
where modified below. For the modifications listed in the following clauses reference is
made to relevant clauses of TMH7 Part 3.

4.3.1 Cracking (Clause 2.1.2.1)

TABLE 1 shall be replaced with the following :

Table 4.1 Design crack width

Condition of Design Crack

Exposure Width (mm) Description

Moderate  0,25 Structures other than those described

hereunder

Severe  0,20 Structures within 25 km of the coast or

subject to mild pollution effects.

Very severe  0,10 Structures within 5 km of the coast or

subject to severe pollution effects.

In addition, under very severe exposure conditions, exposed concrete faces shall
receive a protective coating, as agreed with the Bridge Engineer.

Under any exposure conditions, all concrete faces of abutments and culverts in contract
with earth shall be painted with 2 coats of bituminous waterproofing compound
complying with SABS 1133 to provide for a total dry film thickness of not less than
500 microns.

4.3.2 Crack Control of Launched Reinforced Concrete Bridge Deck

During launching of a reinforced concrete deck, stresses in high-yield steel

reinforcement in top flanges, due to dead and construction loads, shall be limited to 130
MPa. The reinforcement shall be of small diameter with a maximum spacing of 150mm.
Both faces of a flange shall be equally reinforced.

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4.3.3 Effective Breadth of Flanged Beams (Clause 3.3.1.2)

For deck cross-sections with flanges whose breadth are considerable in relation to the
effective span lengths (e.g. twin-rib or single cell box decks) the effective slab breadth
shall be taken into account for the section verification at the serviceability limit state
(e.g. calculation of tensile flexural stresses in pre-stressed decks).

Unless the effective slab breadth is determined by a precise analysis (e.g. finite element
method) the following approximation as detailed in Figures 4.1 to 4.3 may be used.

Accordingly the effective slab breadth (bm) shall be :

In the span region of beams : bmB = β b

Above supports of beams and for cantilever beams : bmC = γ b
with b = full slab breadth according to Figure 4.1, e.g. the cantilever
length (b1) or half the slab breadth between webs (b2 or b3)
β, γ = Factors according to Figure 4.2
The effective slab breadth variation along the length of a span is shown in Figure 4.3.

In the case of unequal span lengths of continuous beams, the larger span length shall
be used in the determination of the factor γ.

For flanges with breadth b  0,3h, where h is the overall depth of the deck section
according to Figure 4.1, the effective slab breadth b m = b.

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4.3.4 Torsion (Clauses 3.3.4 and 4.3.5)

For single cell boxes, twin-rib or similar sections, the effect of profile distortion shall be
taken into account for the verification of stresses under eccentric loads unless at least 3
span diaphragms are provided in addition to the support diaphragms.

4.3.5 Pre-stressed Concrete : Serviceability Limit State Requirements

Pre-stressed concrete members shall be classified as class 1, 2 or 3 in accordance with

clause 4.3.2.4 of TMH7 Part 3.

The design of pre-stressed concrete members shall comply with the requirements in
table 4.2 below for various traffic load conditions.

Table 4.2 Serviceability limit state requirements for

pre-stressed concrete members

Pre-stress Traffic Loading Combinations

Class TMH7 Part 2
TMH7 (1991) KZN (1993) Table 17

1 50% NA 50% MA 1
50% NB 1

2 100% NA 100% MA 1 and 2

100% NB 1 and 2
100% NC 100% NC 1

3 100% NC 100% NC 1 and 2

4.3.6 Cracking (Clause 4.3.2.4)

The flexural tensile stress during construction, specified in subclause (b)(i) may be
increased to 2,0 MPa for continuous pressurised concrete structures (e.g. decks
constructed in stages or by incremental launching).

The extreme 200mm depth of the tensile zone of a class 2 or 3 member shall be
reinforced with not less than 0,2% of cross-sectional area of high-yield steel
reinforcement of small diameter with a maximum spacing of 200mm.

4.3.7 Shear Resistance of Beams (Clause 4.3.4)

The breadth of a member as defined in clauses 4.3.4.2 and 4.3.4.5 shall be the actual

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breadth reduced by ½ the duct diameter for grouted ducts.

