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 Contents

Preface xiii Summary 36

Additional Resources 37
Section One
Language Development: Emerging Literacy
in the Young Child 02 2 The Tasks of the Toddler 38
2-1 Learning the English Language 41
1 Beginnings of 2-1a Morphology 43
Communication 2 Observing and Monitoring
teachsource video

teachsource video Observing and Monitoring Language Development in Toddlers: The Importance
Language Development in Infants: of Assessment 43
The Importance of Assessment 5 2-1b Syntax 44
1-1 Infant Actions Prompt Caregiver Behaviors 6 2-1c Semantics 45
1-1a Definitions 7 2-1d Common Core State Standards
1-2 Influences on Development 7 and Children’s Vocabulary 47
1-2a Beginning Socialization 8 2-1e Pragmatics 47
1-2b Parent and Caregiver Attitudes and Expectations 12 2-2 Attachment and Development
1-2c Growing Intellect 12 of Language Skills 48
1-3 Theories of Language Emergence 12 2-2a First Words 48
1-3a Behaviorist/Environmentalist (or Stimulus-Response) 2-2b From Egocentric Speech to Inner Speech 49
Theory 13 2-2c Symbolic Gesturing 49
1-3b Maturational (Normative) Theory 13 2-2d First Sentences 50
1-3c Predetermined/ Innatist Theory 13 2-2e Toddler – Adult Conversations 51
1-3d Cognitive-Transactional and Interaction Theory 13 2-3 Characteristics of Toddler Language 52
1-3e Constructivist Theory 14 2-3a Aids to Toddler Speech Development 52
1-3f Other Theories 14 2-3b Language with Music 55
1-4 Developmentally Appropriate Practice— 2-3c Symbolic Play 56
Infant Care 15 2-3d Making Friends 57
1-4a Research on Infants’ Brain Growth 15 2-4 Introducing Toddlers to Books and Other
brain connection Brain Researchers’ Activities 59
Recommendations 17 2-4a Selecting Toddler Books 61
1-5 Communicative Abilities in Infancy 18 2-4b Electronic Books 61
1-5a Crying 20 2-4c Scribbling 62
1-5b Smiling and Laughing 21 2-4d Musical Activities 62
1-5c Infant Imitation and Babbling 22 2-4e Toys 63
1-5d Stages of Vocalization 23 2-5 Freedom to Explore 63
1-5e A Shared Developmental Milestone 23 2-5a The Comical Toddler—Exploring Humor 63
1-5f Infant Signing (Signaling) and Beginning 2-5b Advice to Toddler Teachers 63
Understanding 23 2-5c Consulting with Families 64
1-5g First Words 25 brain connection Brain Growth Approach 64

1-6 Implications for Infant Center Staff  ownload figure 2-6 Checklist for working
digital d

Members 27 with non-English speaking families 65

1-6a Baby Games and Explorations 31 Summary 66
1-6b Musical Play 32 Additional Resources 67
1-7 Early Reading and Writing Practices 32
1-7a Reading to Infants 33
1-7b Recordings 34 3 Preschool Years 68
1-7c Early Experiences with Writing Tools 34 3-1 Young Preschoolers 70
1-8 Monitoring Infant Development 34 3-1a The Subdued Two-Year-Old 72
1-8a Implications for Families 35 3-1b Verb Forms 73

vi

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Key-Word Sentences and Questioning 73
3-1c 4-3 Second-Language Learners 107
Categories in Children’s Thinking 74
3-1d 4-3a Bilingual learners 107
Running Commentaries and Repetition 75
3-1e 4-3b Assessing Second-Language Learners 108
Lack of Clarity 77
3-1f brain connection Bilingualism and Brain Development 110
teachsource video Preschool: Communication
4-4 Program Planning for
Development through Language
Second-Language Learners 111
and Literacy Activities 78
4-4a Classroom Activities 112
3-2 Advice for Families and Early digital download figure 4-3 Survival words and phrases
Childhood Educators 78 in English and Spanish 113
3-2a Books for Younger Preschoolers 79 4-4b Reaching Families 114
3-3 Older Preschoolers 79 4-4c Providing Targeted Support 114
3-3a Friendships and Group Play 80 4-5 Promoting Cultural Awareness 115
3-3b Exploring the Conventions of Conversation 82 teachsource video Multicultural Lessons: Embracing
3-3c Relational Words 82 Similarities and Differences 116
3-3d Creative, Impact Words and Vocal Manipulation 83 4-5a Planning Cultural Awareness Language Activities 116
3-4 Word Meanings 84 4-5b Families as Partners 117
3-4a Reality, Nonsense, and Speech Myths 84 4-5c Program Types 117
3-4b Common Speech Patterns of Older Preschoolers 85 digital download figure 4-4 How families can increase child

