COMPLETE ORGANIC CHEMISTRY GUIDE FOR MIDTERMS

This guide covers carbon compounds, hydrocarbons, functional

groups, and key organic chemistry concepts with detailed
explanations, formulas, structures, examples, and analogies for
better understanding.

1. CARBON COMPOUNDS: NATURE, SCOPE, AND IMPORTANCE

What Are Carbon Compounds?
Carbon compounds are substances that contain carbon (C) atoms
bonded with other elements like hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen
(N), sulfur (S), and phosphorus (P).
Nature of Carbon Compounds
 Tetravalency: Carbon forms four covalent bonds, allowing it to
connect with multiple atoms.
 Catenation: Carbon can bond with itself, forming chains, rings,
and complex structures.
 Multiple Bonding: Carbon can form single (C-C), double (C=C),
and triple (C≡C) bonds.
Scope of Carbon Chemistry
 Organic Chemistry: Deals with carbon-containing molecules
except for simple compounds like CO₂, CO, and carbonates.
 Biochemistry: Carbon compounds form the basis of life (proteins,
DNA, carbohydrates, fats).
 Petrochemistry: Carbon-based fuels (petroleum, natural gas, coal)
power industries.
Importance of Carbon Compounds
 Fuel: Gasoline, diesel, and natural gas power vehicles and
industries.
 Medicine: Pharmaceuticals like aspirin, antibiotics, and vitamins.
 Food: Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are carbon-based.
 Plastics & Textiles: Synthetic materials like nylon, polyester, and
rubber.
Analogy:
Carbon is like Lego blocks—it can connect in different ways to form
simple or complex structures!
2. WHY ARE CARBON COMPOUNDS SO MANY?
There are millions of organic compounds because carbon has unique
properties:
1. Catenation: Carbon bonds with itself, forming long chains and
rings.
2. Tetravalency: Carbon forms four stable bonds.
3. Multiple Bonding: It can form single, double, or triple bonds.
4. Functional Groups: Carbon bonds with oxygen, nitrogen, and
sulfur, forming alcohols, acids, esters, etc.
Example:
Ethane (C₂H₆), Ethene (C₂H₄), and Ethyne (C₂H₂) all have two carbon
atoms but different bonds, making them different compounds with
unique properties.

3. ISOMERISM
Isomerism occurs when compounds have the same molecular formula
but different structures or arrangements.
Types of Isomers:
1. Structural Isomers: Different connectivity of atoms.
2. Geometrical Isomers: Different spatial arrangements (cis-trans).
3. Optical Isomers: Mirror-image structures (like left and right hands).
Isomeric Hydrocarbons with Five Carbon Atoms (C₅H₁₂)
Structural Condensed
IUPAC Name
Formula Formula

CH₃-CH₂-CH₂-CH₂-
Pentane C₅H₁₂
CH₃

CH₃-CH(CH₃)-CH₂-
2-Methylbutane C₅H₁₂
CH₃

2,2-
C(CH₃)₄ C₅H₁₂
Dimethylpropane
4. HYDROCARBONS: CLASSIFICATION & STRUCTURE
A. Simplest Hydrocarbon
 Methane (CH₄): The simplest hydrocarbon, a major component of
natural gas.
B. Types of Hydrocarbons
General
Class Example
Formula

Methane (CH₄), Propane

Alkanes (Saturated) CₙH₂ₙ₊₂
(C₃H₈)

Alkenes (Unsaturated, Double

CₙH₂ₙ Ethene (C₂H₄)
Bonds)

Alkynes (Unsaturated, Triple

CₙH₂ₙ₋₂ Ethyne (C₂H₂)
Bonds)

Aromatic Hydrocarbons
C₆H₆, C₁₀H₈ Benzene, Naphthalene
(Benzene Rings)
C. Aromatic vs. Aliphatic Hydrocarbons
 Aromatic: Contains benzene rings (C₆H₆), e.g., toluene,
naphthalene.
 Aliphatic: Straight or branched chains (alkanes, alkenes, alkynes).
Example:
 Cycloalkanes: Cyclohexane (C₆H₁₂) – Found in lubricants.
 Cycloalkenes: Cyclopentene (C₅H₈) – Used in polymers.
Kekulé Structure:
Benzene (C₆H₆) was first thought to have alternating single and double
bonds in a ring.

5. NAMING HYDROCARBONS (IUPAC RULES)

 1. Find the Longest Carbon Chain (Parent Chain).
2. Number the Chain to Give Substituents the Lowest Possible
Numbers.
3. Name Substituents (e.g., Methyl, Ethyl).
4. Use Prefixes: (Di-, Tri-, Tetra-) for multiple substituents.
5. Add Suffix Based on Functional Group:
o -ane for alkanes
o -ene for alkenes
o -yne for alkynes
Example:
 2-Methylpentane (C₆H₁₄) – A branched alkane.

6. HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
A homologous series is a group of compounds with the same
functional group and similar chemical properties, differing by -CH₂-
units.
Example: Alkanes
Formul
Name
a

Methan
CH₄
e

Ethane C₂H₆

Propan
C₃H₈
e

Butane C₄H₁₀

7. FIRST 10 ALKANES & PROPERTIES

Molecular
Name
Formula

Methan
CH₄
e

Ethane C₂H₆
 Molecular
Name
Formula

Propan
C₃H₈
e

Butane C₄H₁₀

Pentan
C₅H₁₂
e

Hexane C₆H₁₄

Heptan
C₇H₁₆
e

Octane C₈H₁₈

Nonane C₉H₂₀

Decane C₁₀H₂₂

8. SATURATED VS. UNSATURATED HYDROCARBONS

Type Definition Example

Saturated Only single bonds (alkanes) Butane (C₄H₁₀)

Unsaturat Contains double (alkenes) or triple Ethene (C₂H₄), Ethyne

ed (alkynes) bonds (C₂H₂)

9. BENZENE & POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS (PAHs)

 Benzene (C₆H₆): A six-carbon ring with alternating double bonds.
 PAHs: Fused benzene rings with known carcinogenic properties.
o Example: Naphthalene (C₁₀H₈) – Found in mothballs.

PART 2: FUNCTIONAL GROUPS & OXYGEN-SUBSTITUTED

HYDROCARBONS
10. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
A functional group is a specific group of atoms responsible for the
chemical properties of a molecule.
Common Functional Groups:
 General Functional
Family Example
Formula Group

Alkane CₙH₂ₙ₊₂ None Methane (CH₄)

C=C (Double
Alkene CₙH₂ₙ Ethene (C₂H₄)
bond)

C≡C (Triple
Alkyne CₙH₂ₙ₋₂ Ethyne (C₂H₂)
bond)

Alcohol R-OH -OH (Hydroxyl) Ethanol (C₂H₅OH)

Dimethyl ether
Ether R-O-R' -O-
(CH₃OCH₃)

Aldehyde R-CHO -CHO Formaldehyde (HCHO)

Ketone R-CO-R' C=O (Carbonyl) Acetone (CH₃COCH₃)

Carboxylic -COOH
R-COOH Acetic acid (CH₃COOH)
Acid (Carboxyl)

Methyl acetate
Ester R-COO-R' -COO-
(CH₃COOCH₃)

Amine R-NH₂ -NH₂ (Amino) Methylamine (CH₃NH₂)

Analogy:
Think of functional groups as "superpowers" of molecules—each
gives a compound unique properties, like how fire powers make a
superhero different from an ice-powered one.

11. ALCOHOLS
Alcohols as Derivatives of Alkanes
Alcohols are hydrocarbons where an -OH (hydroxyl) group replaces a
hydrogen atom.
Examples of Alcohols:
Formul
Name Uses
a

Methanol (Wood Fuel, solvents,

CH₃OH
Alcohol) antifreeze

Ethanol (Drinking Alcoholic drinks,

C₂H₅OH
Alcohol) antiseptics

Glycerol C₃H₈O₃ Moisturizers, medicine

 Formul
Name Uses
a

12. OXIDATION & FERMENTATION

 Oxidation of Ethanol:
o Ethanol (C₂H₅OH) → Acetaldehyde (CH₃CHO) → Acetic acid
(CH₃COOH)
 Fermentation:
o Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) → Ethanol (C₂H₅OH) + CO₂

13. DENATURATION OF ALCOHOL

 Denatured ethanol is ethanol mixed with toxic substances to
prevent human consumption.
 Methanol poisoning: Methanol is toxic because it gets oxidized
into formaldehyde (HCHO) and formic acid (HCOOH), which
damage the nervous system.

14. ETHERS
 Structure: R-O-R’ (Oxygen bonded to two alkyl groups)
 Examples:
o Diethyl ether (C₂H₅-O-C₂H₅) – Used as an anesthetic.
o Methyl ethyl ether (C₂H₅-O-CH₃) – Solvent in organic
reactions.

15. ALDEHYDES & KETONES

 Aldehydes (-CHO): Carbonyl group at end of carbon chain.
 o Example: Formaldehyde (HCHO) – Preservative,
disinfectant.
 Ketones (-CO-): Carbonyl group in middle of carbon chain.
o Example: Acetone (CH₃COCH₃) – Nail polish remover.

16. CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

 Functional Group: -COOH (Carboxyl group)
 Examples:
o Formic acid (HCOOH) – Found in ant venom.
o Acetic acid (CH₃COOH) – Found in vinegar.

17. ESTERS (FRUITY SMELLING COMPOUNDS)

 Functional Group: -COO-
 Example:
o Methyl acetate (CH₃COOCH₃) – Smells like fruit, used in
perfumes.

PART 3: HYDROCARBONS IN DAILY LIFE & PETROLEUM FRACTIONS

18. SOURCES OF HYDROCARBONS
 Natural Gas (Methane, CH₄) – Used for cooking, heating.
 Petroleum (Crude Oil) – Source of gasoline, diesel, plastics.
 Coal (Complex Hydrocarbons) – Used in power plants.

19. FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION OF PETROLEUM

Petroleum is separated into different fractions based on boiling points.
Boiling Compositi
Fraction Uses
Point on

Petroleum LPG for

<40°C C₁-C₄
Gas cooking

Gasoline 40-200°C C₅-C₁₂ Car fuel

Kerosene 150-300°C C₁₂-C₁₆ Jet fuel

 Boiling Compositi
Fraction Uses
Point on

Diesel 250-350°C C₁₂-C₂₀ Truck fuel

Lubricating
300-370°C C₂₀-C₄₀ Motor oils
Oils

Asphalt/
>370°C C₄₀+ Road paving
Bitumen

20. HYDROCARBONS IN AIR

 Methane (CH₄) – Greenhouse gas from cow digestion.
 Carbon Monoxide (CO) – Pollutant from cars.
 Benzene (C₆H₆) – Toxic component of gasoline vapors.

21. USES OF PETROLEUM PRODUCTS

 Fuel: Gasoline, diesel, kerosene.
 Plastics & Polymers: Used to make rubber, nylon, polyester.
 Chemicals & Drugs: Alcohols, esters, medicines.

22. ALKYL GROUPS (R GROUPS)

 Definition: Alkyl groups are alkane fragments missing one
hydrogen atom (-R).
 Examples:
o Methyl (-CH₃)
o Ethyl (-C₂H₅)
o Propyl (-C₃H₇)

SUMMARY
🔹 Hydrocarbons are divided into alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, and
aromatics.
🔹 Functional groups modify hydrocarbons, creating alcohols, ethers,
aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, and esters.
🔹 Petroleum is separated into useful fractions via fractional
distillation.
🔹 Hydrocarbons are found in fuels, plastics, medicines, and daily
life products.

📌 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY MIDTERM REVIEWER

1. Carbon Compounds: Their Nature, Scope, and Importance
Carbon compounds, also known as organic compounds, are the
foundation of life and the most diverse group of substances in chemistry.
The element carbon (C) is unique because it forms strong covalent
bonds with itself and other elements, allowing for a virtually infinite
number of compounds. These compounds range from simple
molecules like methane (CH₄) to complex macromolecules like
proteins and DNA. Organic chemistry, the branch that studies these
compounds, plays a crucial role in various industries, including medicine,
agriculture, energy, and materials science.
The scope of organic chemistry is vast because carbon can form
single, double, and triple bonds, as well as chains, branches, and
rings. This ability, known as catenation, allows for the existence of
millions of organic molecules, each with distinct physical and chemical
properties. The importance of carbon compounds is evident in everyday
life: they make up the food we eat, the clothes we wear, the fuels we
use for energy, and even the medicines that treat diseases.
An analogy for carbon's versatility can be seen in Lego blocks. Just like
Lego pieces can be connected in different ways to create different
structures, carbon atoms bond in various ways to form different organic
compounds, each with a unique function and purpose. This adaptability is
why carbon is considered the element of life.

2. Why Are There So Many Carbon Compounds?

The reason for the vast number of carbon compounds lies in the four
key properties of carbon: tetravalency, catenation, multiple
bonding, and bonding with other elements.
1. Tetravalency means that carbon has four valence electrons,
allowing it to form up to four strong covalent bonds with other
atoms. This enables carbon to bond with hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, and even other carbon atoms.
2. Catenation is the ability of carbon to bond with itself
indefinitely, forming long chains, branched structures, and
rings. This is a rare property that makes organic chemistry
incredibly diverse.
3. Multiple bonding allows carbon to form single (C–C), double
(C=C), and triple (C≡C) bonds, creating different classes of
hydrocarbons (alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes) with varied
reactivities.
4. Bonding with other elements enables carbon to form functional
groups such as hydroxyl (-OH) in alcohols, carboxyl (-COOH) in
acids, and amino (-NH₂) in proteins, contributing to the complexity
of organic molecules.
Imagine carbon as a universal connector in a construction set. Just like
a single connector piece can be used to create many different designs,
carbon’s ability to form diverse bonds leads to an endless variety of
organic compounds. This explains why organic chemistry is one of the
largest branches of chemistry.

3. Isomerism and Isomeric Hydrocarbons with Five Carbon Atoms

Isomerism is a phenomenon where compounds have the same
molecular formula but different structures or spatial
arrangements. This difference leads to variations in physical and
chemical properties despite having the same number of atoms.
Types of Isomerism:
1. Structural Isomerism: The atoms are connected differently,
forming distinct molecules.
2. Stereoisomerism: The atoms have the same connectivity but are
arranged differently in space.
For example, pentane (C₅H₁₂) has three structural isomers:
Condensed
Isomer Structure IUPAC Name
Formula

CH₃-CH₂-CH₂-CH₂-
n-Pentane Straight chain n-Pentane
CH₃

Isopentan CH₃-CH(CH₃)-CH₂- One branched

2-Methylbutane
e CH₃ chain

Neopenta 2,2-
C(CH₃)₄ Fully branched
ne Dimethylpropane
Each of these isomers has different boiling points, densities, and
reactivities, proving that even a small structural change can lead to a
significant difference in properties.
A good analogy for isomerism is anagrams in language. The letters in
"STOP" can be rearranged to form "SPOT," "TOPS," and "POTS"—all
different words with different meanings, even though they use the same
letters. Similarly, isomers have the same atoms but different
structures, leading to distinct properties.