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4.3.8 Security Protection Requirements

(a) Reinforced Concrete Piers

Minimum cross-sectional area 2,0m²

Minimum width 0,6m
Open V shape piers are not permitted

Minimum reinforcement up to a height of 4,0m above final ground level or water

level:

Main reinforcement : Minimum bar diameter 20mm,

maximum spacing 150mm.
Secondary reinforcement : Minimum bar diameter 12mm,
maximum spacing 200mm in vertical plane.

Generally elsewhere in piers the minimum high-tensile reinforcement in either

direction shall be 750mm²/m in each face.

Secondary reinforcement shall provide links between main bars, fully anchored in
accordance with clause 3.8.6.5 of TMH7 part 3, at a maximum spacing of 250mm in
horizontal plane.

(b) Reinforced Concrete Abutments

A minimum reinforcement on the front face shall be 375mm² per metre in both
directions.

(c) Bridge bearings

Openings around bearings shall be closed by means of a galvanised sheet plate of

3,0mm minimum thickness. This shall not apply to bearings more than 6,0m
above finished ground level or where they are otherwise inaccessible.

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SECTION 5

ANCILLARY REQUIREMENTS

5.1 SCOPE

This section refers to ancillary requirements relating to structural details which are
generally to be incorporated into design documentation.

5.2 STANDARD STRUCTURAL DETAIL DRAWINGS

Standard structural detail drawings are included in Section 9. A list of these drawings is
contained on page 6 of this manual. Confirmation of these details shall be obtained
from the Bridge Engineer during the preliminary design stage of a structure.

5.3 SPECIFIC DETAILS

5.3.1 Parapets

Parapet details for various client bodies are contained in Section 9. It is the
responsibility of users of this manual to establish if the standard details for other client
bodies, e.g. Department of Transport and Spoornet, conform with their latest
requirements at any time.

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SECTION 6

HYDROLOGY

6.1 SCOPE

The section covers the estimation of flood magnitudes for road structures crossing
waterways. An insight is given into some methods of estimation commonly adopted. It
is not intended that the methods enumerated should limit designers in any way.

In depth details of each method are not shown but readers are directed to references*
which provide more complete information.

6.2 METHODS OF FLOOD ANALYSIS

Flood analysis methods may broadly be separated into three groups as follows :

1. Empirical - based on observation of maximum flood records, no statistical or

theoretical basis.

2. Deterministic - based on observed rainfall.

3. Statistical - based on information from gauged sites.

The first two analysis methods are in common usage. Statistical methods are only
appropriate where suitable accurate flood records are available over a long period.
Clauses 6.3, 6.4, 6.5 highlight calculation methods and references in the three groups.

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* Manual on rainfall and runoff calculations : KZN : B Millard : June 1993

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6.3 EMPIRICAL FLOOD ANALYSIS METHODS

6.3.1 Modified Francou-Rodier (Catchment area 100 - 5000km²)

The regional maximum flood may be calculated using the Francou-Rodier formula. This

has been modified by KOVACS (1988)1 to estimate design floods for given return

periods as follows :

QIP = R.106 ( A )1- 0,1K

108

where QIP = flood peak (m³/s)

R = coefficient dependent on return period - (see page 45).

A = catchment area (km²)

K = regional constant - (see page 45)

This method is generally suitable for catchment areas greater than 100km² but has been
used for smaller areas.

6.4 DETERMINISTIC FLOOD ANALYSIS METHODS

6.4.1 Empirical deterministic peak discharge formula (Catchment area 10 - 500km²)

Various formulae exist in this category. One derived from a study of data supplied by
the Hydrographic Surveyor of the Irrigation Department is :
QIP =  k l m n A 2/3
where QIP = flood peak (m³/s)
k = mean annual precipitation (mm)
l = coefficient dependent on return period
m = coefficient dependent on shape of catchment
n = coefficient dependent on slope of catchment
A = catchment area (km²)
 = 0,015

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1
Regional maximum flood peaks in Southern Africa. DWA. Technical Report TR 137

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Coefficient of frequency 'l' :

Return Period T (yr) 'l'

2 0,19
5 0,45
10 0,67
25 1,00
50 1,26
100 1,52
Coefficient of shape 'm' :
1,588
m = (L/ A ) 2/3

where: L = Length of longest collector (km)

Coefficient of slope 'n' :
n = 3,24 x S1/4
where: S = Average slope of longest watercourse (m/m)

This formula should preferably be applied to catchments larger than 100km² but, with
caution, can be applied to catchments from 10km² in size.

