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Natural rhotrix

A.O. Isere |

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Isere, Cogent Mathematics (2016), 3: 1246074
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/23311835.2016.1246074

PURE MATHEMATICS | RESEARCH ARTICLE

Natural rhotrix
A.O. Isere1*

Abstract: This paper takes a look at a set of rhotrix whose entries are ordered natu-
Received: 27 July 2016 ral numbers. This rhotrix is called the natural rhotrix. Properties of this set are
Accepted: 05 October 2016 examined and the results are presented. Since the natural rhotrix R is not invertible,
First Published: 11 October 2016
a maiden investigation is made into the concepts of minor rhotrices of R, determi-
*Corresponding author: A.O. Isere, nant functions (h(R)), codeterminant function (codet(R)), and index (𝜌) of a natural
Department of Mathematics, Ambrose
Alli University, Ekpoma 310001, Nigeria rhotrix. It was found that codet(R) = 𝜌h(R), and their methods of computations are
E-maills: [email protected],
[email protected] outlined for mathematical enrichment.
Reviewing editor: Subjects: Science; Mathematics & Statistics; Advanced Mathematics; Algebra
Lishan Liu, Qufu Normal University,
China Keywords: rhotrix; determinant function; codeterminant function and index
Additional information is available at
the end of the article 2010 Mathematics subject classifications: primary 15B99; secondary 08-02

1. Introduction
A rhotrix A of dimension three is a rhomboidal array defined as:
⟨ a ⟩
A= b c d
e
where a, b, c, d, e ∈ ℜ. The entry c in A is called the heart of A, denoted as h(A). The concept of rho-
trix was introduced by Ajibade (2003) as an extension of matrix-tertions and matrix-noitrets by
Atanassov and Shannon (1998). The concept of rhotrices is still at its elementary stage of develop-
ment. It is barely over a decade ago. Since its birth in 2003, many researchers have shown interest

ABOUT THE AUTHORS PUBLIC INTEREST STATEMENT

A.O. Isere obtained first and second degrees in A natural rhotrix is a rhotrix whose elements are
Mathematics from the University of Benin, Benin all countable numbers. A rhotrix is a system of
City, Nigeria, in 1999 and 2004, respectively. He numbers in a rhomboid shape. They are similar to
was employed by Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma, matrices. These systems of numbers form sets of
Nigeria in 2006, as a lecturer and a researcher in rhotrices depending on the amount of numbers in
Mathematics till date. He got his PhD in Algebra the systems. Each set obeys some mathematical
from Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, rules depending on the type of numbers you have
Nigeria, in 2014. He specializes in Loop Theory, in the set and behave differently.
precisely in Osborn loops. Between 2012 and This work examines the behavior of a rhotrix
2015, he has published various articles on finite set whose elements are countable numbers. In
Osborn loops, Holomorphy of Osborn loops and real life, children from different families behave
Osborn loops of order 4n. differently. Therefore, a scientific study of each
In 2015, he picked interest in Rhotrix algebra family will improve inter human relationship
and is currently working on the classical and non- and help to harness the talents inherent in each
classical rhotrices, and Rhotrix loops. of the family. This is to illustrate the essence of
But in this article generalizes the examples the scientific study of families or sets of physical
of natural rhotrix, introduces the concept of properties around us like this work.
determinant function, codeterminant function Detail introduction, transformation into matrices
and index of natural rhotrix. and applications abound in literature.

© 2016 The Author(s). This open access article is distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution
(CC-BY) 4.0 license.

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in developing and expanding this concept, most often, in analogy with the concepts of matrices
usually through a transformation that converts a matrix into a rhotrix and vice versa (Ajibade, 2003;
Sani, 2008). One of such works was the classification of rhotrices into sets and algebraic spaces by
Mohammed and Tella (2012). The paper classifies rhotrices into natural rhotrix set, real rhotrix set,
complex rhotrix set, rational and irrational rhotrix sets. Thus, their work has actually opened up dif-
ferent branches of studying rhotrices. Therefore, this article is picking on the first branch, the natu-
ral rhotrix set. Furthermore, in this paper, most of these properties of natural rhotrices will be
examined without necessarily having to go through a transformation. Though, if need be, these
properties would always be in conformity to one transformation or the other. This can be
examined.