3-4c Standards & Early Childhood Special Needs 85 literacy with home activities 118
digital download figure 3-6 Developmental language-related 4-6 Assessment and Types of Special Needs 119
milestones at ages two through five 86 4-6a Types of Special Needs and Language
brain connection Metalinguistic Awareness and Development 119
Brain Growth 87 4-6b Language Delay 119
3-5 Additional Growth Systems Affect 4-6c Expressive and Receptive Language Difficulties 121
Language Development 87 4-6d Articulation 121
3-5a Physical Growth 87 4-6e Voice Quality and Fluency Disorders 122
3-5b Planned Physical Activities 87 4-6f Selective (Elective) Mutism 123
brain connection Physical Movement and Cognition 88
4-6g Other Conditions 123
3-5c Perception and Perceptual Skills 88 4-6h Suggestions and Strategies for Working with Children
digital download figure 3-7 Perceptual activities 89
with Disabilities and Special Needs 125
3-5d Motor Skill Development and Activities 90 4-7 Advanced Language Achievement 126
3-5e Cognitive Development 91 Summary 128
3-5f The Teacher’s Role 92 Additional Resources 129
3-5g Social and Emotional Growth
and Connectedness 93
Summary 95
5 Achieving Language and
Additional Resources 96
Literacy Goals through
Program Planning 130
Section TWO
5-1 Literacy Goals—Skill and Knowledge 133
Language and Literacy Programs: Recognizing
5-1a Visual Literacy Goals 133
Diverse Needs and Goals 98
5-1b What is Early Literacy? 134
5-2 Historical Roots of Language
Arts Instruction 135
4 Understanding Differences 98 5-2a The Twentieth Century 136
4-1 Child-Focused and 5-2b In the Present 137
Child-Sensitive Approaches 101 5-2c Putting Theories in Categories 138
4-2 Standard English 102 5-3 Philosophies of Literacy Instruction 139
4-2a The Teacher’s Role: Working digital download figure 5-2 Possible sequence
with Dialect-Speaking Families 104 in language learning 140

Contents  vii

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 5-4 Federal Legislation and State Standards 141 6-4b Time Constraints 181
teachsource video Preschool: Guidance 142 6-4c Scaffolding 182
5-4a Standards and Frameworks 142 6-5 Teacher as Balancer 182
digital download figure 5-3 Questions useful 6-5a Handling Interruptions 183
in the development of standards 143 6-5b Using Sequential Approaches to Instruction 184
5-4b Common Core State Standards 144 digital download figure 6-7 Language learning

5-5 Language use in all Curriculum Areas 145 and teacher interaction 185
6-5c Dealing with Children’s Past Experiences 186
5-6 Language Arts Programming 146
teachsource video 0–2 Years: Module for Infants
5-6a Teacher Training 147
and Toddlers 187
5-6b Culturally Diverse Musical Experience 148
5-6c  Classroom Environment 148 Summary 188
5-6d Determining Program Effectiveness 148 Additional Resources 188
5-6e Child Literacy Portfolios 149
5-6f  Teacher Observation 150
5-7 Goal Statements 151
7 Developing Listening Skills 190