6.4.2 Rational Method (Catchment area < 15km²)

The Rational method is well documented2,3 and has been widely used for more than 100

years. Reference should be made to the Design Manual for Standard Box Culverts :
KZN : 1981
The basic form of equation is :
QIP = CIA
3,6
where QIP = flood peak arriving at the site (m³/s)
C = runoff coefficient (dimensionless)
I = average rainfall intensity over catchment (mm/hr)
A = catchment area (km²)
3,6 = conversion factor.

This method is generally limited to catchments less than 15km² in area but may be used
for catchments up to 25km² as a check against other methods.

2
Design Manual for Standard Box Culverts KZN : 1981

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3
Road Drainage Manual : NTC : 1983

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6.4.3 SCS Method (Catchment area < 10 km²)

This method developed by the U.S. Soil Conservation Service is also well

documented2,3 and has been adopted for rural and suburban conditions in South Africa.

The design flood peak equation :

QIP = fp Ade
tc
where QIP = flood peak (m³/s)
fp = hydrograph peak factor
A = catchment area (km²)
de = direct runoff (mm)
tc = time to peak concentration (hours)

This method is also generally limited to catchments smaller than 10km² and with slopes
less than 30% but may be used judiciously for catchments up to 30km² in South Africa.

6.4.4 Synthetic hydrograph method (Catchment area = 15 - 5000km²)

This method is based mainly on regional analysis of historical rainfall data and is
independent of personal judgement. It was developed by the Hydrological Research

Unit of the University of the Witwatersrand 4,3 and is applicable to catchments from

15-5000km². The results are reliable although some natural variability in the
hydrological occurrences is lost through the broad regional divisions.
The calculations for this method are available in a computer program DETFLOOD 5.

6.4.5 Local flood observation

A very helpful method for determining the design peak flow is that of flood level
observation of flood marks in the vicinity of the site. The basic information required for
checking flow calculations is the highest occurring flood level during the longest

possible period (N years). With this level the corresponding peak flow Q N' can be

calculated in uniform flow conditions using Manning's equation as follows :

4
Hydrological Research Unit. Design flood determination in South Africa. Report 1/72,

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University of Witwatersrand
5
Flood hydrology for Southern Africa WJR Alexander. 1991

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Q = A R2/3 S1/2
n

where A = cross-sectional area of flow normal to the direction of

flow (m²)
R = hydraulic radius = A (m)
P
P = wetted perimeter (m)
S = slope of the energy line, which for all practical purposes is
the bed slope over the particular reach of river.

n = Manning's roughness coefficient6

An estimate of other peak flows, QT can be obtained as follows:

QT = QN x log T
log N

Where QN = highest observed flood magnitude in N years (m³/s)

T = design return period (years)

N = period of site observations (years)

Engineering judgement should be used in the determination of the correct design flow.

6.5 STATISTICAL FLOOD ANALYSIS METHODS

Statistical analyses require estimates to be made of the statistical properties of recorded

data sets and a decision on the most appropriate probability distribution function. It is
recommended that statistical methods should only be dealt with by
engineers/hydrologists with the necessary knowledge and experience3,5.

6.6 DESIGN FLOOD FREQUENCY

The flood frequency needs to be decided in relation to risk or severity of consequence

of failure.

The following is a guide. Designers may motivate for different design flood frequencies
where appropriate.