4. Hydrocarbons: Types and Properties

Hydrocarbons are the simplest organic compounds, consisting only of
carbon and hydrogen. They can be classified into four main types:
1. Alkanes (Saturated Hydrocarbons) – Contain only single bonds
(C–C). Example: Methane (CH₄), Ethane (C₂H₆), Propane (C₃H₈).
2. Alkenes (Unsaturated Hydrocarbons) – Contain at least one
double bond (C=C). Example: Ethene (C₂H₄), Propene (C₃H₆).
3. Alkynes (Unsaturated Hydrocarbons) – Contain at least one
triple bond (C≡C). Example: Ethyne (C₂H₂), Propyne (C₃H₄).
4. Aromatic Hydrocarbons – Contain benzene rings (C₆H₆), which
have delocalized electrons. Example: Benzene, Toluene,
Xylene.
The differences between saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons
are important in reactivity and industrial applications. Alkanes are the
least reactive and are commonly used as fuels, while alkenes and
alkynes are more reactive and used in making plastics,
pharmaceuticals, and synthetic fibers.
A useful analogy is a bridge:
 Alkanes are like a fully paved road—strong and stable.
 Alkenes are like a bridge under construction—less stable and
more reactive.
 Alkynes are like a suspension bridge with only cables—very
reactive and less stable.

5. Functional Groups: The Key to Organic Chemistry

A functional group is a specific group of atoms within a molecule that
determines its chemical properties. They are the "active sites"
where chemical reactions occur.
Functional
Formula Example Common Use
Group

Hydroxyl (- Used in beverages &

Alcohols Ethanol (C₂H₅OH)
OH) disinfectants

Carboxyl (- Carboxylic Acetic acid

Found in vinegar
COOH) Acids (CH₃COOH)

Aldehyde (- Formaldehyde
Aldehydes Used as a preservative
CHO) (HCHO)
Functional groups define the behavior of organic compounds. For
example, alcohols (-OH) are soluble in water, while alkanes (C–C) are
not. This makes functional groups essential in biological systems and
industrial applications.
An analogy is a key in a lock: just as each key fits a specific lock, each
functional group dictates how a molecule interacts with other
substances.

📌 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY MIDTERM REVIEWER (PART 2)

6. Naming Hydrocarbons & The Homologous Series
6.1. The Systematic Naming of Hydrocarbons (IUPAC
Nomenclature)
The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)
developed a systematic method to name hydrocarbons based on the
number of carbon atoms, the type of bonds, and the functional groups
present.
Rules for Naming Alkanes:
1. Identify the longest continuous carbon chain (this forms the base
name).
2. Number the chain from the end nearest a branch or substituent.
3. Identify and name the substituents (alkyl groups).
4. Use prefixes (di-, tri-, tetra-) for multiple identical groups.
5. Arrange substituents alphabetically when writing the name.
For example: 2,2-Dimethylbutane
 "Butane" (4-carbon parent chain)
 "Dimethyl" (two CH₃ groups on carbon 2)
6.2. The Homologous Series
A homologous series is a group of organic compounds with the same
functional group but differing by a CH₂ unit. The alkane homologous series
follows the general formula CₙH₂ₙ₊₂.
Molecular Condensed Structural
Alkane
Formula Formula

Metha
CH₄ CH₄
ne
 Molecular Condensed Structural
Alkane
Formula Formula

Ethane C₂H₆ CH₃CH₃

Propan
C₃H₈ CH₃CH₂CH₃
e

Butane C₄H₁₀ CH₃CH₂CH₂CH₃

The homologous series ensures gradual variation in boiling points, melting
points, and densities, making hydrocarbons predictable in behavior.
Analogy: Think of a ladder, where each step represents adding a CH₂
group, making the compound bigger and slightly different in properties.

7. Properties and Behavior of Hydrocarbons

7.1. Boiling Points, Melting Points, and Density of Isomeric
Hexanes
Different isomers of hexane (C₆H₁₄) exhibit different physical properties
due to variations in structure and molecular interactions.
IUPAC Boiling Melting Density (g/mL
Isomer
Name Point (°C) Point (°C) at 20°C)

n-Hexane Hexane 68.7°C -95°C 0.660

2-
Isohexane 60.3°C -153.7°C 0.664
Methylpentane

2,2- Neopentan
49.7°C -98.9°C 0.649
Dimethylbutane e
This shows that branched isomers have lower boiling points because their
compact shapes reduce intermolecular forces, making them easier to
vaporize.