5-7a Goals for Children’s Writing Development 151

7-1 Types of Listening 193
7-1a Toddler Listening Experiences 193
5-7b Pre-reading Goals 151
7-1b Purposeful Listening Activities 194
5-7c Early Literacy Goals 152
7-1c Appreciative Listening Activities 195
5-7d Sociocultural Language Goals 152
7-1d Critical Listening Activities 195
5-8 Language Arts Curricula 152
7-1e Discriminative Listening Activities 196
5-8a Thematic Inquiry Approach
to Language Instruction 153
7-2 Promoting Good Listening Habits 196
digital download figure 7-3 Do you listen to all kinds
brain connection Brain Development
of children? 197
and Theme Instruction 154
5-8b Standards Can Affect Theme Plans 155 7-3 Auditory Perception 199
5-8c Curriculum Webs and Theme-Based Instruction 155 7-3a Settings for Listening 199
digital download figure 5-7 Sample activity plan form 158 7-3b Evaluating Teacher Behaviors 200
5-8d The Project Approach 159 7-3c Speak-Listen Group Times 201
5-8e Daily Activity Plans (Lesson Plans) 159 7-3d Listening Centers 202
5-8f Evaluation 160 7-3e Recorded Media 202
digital download figure 5-8 Thinking back 160 7-4 Phonological Awareness 203
Summary 161 7-4a Phonemic Awareness Skill 204
7-4b More Phonemic Awareness Activities 206
Additional Resources 162
7-4c More Listening Activities 207
Summary 211
6 Promoting Language
Additional Resources 211
and Literacy 164
6-1 Teaching Strategies and Behaviors 166
6-1a The Observer Teacher 168 Section three

6-2 The Teacher as a Model 168 Literature and Other Language Arts Areas 214

6-3 The Teacher as Provider 172

6-3a Providing for Abundant Play 173
6-3b Outside Play and Literacy 173 8 Children and Books 214
6-3c Providing Accurate and Specific Speech in All 8-1 History to Present Time—
Content Areas 174 Children’s Literature 217
digital download figure 6-3 Teaching tips 8-1a Present Time Book Selection for Your Classroom 220
for vocabulary instruction 175 8-1b Award-Winning Books 222
6-4 The Teacher as a Facilitator 176 8-1c Illustrations 222
digital download figure 6-4 Assess your questioning 8-1d Format and Genre 223
and responding abilities 178 8-1e If Only They Would Choose Books and Book-Related
6-4a Teachable Moments 181 Activities 224
viii  Contents

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 8-2 Reading A Variety of Books to Young 9-2 Story Selection 263
Children for A Variety of Purposes 224 9-3 Types of Stories 265
8-2a Common Core State Standards (ccss) 226 9-3a Story Ideas 265
8-2b Using Literature to Aid Conflict-Resolution Skills 9-4 Practice and Preparation 265
and Problem Solving 227 9-4a Additional Techniques 266
8-2c Selecting Book Collections for a Particular Classroom’s 9-4b Teacher-Created Stories 268
Goals and Needs 227 9-4c Telling Stories for an Educational Purpose 268
digital download figure 8-2 Form for analyzing 9-4d Child-Created and Child Dictated Stories 268
children’s books 228 9-4e Working on Comprehension 270
8-2d Selecting Books for Specific Purposes 228 9-5 Teaching Aids 270
8-2e Reading Different Kinds (Categories) of Books 229
9-6 Successful Dictation and
digital download figure 8-4 Tips for selecting

informational texts 232 Special Concerns 271

9-6a Early Writing Skill and Teacher Dictation 272
8-2f Reading Books to Boys 233
digital download figure 9-5 Teacher dictation
8-2g Interactive Technology 233
statements 273
8-3 Criteria for Read-Alouds 234
9-6b Reaching Reluctant Storytellers 274
8-3a Reading Aloud Culturally Conscious and Culturally
9-6c A Cut-and-Tell Story 274
Diverse Books 235
9-6d Parents, Volunteers, and Community
8-3b Bibliotherapy 236
Storytellers 274
8-4 Teacher Skills, Techniques, and Strategies digital download figure 9-6 Letter to parents
When Reading 237 and guardians about storytelling 275
8-4a Clarifying the Act of Reading With Children 240 Summary 276
8-4b Finger-Point Reading and Hand Underlining 241
Additional Resources 277
8-4c Paraphrasing Stories 241
8-4d Targeting Words for Vocabulary Development
and Building Participation 241
8-4e Sharing Your Thoughts 242 10 Poetry 278
8-4f A Read-Aloud Approach Designed to Promote 10-1 Learning Opportunities 281
Child Comprehension 242 10-1a Poetry and Early Reading Ability 281
8-4g Rereading Stories 244 10-2 Selection 282
8-5 After-Reading Discussions and Activities 245 10-2a Types of Poetry 282
8-5a Story or Book Dramatization 246 10-2b Poetry Elements 283
8-5b Picture Books as the Basis for Theme Instruction 246 10-3 Teacher Techniques 284
8-5c From Books to Flannel (Felt) Boards and Beyond 246 10-3a Ways to Introduce Children to Poetry 285
8-6 Child- and Teacher-Authored Books 247 10-4 Sources 286
8-7 Book Areas and Centers 249 10-4a Suggested Poems 286
Parent Involvement in School
teachsource video
Summary 292
Culture: A Literacy Project 249
Additional Resources 292
8-7a Group Settings 250
8-7b Resources for Finding Reading Materials 250
Summary 251 Section FOUR
The Growth of Speech and Expression 294
Additional Resources 252