Definition 1.1 Mohammed and Tella (2012) A rhotrix set is called a natural rhotrix set if its rhotrice
entries belong to the set of natural numbers. For example,

⎧� a � ⎫
⎪ ⎪
R3 (ℕ) = ⎨ b
̂ c d : a, b, c, d, e ∈ ℕ⎬
⎪ ⎪
⎩ e ⎭

is the set of all three-dimensional natural rhotrices.

This set of natural rhotrix is a beautiful rhotrix with unique characteristics many of which are yet
to be discovered.

In this work, we will be looking at some fundamental properties of this algebraic set.

Definition 1.2 Ajibade (2003), Mohammed and Tella (2012) A real rhotrix set of dimension three,
denoted as R̂3 (ℜ) was defined by Ajibade as

⎧� a � ⎫
⎪ ⎪
R3 (ℜ) = ⎨ b
̂ c d : a, b, c, d, e ∈ ℜ⎬
⎪ ⎪
⎩ e ⎭

where h(R) = c is called the heart of any rhotrix R belonging to R̂3 (ℜ) and ℜ is the set of real num-
bers. Examples showing extension of this set and analysis are copious in literature (Aminu & Michael,
2015; Baumslag & Chandler, 1968; Ezugwu, Ajibade, & Mohammed, 2011; Mohammed, 2009, 2014;
Mohammed, Balarabe, & Imam, 2012; Tudunkaya & Manjuola, 2010; Usaini & Mohmmed, 2012). It is
worthy to note that an n-dimensional real heart-based rhotrix denoted by R̂n (ℜ), will have it cardi-
1 2
nality as |R̂n (ℜ)| = (n + 1), where n ∈ 2ℤ + 1. This implies that all heart-based or heart-orient-
+
2
ed rhotrices are of odd dimension (≥3). All operations (addition and multiplication) in this work, will
be as defined by Ajibade in (2003). Thus, addition and multiplication of two heart-based rhotrices are
defined as:
⟨ a ⟩ ⟨ f ⟩ ⟨ a+f ⟩
R+Q= b h(R) d + g h(Q) j = b+g h(R) + h(Q) d+j
e k e+k
and

⟨ ah(Q) + fh(R) ⟩
R◦Q = bh(Q) + gh(R) h(R)h(Q) dh(Q) + jh(R)
eh(Q) + kh(R)
respectively. A generalization of this hearty multiplication is given in Mohammed (2014) and in
Ezegwu et al. (2011),

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A row-column multiplication of heart-based rhotrices was proposed by Sani (2004) as:

⟨ af + dg ⟩
R◦Q = bf + eg h(R)h(Q) aj + dk
bj + ek
A generalization of this row-column multiplication was also later given by Sani (2007) as:
⟨ ⟩
⟨ ⟩ ⟨ ⟩ t
∑ t−1
∑
R◦Q = ai j , ci j ◦ bi j , dl k = (ai j bi j ), (cl k dl k ) , t = (n + 1)∕2.
1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2
i2 j1 =1 l2 k1 =1

where Rn and Qn are n-dimensional rhotrices (with n rows and n columns).

Definition 1.3 A rhotrix is said to be invertible if it has an inverse

For example let

⟨ a ⟩
A= b h(A) d
e
Then, the inverse of A is given as
⟨ a ⟩
−1 1
A =− b −h(A) d
(h(A))2 e
It is observed that any rhotrix h(R) ≠ 0 is an invertible or non-singular rhotrix. However, a natural
rhotrix is a singular rhotrix. That is, we cannot find A for which A is a natural rhotrix.
−1

2. Preliminaries
In this section, we shall strictly concern ourselves with the natural rhotrix—a rhotrix whose parent set is
the set of well-ordered natural numbers. A natural rhotrix starts with a dimension one (i.e. R1). Therefore,
1 2
the cardinality of n-dimensional natural rhotrix is given by |R̂n (ℕ)| = (n + 1), where n ∈ 2ℕ + 1.
2

Remark 2.1 Recall that the set ℕ = {0, 1, 2, 3, …}. see Aashikpelokhai, Agbeboh, Uzor, Elakhe, and
Isere (2010), Baumslag and Chandler (1968)-The set of natural number or better still the set of non-
negative integers. This set 2ℕ + 1 is larger than 2ℤ+ + 1. Therefore, this paper is expanding the scope
of set of rhotrice dimensions as hitherto presented in literature.