7.2. Chemical Behavior of Hydrocarbons

1. Combustion: Hydrocarbons react with oxygen to form CO₂ and
H₂O, releasing energy (exothermic reaction).
o Example: CH₄ + 2O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O + Energy
2. Substitution Reactions (for Alkanes): A hydrogen atom is
replaced by another atom (e.g., halogenation).
3. Addition Reactions (for Alkenes & Alkynes): Breaking of C=C
or C≡C bonds to add atoms.
 4. Aromatic Substitution (for Benzene): Retains the benzene ring
but substitutes hydrogen.

8. Aromatic Hydrocarbons & Benzene Ring

8.1. The Structure of Benzene
Benzene (C₆H₆) consists of a six-carbon ring with alternating
double bonds. However, its electrons are delocalized, making it more
stable than expected.
8.2. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) & Carcinogenicity
Some PAHs are carcinogenic due to their ability to interact with DNA.
Carcinogenic
PAH Structure
Property

Benzo[a]pyre Five-ring benzene

Highly carcinogenic
ne system

Three-ring benzene
Anthracene Moderate risk
system

Two-ring benzene
Naphthalene Found in mothballs
system
Analogy: Benzene’s delocalized electrons behave like a group of children
sharing toys, ensuring stability.

9. Functional Groups in Organic Chemistry

9.1. Alcohols & Ethers
 Alcohols (-OH group): Ethanol (C₂H₅OH) is widely used in
beverages and sanitizers.
 Ethers (R-O-R'): Diethyl ether (C₂H₅-O-C₂H₅) was used as an
anesthetic.
9.2. Aldehydes, Ketones, Carboxylic Acids, & Esters
General Functional
Family Example
Formula Group

Aldehydes R-CHO -CHO Formaldehyde (HCHO)

Ketones R-CO-R' -CO- Acetone (CH₃COCH₃)

 General Functional
Family Example
Formula Group

Carboxylic
R-COOH -COOH Acetic Acid (CH₃COOH)
Acids

Methyl acetate
Esters R-COO-R' -COO-
(CH₃COOCH₃)

📌 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS (60 ITEMS)

General Organic Chemistry
1. What makes carbon unique in organic chemistry?
o A) Its ability to bond with oxygen only
o B) Its tetravalency and catenation ability ✅
o C) Its strong ionic bonds
o D) Its preference for single bonds only
2. The molecular formula of pentane is:
o A) C₄H₁₀
o B) C₅H₁₂ ✅
o C) C₆H₁₄
o D) C₃H₈
3. Which hydrocarbon is an alkyne?
o A) Propane
o B) Ethene
 o C) Ethyne ✅
o D) Butanol
Functional Groups & Reactions
4. The functional group for carboxylic acids is:
o A) -OH
o B) -COOH ✅
o C) -CHO
o D) -CO-
5. Which process converts ethanol into acetic acid?
o A) Fermentation
o B) Oxidation ✅
o C) Hydrogenation
o D) Substitution

6. The delocalized electron system of benzene makes it:

o A) Highly reactive
o B) Exceptionally stable ✅
o C) Prone to breaking apart
o D) Unreactive with all compounds

📌 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY MIDTERM REVIEWER (EXPANDED PART 2)

6. Systematic Naming of Hydrocarbons & The Homologous Series
6.1. IUPAC Naming System for Alkanes, Alkenes, and Alkynes
The IUPAC naming system is designed to provide a consistent and
logical way to name organic compounds. The name is derived from the
parent chain (longest carbon chain), substituents (side groups), and bond
types (single, double, or triple bonds).
Alkane Naming Rules (CₙH₂ₙ₊₂)
1. Find the longest carbon chain and name it based on the number of
carbons.
2. Number the chain from the end nearest a substituent to give the
lowest possible numbers.
 3. Name and number alkyl groups, arranging them alphabetically.
4. Use prefixes (di-, tri-, tetra-) for identical substituents.
📌 Example: 2,3-Dimethylpentane
 "Pentane" = 5-carbon main chain
 "Dimethyl" = two CH₃ groups on carbons 2 and 3
Alkene and Alkyne Naming Rules (CₙH₂ₙ and CₙH₂ₙ₋₂)
 Alkenes: Contain one or more C=C double bonds
📌 Example: But-2-ene → CH₃CH=CHCH₃
 Alkynes: Contain one or more C≡C triple bonds
📌 Example: Pent-2-yne → CH₃C≡CCH₂CH₃
📌 Key Differences:
 Alkanes end in -ane (single bonds, saturated).
 Alkenes end in -ene (contain double bonds).
 Alkynes end in -yne (contain triple bonds).
6.2. Homologous Series & Gradation in Physical Properties
A homologous series is a sequence of compounds with similar
structures but increasing molecular size. Each successive member differs
by a CH₂ unit.
Hydrocarbon General
Example Boiling Point Trend
Type Formula

Butane Increases with molecular

Alkanes CₙH₂ₙ₊₂
(C₄H₁₀) mass

Ethene Increases with chain

Alkenes CₙH₂ₙ
(C₂H₄) length

Ethyne Higher than alkenes &

Alkynes CₙH₂ₙ₋₂
(C₂H₂) alkanes
📌 Why do boiling points increase?
As the number of carbons increases, the van der Waals forces become
stronger, requiring more energy to break intermolecular attractions.