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6
Open Channel Hydraulics : Ven te Chow

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LOCATION CATCHMENT AREA (km²) FREQUENCY (years)

Rural areas < 15 10

15 - 500 25
500 - 5000 50
> 5000 100

Urban & peri-urban areas < 2,5 10

2,5 - 15 25
15 - 500 50
> 500 100

6.7 DESIGN FLOOD MAGNITUDE

The calculation of design flood values is at best an estimate. The following method is
suggested to assess the magnitude of the design flood for use in hydraulic design
calculations :

◼ Calculate design floods using pertinent methods of analysis (viz. as outlined in

sections 6.3, 6.4, 6.5) for a range of flood frequencies (usually the median
frequency from section 6.6 and one frequency either side of it.
◼ Assess the values obtained and discard "outlier" methods.
◼ Average the values of the remaining methods.
◼ Depending on the chosen flood frequency select the design flood.

6.8 HYDROLOGICAL DATA

Hydrological data shall be shown on Preliminary Proposal and, subsequently, General

Arrangement drawings in accordance with the requirements shown on Standard
Structural Detail drawing No. SSD 10.1.

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SECTION 7

HYDRAULICS

7.1 SCOPE
This section covers the effects of flowing water in the vicinity of bridges and culverts.
These effects relate to the changes in water (river, stream, etc) behaviour arising from
the imposition of a structure (road embankment, bridge, etc) as well as the precautions
which may be necessary to safeguard a structure as a result of the changed water
behaviour.

7.2 WATERWAY HYDRAULICS

7.2.1 General
Wherever a road crosses a river or stream it is necessary to provide a bridge or culvert
to permit continuity of flow. It is generally cheaper to extend the approach road
embankments into the watercourse than to span the entire flood plain but the resulting
consequences must be taken into account. The constricted width results in increased
flow velocities and, unless the flow is supercritical, a backing up of water level
immediately upstream of the road embankment occurs.

Waterway hydraulics is mainly concerned with determining these two factors :

• backwater effect
• flow velocities.

At any cross-section the determination of one of these parameters fixes the other. The
extent to which the road embankments can be permitted to constrict the flow is limited
by the permissible backwater effect upstream and the potential for scour arising from
increased flow velocities.

For urban catchments greater than 5km² the 50 year flood contour shall be indicated on
the plan in accordance with the Water Act No. 54 of 1956.

7.2.2 Siting and Alignment

Every natural watercourse reflects prevailing patterns of equilibrium between flow and
erosion processes. The design should ensure that this balance is disturbed as little as
possible. To this end the siting and alignment of bridges and culverts should be such

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that the direction of flow is disturbed and water velocities altered as little as possible.

7.3 BRIDGES

7.3.1 Opening Width

The opening width should generally not be less than the equilibrium channel width
corresponding to the design discharge. The position of the bridge opening should also
be in harmony with the flow patterns which prevail under the design discharge
conditions.

Channels may change their shape and direction under varying conditions. The
following tools may be used in assessing channel changes :

(i) Bed material characteristics, particle size and SPT values.

(ii) Channel geometry including floodplain widths and upstream bends.

(iii) Physical and mathematical models.

7.3.2 Freeboard and vertical openings

Two bounds exist with respect to vertical openings. The lower bound is a submersible
bridge with all floods (say greater than 1:5 year frequency) and resulting debris passing
over the structure. The upper bound is a bridge which passes the design flood below
the deck with a minimum freeboard in accordance with Table 7.1. In between are a
range of solutions including controlling the maximum flood height by allowing the
flood to flow across the roadway, as a safeguard to the structure, whilst saving on
costs.

Special consideration may have to be given near the coast and at estuaries where tides
may cause higher water levels and where allowance for boating or other criteria may be
required.

Freeboard and vertical opening requirements shall be agreed with the Bridge Engineer
during the preliminary design stage.

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Table 7.1 Minimum Freeboard

Design Discharge (Minimum Freeboard (m)

(m³/s) (interpolate for values in between)

0 - 100 0,3

200 0,5

400 0,7

1000 1,0
d
>1000 0,6 + 15 (not < 1,0)
where d = normal depth of
flow in river, in metres.