Definition 2.1 (Major row and major column) The major row and the major column are usually the
only full row and full column in a rhotrix. They are usually at the middle of the rows and columns of
any dimensional rhotrix.

A natural rhotrix, as other rhotrices, has one major row and one major column.

3. Examples of natural rhotrices

This section gives different representations of natural rhotrices as examples according to their
dimensions.

(a) A natural rhotrix of dimension one (R1 ) is given by:

R1 = ⟨a⟩

where a ∈ ℕ. It only has a heart with no other entries.

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(b) A natural rhotrix of dimension three (R3 ) is given by:

⟨ a ⟩
R3 = b c d
e
where a, b, c, d, e ∈ ℕ

Remark 3.1 All the entries are non-zero elements of ℕ. This remark holds for the other examples of
natural rhotrices.

(c) A natural rhotrix of dimension five (R5 ) is given by:

a
⟨ b c d ⟩
R5 = e f g h j
k l m
n
where a, b, c, d, e, f , g, h, j, k, l, m, n ∈ ℕ

(d) A natural rhotrix of dimension seven (R7 ) is given by:

a
b c d
⟨ e f g h i ⟩
R7 = j k l m n o p
q r s t u
v w x
y

where a, b, c, … , y ∈ ℕ.

Remark 3.2 You can go on and on. For example, R9 and R11 will have their last entries as 41 and 61,
respectively.

(e) Generally, a natural rhotrix of dimension n′(Rn� ) is given by:

a
b c d
⟨ − − − − − ⟩
Rn� = − − − n2 + n + 1 − − −
− − − − −
2n2 + 2n − 2 2n2 + 2n − 1 2n2 + 2n
2n2 + 2n + 1

where a, b, c, … , 2n2 + 2n + 1 ∈ ℕ ∀ n� ∈ 2ℕ + 1 and n ∈ ℕ (i.e. n� = 2n + 1)

Remark 3.3 The above is the generalization of any natural rhotrix.

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4. Properties of natural rhotrix

Lemma 4.1 Let Ri be any i dimensional natural rhotrix. Then, the heart (h(Ri )) is the middle value of a
set of n numbers that make up the rhotrix if and only if n = |Ri | i = 1, 3, 5, …

Proof First part

Since n ∈ 2ℕ + 1, then there exist meddle value (median).

So, if n = |Ri |, 1, 3, 5, … then for i = 1 is trivial.

So, i = 3 ⟹ n = 5 entries which are ordered natural numbers. Thus, the median is 3 = 21 (|R3 | + 1).

So, i = 5 ⟹ n = 13 entries which are ordered natural numbers. Thus, the median is 7 = 21 (|R5 | + 1).

So, i = 2k + 1 ⟹ n = 2k2 + 2k + 1 entries which are ordered natural numbers. Thus, the median is
n2 + n + 1 = 12 (|R2k+1 | + 1).

The converse follows from the Cardinality of Rn where n ∈ 2ℕ + 1.

Theorem 4.1 Let Rn be any n dimensional natural rhotrix. Then, the following are equivalent:

(a) The cardinality |Rn | = 21 (n2 + 1) where n ∈ 2ℕ + 1

(b) The last entry will be the value 2n�2 + 2n� + 1∀n� ∈ ℕ
(c) The heart of Rn [h(Rn )] is represented by h = 21 (|Rn | + 1), n ∈ 2ℕ + 1.
(d) The h(Rn ) will be the value n�2 + n� + 1

Proof

(a) ⇒ (b) Since |Rn | = 12 (n2 + 1) where n ∈ 2ℕ + 1, then for all n� ∈ ℕ, n = 2n� + 1. Then

|R(n� + 1)| = 2n�2 + 2n� + 1.

(b) ⇒ (c) Since the last entry is 2n�2 + 2n� + 1 and is old, then by Lemma 4.1, the middle value is

2n�2 + 2n� + 1 1 1
+ = (|Rn | + 1) = h(Rn ) ∀ n ∈ 2ℕ + 1
2 2 2
(c) ⇒ (d) Given that

1
h(Rn ) = (|R | + 1) ∀ n ∈ 2ℕ + 1
2 n
and letting n = 2n� + 1 gives

h(Rn ) = n�2 + n� + 1

(d) ⇒ (a) Since h(Rn ) = n�2 + n� + 1 and by Lemma 4.1, 2h(Rn ) = |Rn | + 1, then

1 2
|Rn | = (n + 1)
2
Remark 4.1 Theorem 4.1 is simply a characterization of the natural rhotrix

4.1. Determinant function

Though, the natural rhotrices are not invertible rhotrices. However, the heart of a natural rhotrix
plays the role of a determinant function.