7. Physical & Chemical Properties of Hydrocarbons

7.1. Isomerism & Its Effect on Physical Properties
📌 What are isomers?
Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different
structures, leading to variations in boiling points, densities, and reactivity.
Types of Isomerism in Alkanes
1. Structural Isomers: Different connectivity of atoms.
o Example: n-butane (C₄H₁₀) vs. isobutane (C₄H₁₀)
2. Geometrical Isomers (Cis-Trans Isomerism): Occurs in alkenes
due to restricted rotation around the C=C bond.
o Example: Cis-2-butene vs. Trans-2-butene
Effect of Isomerism on Boiling Points
📌 Straight-chain (n-alkanes) have higher boiling points than their
branched isomers because they have stronger intermolecular forces (van
der Waals forces).

8. Aromatic Hydrocarbons & Benzene Ring Stability

8.1. The Unique Structure of Benzene
 Benzene (C₆H₆) is aromatic, meaning it has delocalized electrons
that make it exceptionally stable.
 It undergoes substitution reactions instead of addition reactions,
preserving its ring stability.
📌 Example: Nitration of Benzene
C₆H₆ + HNO₃ → C₆H₅NO₂ + H₂O (Nitrobenzene)
8.2. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) & Health Risks
PAHs like Benzo[a]pyrene (found in cigarette smoke and charred meat)
are highly carcinogenic because they can bind to DNA, leading to
mutations.

9. Functional Groups & Their Properties

9.1. Key Functional Groups in Organic Chemistry
Formul
Functional Group Example Properties
a

Polar, hydrogen
Alcohol (-OH) R-OH Ethanol (C₂H₅OH)
bonding

Formaldehyde
Aldehyde (-CHO) R-CHO Highly reactive
(HCHO)

Acetone
Ketone (-CO-) R-CO-R' Solvent properties
(CH₃COCH₃)

Carboxylic Acid (- R- Acetic Acid

Acidic properties
COOH) COOH (CH₃COOH)
📌 Carboxylic acids are stronger acids than alcohols because of
resonance stabilization of the conjugate base.

📌 60-ITEM MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS

General Organic Chemistry
1. Which characteristic of carbon allows it to form millions of
compounds?
o A) Its low reactivity
o B) Its ability to form four bonds & catenation ✅
o C) Its strong ionic bonds
o D) Its ability to form only single bonds
2. Which IUPAC name is correct?
o A) 2,2-Dimethylpropane
o B) 2-Methylbutane ✅
 o C) 3-Methylbutane
o D) 2-Ethylpropane
Alkanes, Alkenes, Alkynes
3. What is the molecular formula of hexene?
o A) C₆H₁₂ ✅
o B) C₆H₁₄
o C) C₆H₁₀
o D) C₆H₆
4. Why do branched alkanes have lower boiling points than
straight-chain alkanes?
o A) They have weaker van der Waals forces ✅
o B) They are less dense
o C) They have stronger bonds
o D) They contain more oxygen

Multiple-Choice Questions:
1. Which element has an atomic number of 8?
a) Carbon (C)
b) Nitrogen (N)
c) Oxygen (O)
d) Neon (Ne)
2. What type of bond does Carbon commonly form in organic
compounds?
a) Ionic Bond
b) Metallic Bond
c) Covalent Bond
d) Hydrogen Bond

3. Which of the following is an example of an alkene?

a) C₂H₂
b) C₂H₆
 c) C₂H₄
d) CH₄
4. What is the correct molecular formula for sodium chloride?
a) NaCl
b) NaF
c) MgS
d) Na₂SO₄
5. Which of the following elements is a noble gas?
a) Calcium (Ca)
b) Neon (Ne)
c) Nitrogen (N)
d) Chlorine (Cl)
Essay Questions:
1. Explain the significance of carbon’s bonding ability in
organic chemistry.
Answer: Carbon is unique in its ability to form a wide variety of
compounds due to its tetravalency, meaning it can form four
covalent bonds with other atoms. This property allows carbon to
create stable chains, rings, and complex molecular structures. In
organic chemistry, carbon can form single, double, or triple bonds,
leading to the classification of hydrocarbons as alkanes, alkenes,
and alkynes. This versatility is crucial in biological molecules, fuels,
and synthetic materials.

2. Describe the differences between alkanes, alkenes, and

alkynes.
Answer: Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons containing only single
bonds between carbon atoms (e.g., C₂H₆ - ethane). Alkenes are
unsaturated hydrocarbons that contain at least one double bond
(e.g., C₂H₄ - ethene). Alkynes are also unsaturated hydrocarbons but
contain at least one triple bond (e.g., C₂H₂ - ethyne). These
differences in bonding affect their reactivity and physical properties.
3. Why is sodium chloride (NaCl) considered an ionic
compound?
Answer: Sodium chloride (NaCl) is an ionic compound because it is
formed through the transfer of electrons between atoms. Sodium
(Na) donates one electron to chlorine (Cl), resulting in the formation
of positively charged sodium ions (Na⁺) and negatively charged
chloride ions (Cl⁻). These oppositely charged ions are held together
by strong electrostatic forces, forming a crystalline lattice structure
 that gives NaCl its characteristic high melting point and solubility in
water.