9 Storytelling 256
11 Language Growth Through
9-1 Storytelling and Literacy 258
9-1a Telling Stories Without Books 260
Flannel Boards, Puppetry,
9-1b Storytelling Goals 260 and Dramatization 294
9-1c Using Picture Books for Storytelling 261 11-1 Flannel Board Experiences and Activities 296
9-1d Multicultural Story Resources 262 11-1a Flannel Board Construction 296
9-1e Other Story Sources 263 11-1b Flannel Board Activity Sets 297
Contents  ix

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 11-1c Activity Set Construction 300 12-2b Awareness of Intelligent Behavior 333
11-1d Nonfiction Sets 301 12-2c Settings for Preplanned Speaking
11-2 Presentation Skills 301 Activities 335
11-2a Suggested Stories and Activities 302 teachsource video Language Development:

Oral and Literacy Related Activities

11-3 Puppetry 302
in Early Childhood Settings 335
teachsource video Language Development:
12-2d Questioning Skills 335
Oral and Literacy Related Activities
in an Early Childhood Setting 303 12-3 Speech in Play and Routines 338
11-3a Teacher Modeling of Appropriate Handling 12-3a Dramatic Play Settings 341
and Care 304 12-3b Dramatic Play Kits 341
11-3b Teacher Puppetry 304 12-3c Costumes 342
11-3c Child Activities 305 12-3d The Teacher’s Role in Dramatic Play 342
11-3d Other Puppetry Tips 307 12-3e Dramatic Play as an Intellectual Reaction
to Book Events 343
11-4 Puppet Construction 308
12-3f Daily Routines 344
11-4a Papier-Mâché Puppet Heads 308
12-3g Show-and-Tell 344
11-4b Sock Puppets 308
12-3h The Daily News or Recap Times 345
11-4c Easy Puppet 309
12-3i Promoting Daily Oral Language Use 345
11-4d Paper-Bag Puppets 309
12-3j  Leading Activities 346
11-4e Stick Puppets 310
11-4f Shadow Puppets 310 Summary 347
11-4g Teacher Puppet Presentation Additional Resources 347
Possibilities 311
11-5 Simple Drama 312
11-5a Playacting Tips 313
11-5b Teacher-Created Problem-Solving Drama 314 13 Group Times 348

11-5c Drama from Picture Books 314 13-1 Group and Circle Time 350
11-5d Dramatizing Fairy Tales and Folktales 315 teachsource video Language Development:
11-5e Progressive Skill 315 Oral and Literacy Related Activities
11-5f Pantomime 315 in Early Childhood Settings 352
13-1a Important Skills for Entering Kindergarten 352
11-6 Creative Drama Productions 316
13-1b Groups of Younger Preschoolers 352
11-6a Costumes, Props, and Stages 317
Summary 318 13-2 Planning Small Group Times 353
13-2a Group Activities 355
Additional Resources 319
13-2b Group Projects and Common Core
State Standards 355
13-2c  Leading Groups 356
12 Realizing Speaking Goals 320 13-2d Circle Starters 356
12-1 Program Goals 323 13-3 Circle Time Activities and Features 359
12-1a Daily Conversations 324 13-3a Passing Games 359
digital download figure 12-1 Suggested teacher 13-3b Taking Turns and Directing Attention 359
strategies to promote child speech in differing 13-3c Closing Group Activities 360
classifications of human speech 327 13-3d Transitions 360
12-1b Children’s Conversational Styles 328 13-3e Multicultural Considerations and Activities 361
12-1c Sign Systems 328 13-3f Circle Time Goals 362
12-1d The Authentic Teacher 328 13-3g Hints for Successful Circle Times 362
12-1e Integrating Children into Social Groups 329 13-3h Circle-Time Pitfalls 363
12-2 Suggested Interaction Guides 329 13-3i Watching Children’s Participation Level 364
digital download figure 12-2 Teacher options and ways 13-   4 Circle Time Chants and Choruses 364
to extend child conversations 332 13-4a Using Accessories 367
12-2a Research Related Strategies 332 13-4b Clapping Songs and Rhymes 367