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Lemma 4.2 Let A and B be any natural rhotrices of dimension n and |A| a determinant function of A ,
then

|AB| = |A||B|

Proof Let |A| = h(A) and |B| = h(B) then

|AB| = |h(A)h(B)| = |A||B|

Remark 4.2

(i) Again, the justaposition AB represents A◦B as defined in Ajibade (2003)

(ii) We will adopt h(A) to mean the determinant function of A.

For example, consider a three-dimensional rhotrix (R3):

⟨ a ⟩
A= b h(A) d
e
The determinant function of the above rhotrix A is designated by h(A)

Computing the value of the determinant function of any natural rhotrix is simply the value of its
heart. However, for higher natural rhotrices, we introduce the concept of minor rhotrices and code-
terminant functions. That brings us to the next subsection.

4.2. Codeterminant function

The concept of codeterminant functions is similar to that of minor matrices. In natural rhotrices of
dimension three (R3), the codeterminant function is the same as the determinant function. But for
higher natural rhotrices the codeterminant functions are not necessarily the same. To evaluate the
codeterminant function of a higher natural rhotrix, we need to first split or reduce the higher natural
rhotrix into chain(s) of R3 called the minor rhotrices and the determinant function of each of them is
evaluated as above. These minor rhotrices are split or reduced either along the major column or
along the major row and their determinant functions are summed up accordingly. For a natural
rhotrix with well-ordered entries, the result is the same regardless of whether it is summed up along
the major column or along the major row.

Consider the natural rhotrix of dimension five below:

a
⟨ b c d ⟩
A= e f g h j
k l m
n
Behold, h(A) = g.

To evaluate codet(A), the higher rhotrix needs to be split into minor rhotrices of dimension three.

a
⟨ b c d ⟩
codet(A) = e f g h j =c+l
k l m
n
That is splitting the rhotrix A along the major column gives:

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⟨ a ⟩ ⟨ g ⟩
codet(A) = b c d + k l m =c+l
g n

While splitting along the major row gives:

⟨ b ⟩ ⟨ d ⟩
codet(A) = e f g + g h j =f +h
k m
Remark 4.3 For a natural rhotrix c + l = f + h.

Example 4.1 Find the determinant and the codeterminant functions of the natural rhotrix below:

1
⟨ 2 3 4 ⟩
A= 5 6 7 8 9
10 11 12
13

Solution

h(A) = 7

Next, we find codeterminant function, first along the major column gives:
⟨ 1 ⟩ ⟨ 7 ⟩
codet(A) = 2 3 4 + 10 11 12 = 3 + 11 = 14
7 13
Now along the major row gives:
⟨ 2 ⟩ ⟨ 4 ⟩
codet(A) = 5 6 7 + 7 8 9 = 6 + 8 = 14
10 12
Extension to higher dimension can be made in a similar manner used in reducing R5 to minor rho-
trices of R3. Let us consider the next example.

Example 4.2 Find the determinant and the codeterminant functions of the following: (i) along ma-
jor column (ii) along the major row of the rhotrix below:

1
2 3 4
⟨ 5 6 7 8 9 ⟩
Q= 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
17 18 19 20 21
22 23 24
25

Solution

h(Q) = 13

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(i) 
⟨ 1 ⟩ ⟨ 7 ⟩ ⟨ 19 ⟩
codet(Q) = 2 3 4 + 12 13 14 + 22 23 24 = 3 + 13 + 23 = 39
7 19 25
(ii) 
⟨ 5 ⟩ ⟨ 7 ⟩ ⟨ 9 ⟩
codet(Q) = 10 11 12 + 12 13 14 + 4 15 16 = 11 + 13 + 15 = 39
17 19 21

It is of utmost importance that the reader practices evaluating the codeterminant functions of
higher rhotrices along major row or major column. This will give the reader the prerequisite confi-
dence in obtaining the values of codeterminant functions in certain cases where a particular major
row or column tends to accelerate the release of results which consequently leads to reduced hard-
ship and computation time expended. Considering the Example 4.2, summing along the column
seems to make life easier for the reader. However, the beauty of this work lies in its simplicity.