REVIEWER FOR VMGO & PHYSICS TOPICS

VMGO OF JRMSU
VISION
"A dynamic and diverse internationally recognized University."
 The Jose Rizal Memorial State University (JRMSU) envisions
itself as a university that is both dynamic and diverse, recognized at
an international level for its excellence in education, research, and
community service.
MISSION
"Jose Rizal Memorial State University pledges to deliver effective and
efficient services along research, instruction, production, and extension."
 The university commits itself to providing high-quality and efficient
services in instruction (teaching), research, production, and
community extension to contribute to societal development.
 It also aims to train students professionally, technically, and
entrepreneurially, ensuring they become highly competent,
innovative, and self-sustaining individuals in their respective
fields.
GOALS (GRIPS)
JRMSU aims to develop graduates with the following attributes:
 G – The university strives to be a Globally competitive education
institution, ensuring its students and faculty excel at an
international level.
 R – JRMSU aims to be Resilient to internal and external risks
and hazards, ensuring sustainability and adaptability.
 I – The institution promotes Innovative processes and solutions
in research, which are then applied to real-world extension
programs that benefit the community.
 P – The university values Partnerships and collaborations with
private enterprises, other higher education institutions (HEIs),
government agencies, and alumni to enhance learning and
opportunities.
 S – JRMSU commits to Sound fiscal management and
participatory governance, ensuring transparency, accountability,
and inclusivity in decision-making.

QUALITY POLICY STATEMENT

 The Jose Rizal Memorial State University defines itself as a
dynamic, inclusive, and regionally diverse university in
Southern Philippines that is globally competitive, resilient,
innovative, and committed to sound governance and partnerships.
 It pledges to annually review and improve its quality
objectives to ensure that its resources, programs, and services
continue to meet the evolving needs of stakeholders while adhering
to national and international statutory and regulatory
requirements.
PHYSICS REVIEWER
1. PRESSURE
Definition:
Pressure is defined as the force exerted per unit area. It determines how
much force is applied over a given surface. It is measured in Pascals
(Pa), where 1 Pascal = 1 Newton per square meter (N/m²).
Mathematically, pressure is expressed as:
P=FAP = \frac{F}{A}
where:
 P = pressure (Pascals, Pa)
 F = force applied (Newtons, N)
 A = area over which the force is distributed (square meters, m²)
Examples & Analogies:
1. Walking on Snow vs. Snowshoes:
o A person walking in regular shoes sinks into the snow because
their weight is concentrated over a small area, creating high
pressure.
o However, when wearing snowshoes, the larger surface area
distributes the weight, reducing pressure and preventing
sinking.
2. Hydraulic Systems:
o In car brakes, hydraulic fluid transmits pressure evenly to all
wheels, allowing the vehicle to stop smoothly.

Important Notes in Fluid Mechanics:

 Atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude. This is why
breathing becomes harder at high elevations.
 Liquids exert pressure in all directions. This is why a dam's
base is thicker than its top—because the water pressure is greater
at deeper levels.
 Pascal’s Principle states that a change in pressure applied
to an enclosed fluid is transmitted equally in all directions.
2. DENSITY
Definition:
Density is the amount of mass per unit volume of a substance. It
determines how compact or spread out the molecules in a material are.
The standard unit of density is kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m³).
The formula for density is:
D=mVD = \frac{m}{V}
where:
 D = density (kg/m³)
 m = mass (kilograms, kg)
 V = volume (cubic meters, m³)
Examples & Analogies:
1. Floating and Sinking:
o Oil floats on water because it is less dense than water.
o A rock sinks in water because it is denser than water.
2. Why Hot Air Balloons Rise:
o When air is heated, it expands and becomes less dense,
making the balloon rise.
Important Notes:
 The density of water is 1000 kg/m³. Any object with a density lower
than this floats, while objects with higher density sink.
 Gases are compressible, meaning their density changes based on
temperature and pressure.

3. FUNDAMENTAL FORCES OF NATURE

There are four fundamental forces in physics that govern the universe:
1. Gravitational Force:
o It is the weakest of the four forces but acts over infinite
distances.
o It is responsible for keeping planets in orbit and causing
objects to fall toward Earth.
 o Example: The Moon orbits the Earth due to gravitational
attraction.
2. Electromagnetic Force:
o It is much stronger than gravity but only acts on charged
particles.
o It governs electricity, magnetism, and light.
o Example: Magnets attracting metal objects or a charged
balloon sticking to a wall.
3. Strong Nuclear Force:
o It is the strongest fundamental force, holding protons and
neutrons together in the nucleus of an atom.
o Example: It enables nuclear fusion in the Sun, producing
energy.
4. Weak Nuclear Force:
o It is responsible for radioactive decay and nuclear reactions.
o Example: Beta decay, where a neutron converts into a proton
and emits an electron.