7.3.3 Backwater and velocity

The method of calculation most commonly adopted for backwater effects and flow
velocities is that developed by the U.S. Bureau of Public Roads which is fully described

with worked examples in 'Hydraulics of Bridge Waterways'.1

Careful consideration needs to be given to various aspects of these calculations :

• to establish if the normal flow depth before the constriction is constructed is sub-
critical or supercritical. (Froude number less than 1,0 (sub-critical), greater than 1,0
(supercritical)). Sub-critical flow is most commonly encountered with supercritical
occurring only on steep slopes.
• to determine the normal flow depth the prevailing control point must be properly
identified. e.g. dams have significant backwater effects sometimes extending
kilometres. Tidal and estuarine effects may also have to be taken into account.

7.3.4 Submersible Bridges

Submerged bridge decks in a flowing river are subject to additional design forces which
include :
• drag forces
• uplift forces
• overturning moments.

Specialist literature shall be referred to in this respect.2

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1
Hydraulics of Bridge Waterways. U.S. Dept of Transportation. Federal Highway Administration.
2
CSRA : Guidelines for River Bridges : Vol. 1 : Hydraulics, Hydrology & Ecology.

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7.4 CULVERTS

The hydraulic design of culverts is exhaustively covered in various references 2,3,4. The

following parameters shall be used as a guide for the sizing of culverts :

(i) Headwater : depth ratio (Hw) = 1.2 D

D

where Hw = headwater depth at inlet.

D = culvert cell height.

(ii) Consider the effect of permitting a headwater depth ratio of 1.5 provided the water
level does not rise within 0.2m of the inlet shoulder level at the low point in the
road - unless overtopping of the road is specifically permitted - and the allowable
headwater elevation or flooding limit is not exceeded.

(iii) Flow velocities at inlet and outlet shall be checked against the scour threshold
velocity. Generally velocities of the culvert outlet should be limited to about 2.5m/s
but may be increased above this with suitable inlet and outlet structures and
channel and bank protection. On very steep outlets energy dissipation devices e.g.
stilling basins may be required.
Cut-off walls at inlets and outlets are generally required.

Overtopping of any road shall only be permitted with the agreement of the Bridge
Engineer.

7.5 SCOUR

7.5.1 Bridges

Case studies in South Africa have shown that scour depths have not been predicted
with any degree of accuracy.

Numerous researchers have provided formulae for the calculation of scour and these,
together with model studies (for major rivers) and field observations are the only
available means of scour prediction.

3
Design Manual for Standard Box Culverts : NPA Roads Department : 1981.

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4
Road Drainage Manual : NTC : 1983

For most cases the conventional approach is to calculate the total scour from its various
components - general, contraction (e.g. of flood plain and channel) and local (e.g. pier,
abutment). It is recommended that as many relevant methods of calculation as are
available be adopted to calculate total scour. If scour is a significant issue which may
affect the stability or integrity of a bridge then specialist advice must be obtained - with
the Bridge Engineer's approval.

Bridge piers should always be aligned with the flow pattern under the design flood
conditions, the ends rounded or 'V' shaped and the projected pier area minimised. This
reduces the forces on the pier as well as reducing local scour and, indirectly, general
scour since the net flow width is increased.

The general closed abutments are preferred but if the open type is used the
consequences must be carefully considered and fully motivated. The criteria is for a
minimum cost of structure at an acceptable risk. Whichever type of abutment is
adopted, the structural form, effects of scour and protection required must be taken into
consideration and the costs and risks quantified.

7.5.2 Culverts

2,3,4
Scour is covered in the hydraulic design of culverts .

7.6 BANK PROTECTION

Road embankment toes adjacent to rivers generally require protection depending on the
threshold velocity for scour. The subject is well covered in the reference previously

mentioned 2,3,4,5.

In principle, embankments shall be protected up to at least the flood level for the design
flood.

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5
CSRA : Guidelines for River Bridges : Vol. 3 : Embankment and Bank Protection.

SECTION 8

APPENDICES

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 SECTION 9

STANDARD STRUCTURAL DETAIL DRAWINGS

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