4.3. Index of rhotrices

The index of a natural rhotrix A is the number of minor rhotrices of dimension three that can be de-
rived, either along the major column or along the major row, from A. This index is a whole number or
better still a natural number. For example the index of R3 is 1 and of R5, R7, and R9 are 2, 3, and 4,
respectively. Appropriately, the index of R1 is zero.

Theorem 4.2 Given any rhotrix R, the codet(R) = 𝜌h(R) where 𝜌 is a natural number called the index
of R.

Proof We prove using mathematical induction. Since an index of a natural rhotrix is a natural num-
ber corresponding to the number of R3 that can be derived from Rn, n ≥ 3, and n ∈ 2ℕ + 1.

Now, when n = 3, the

codet(R3 ) = h(R3 )

since the codet(R3 ) is necessarily the det(R3 ) = h(R3 ). By Lemma 4.1. Implies that 𝜌 = 1, So, the equa-
tion is true for n = 3.

For n = 5, then we have two minors of R3. That is,

codet(R5 ) = 2h(R5 )

implies that 𝜌 = 2. So, the equation is true for n = 5.

For n = 7, then, we have three minors of R3, then

codet(R7 ) = 3h(R7 )

So, the equation is true for n = 7 and 𝜌 = 3.

Then, for n = 2k + 1,

codet(R2k+1 ) = kh(R2k+1 )

Then, it is true for n = 2k + 1 and 𝜌 = k.

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For n = 2k + 3,

codet(R2k+3 ) = codet(R2(k+1)+1 ) = k + 1h(R2(k+1)+1 )

Then, it is true for n = 2k + 3 and 𝜌 = k + 1. Hence, the equation is true for all value of n ≥ 3 and 𝜌 a
natural number.

Theorem 4.3 Giving any natural rhotrix R

𝜌
codet(R) = (|R| + 1)
2

where 𝜌 is the index and |R| is the cardinality of R, and |Rn | = 21 (n2 + 1)

Proof Since codet(R) = 𝜌h(R) and by Lemma 4.1, determinant function is h(R). Then, the result fol-
lows from the Theorem 4.1.

5. Conclusion
This article examined the properties of the natural rhotrix set, introduced the concepts of minor
rhotrices, determinant functions, codeterminant functions and index of natural rhotrices. These con-
cepts are a novelty to rhotrix algebra, and their methods of computations are presented for math-
ematical enrichment. Using the results in this paper, one can evaluate the determinant function of
any n-dimensional rhotrix at a glance. With the links between the determinant functions, codeter-
minant functions and the index one will be able do a sketch of any n-dimensional natural rhotrix no
matter how large is the value of n.

Acknowledgements Baumslag, B., & Chandler, B. (1968). Theory and problems of

The author wishes to express his profound gratitude and group theory. Schaum’s outline series.
appreciation to Dr Abdul Mohammed of Ahmadu Bello Ezugwu, E. A., Ajibade, A. O., & Mohammed, A. (2011).
University, Zaria for his encouragement and valuable Generalization of heart-oriented rhotrix multiplication
discussion, and to the various anonymous reviewers whose and its algorithm implementation. International Journal
contributions have helped to improve this work. of Computer Applications, 13, 5–11.
Mohammed, A. (2009). A remark on the classifications of
Funding rhotrices as abstract strutures. International Journal of
The author received no direct funding for this research. Physical Sciences, 4, 496–499.
Mohammed, A. (2014). A new expression for rhotrix advances
Author details in linear algebra & matrix theory, 4, 128–133.
A.O. Isere1 Mohammed, A., Balarabe, M., & Imam, A. T. (2012). Rhotrix
E-mails: [email protected], [email protected] linear transformation. Advances in Linear Algebra & Matrix
1
Department of Mathematics, Ambrose Alli University, Theory, 2, 43–47.
Ekpoma 310001, Nigeria. Mohammed, A., & Tella, Y. (2012). Rhotrix sets and rhotrix
spaces category. International Journal of Mathematics
Citation information and Computational Methods in Science and Technology,
Cite this article as: Natural rhotrix, A.O. Isere, Cogent 2, 2012.
Mathematics (2016), 3: 1246074. Sani, B. (2004). An alternative method for multiplication of
rhotrices. International Journal of Mathematical Education
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Submit your manuscript to a Cogent OA journal at www.CogentOA.com

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