4. STATES OF MATTER
Matter exists in different physical states depending on temperature and
pressure. The four main states of matter are:
1. Solid:
o Has a fixed shape and volume.
o Molecules are tightly packed and only vibrate in place.
o Example: Ice, metals, and wood.
2. Liquid:
o Has a fixed volume but takes the shape of its container.
o Molecules move more freely than in solids.
o Example: Water, oil, and milk.
3. Gas:
o Has no fixed shape or volume and expands to fill any
container.
o Molecules move very fast and are widely spaced.
 o Example: Oxygen, carbon dioxide, and steam.
4. Plasma:
o A high-energy state where electrons are free from atoms,
creating ionized gas.
o Found in stars, lightning, and neon lights.
o Example: The Sun, lightning bolts, and plasma TVs.
Important Notes in Fluid Mechanics:
 Buoyancy determines whether an object floats or sinks based on
its density relative to the fluid.
 Archimedes’ Principle states that the buoyant force on an
object is equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces.
 Bernoulli’s Principle explains that as the speed of a fluid
increases, its pressure decreases. This is why airplane wings
generate lift.

Earth Science Reviewer

1. Earth Science and Its Branches
Earth Science is the study of Earth's structure, processes, and history. It
has four main branches:
  Geology – Study of Earth's solid materials, rocks, and processes like
earthquakes and volcanic activity.
 Meteorology – Study of the atmosphere, weather, and climate.
 Oceanography – Study of Earth's oceans, including marine life,
currents, and tides.
 Astronomy – Study of celestial bodies and space phenomena,
including their effects on Earth.

2. Earth's Subsystems
Earth functions as a system with four main subsystems:
 Geosphere – The solid part of Earth, including rocks, mountains,
and landforms.
 Hydrosphere – All water on Earth, including oceans, lakes, rivers,
and groundwater.
 Atmosphere – The layer of gases surrounding Earth, providing
oxygen and regulating temperature.
 Biosphere – All living organisms on Earth, from microscopic
bacteria to large mammals.

3. Earth's Layers
Earth is divided into distinct layers:
 Crust – The outermost, thin, and rigid layer.
 Mantle – The thickest layer, composed of semi-solid rock that
moves slowly.
 Outer Core – Made of liquid iron and nickel, generating Earth's
magnetic field.
 Inner Core – A dense, solid sphere composed mostly of iron and
nickel.

4. Earth's Atmosphere
Earth's atmosphere consists of five layers:
  Troposphere – Closest to Earth, where weather occurs.
 Stratosphere – Contains the ozone layer that protects against UV
radiation.
 Mesosphere – Where meteors burn up.
 Thermosphere – Contains the ionosphere, which aids radio
communication.
 Exosphere – The outermost layer, gradually merging into space.

5. The Nitrogen Cycle

The nitrogen cycle describes how nitrogen moves through the
atmosphere, soil, and living organisms:
1. Nitrogen Fixation – Bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into
usable forms.
2. Nitrification – Ammonia is converted into nitrates by bacteria.
3. Assimilation – Plants absorb nitrates and convert them into
proteins.
4. Ammonification – Decomposers return nitrogen to the soil as
ammonia.
5. Denitrification – Bacteria convert nitrates back into atmospheric
nitrogen.

6. The Rock Cycle

The rock cycle describes how rocks transform between different types:
1. Igneous Rock – Forms from cooled magma or lava.
2. Sedimentary Rock – Forms from compressed sediments over time.
3. Metamorphic Rock – Forms from existing rocks exposed to heat
and pressure.

7. Minerals and Their Characteristics

Minerals are naturally occurring substances with specific properties:
 Color – The visible color of a mineral.
 Streak – The color of a mineral's powder.
 Luster – How a mineral reflects light (e.g., metallic or non-metallic).
  Hardness – Measured by the Mohs scale (1 = talc, 10 = diamond).
 Cleavage and Fracture – How a mineral breaks.
 Density – The mass per unit volume of a mineral.

8. Types of Rocks
Igneous Rocks
 Formed from cooled magma or lava.
 Two types:
o Intrusive (Plutonic) – Cools slowly inside the Earth (e.g.,
granite).
o Extrusive (Volcanic) – Cools quickly on the surface (e.g.,
basalt).
Sedimentary Rocks
 Formed from accumulated sediments.
 Three types:
o Clastic – Made from rock fragments (e.g., sandstone).
o Chemical – Formed from mineral precipitation (e.g.,
limestone).
o Organic – Formed from plant or animal remains (e.g., coal).
Metamorphic Rocks
 Formed from existing rocks under heat and pressure.
 Two types:
o Foliated – With layered appearance (e.g., schist).
o Non-foliated – Without distinct layers (e.g., marble).