x  Contents

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 13-4c Finger Play 367 Lined Paper 400
14-7d
13-4d Body-Action Plays 368 Chart Ideas 400
14-7e
Summary 369 Generating Story Sentences 403
14-7f
Interactive and Scaffolded Writing 403
14-7g
Additional Resources 370
14-7h
Other Chart Ideas and Print
Awareness Activities 404
Section FIVE digital download figure 14-25 Making a chart liner 405
Writing and Reading: Natural Companions 372
Summary 410
Additional Resources 412

14 Print—Early Knowledge
and Emerging Interest 372 15 Reading and Preschoolers 414
14-1 Printing in Preschool 374
15-1 Reading 416
14-1a Starting from a Different Place 379
15-1a Children Who May Need Special Help 417
Preschool: Communication through
teachsource video
15-1b Reading Instruction 418
Language and Literacy Activities 380
15-1c Past and Current Thinking Concerning
14-1b Teaching Writing Tool Grip 380
Early Reading Instruction 418
14-2 Research and Fundamentals 15-1d Pressure for Formal Reading Instruction
in Writing Development 380 in Preschools 419
14-2a Young Children’s Progress 381 digital download figure 15-2 Checklist for the
14-2b Invented Spelling foundations of reading 420
(Developmental Spelling) 383 15-1e Standards, Benchmarks, and Behaviors 420
14-3 Goals of Instruction 385 15-1f Standards for Reading Teacher Preparation 421
14-3a Coordination 386 15-2 Teacher Awareness of Child Interest
14-3b Cognitive Development 387
and Understanding 422
14-3c Boys’ Writing Development 387 15-2a Child Knowledge of Alphabet Letters
14-4 Play, Drawing, and Other and Word Recognition 424
Influences 387 teachsource video Language Development Activities

14-4a Drawing Experience 388 in an Early Childhood Setting 425

14-4b Writing and Exposure to Books 388 15-2b A Closer Look at Early Readers 425
14-4c Alphabet Books 389 15-2c Shared Reading 427
14-5 Planning a Program for Print 15-2d Vocabulary and Early Readers 427

Awareness and Printing Skill 390 15-3 Objectives 428

14-5a Learning Print Conventions 391 15-3a Sequence of Reading Behavior 429
14-5b How to Make the ABCs 15-3b The Transition to Kindergarten for Those
Developmentally Appropriate 392 with Special Needs 429
14-5c Seeing and Hearing Patterns 393 15-4 Reading Methods 430
14-6 Environment and Materials 393 15-4a The Natural Approach 430
14-6a Labeling 393 15-4b The Whole-Language Movement 431
14-6b Display Areas 394 15-4c Literature-Based Reading Programs 432
14-6c Message-Sending Aids 395 15-4d The Decoding or Phonetic Reading
14-6d Writing Centers 395 Approach 432
14-6e First School Alphabets 395 15-4e Look-and-Say Method 433
14-6f Beginning Attempts 396 15-4f Other Approaches to Reading Instruction 433
15-4g Reading Instruction in Public Elementary
14-7 Planned Activities—
Schools 433
Basic Understandings 396
14-7a Environmental Print in Daily Life 398 15-5 Families’ Role in Reading 434
14-7b Writing Table or Area 399 Summary 434
14-7c Left-Handed Children 400 Additional Resources 435

Contents  xi

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Section SIX digital download figure 17-2 Tips for strengthening
School and Home: Environments, Family, the home–school connection
and Partnerships 436 with ELL families 463
17-2 Family Guidelines for Literacy and
Language Development 463
16 Developing a Literacy 17-2a How Parents Can Stimulate Speaking Abilities 464
17-2b How Parents Can Build Print Awareness
Environment 436 and Skill 465
16-1 Print-Rich Classrooms 438 17-2c How Experiences Outside of the Home Can
16-1a Suggestions for Print-Rich Environments 439 Promote Literacy 466
16-2 The Language Arts Center 439 17-2d How Parents Can Promote Listening Skills 466
16-2a The Teacher’s Role in Language Centers 442 17-2e How Families Can Promote an
16-2b Housekeeping and Block Areas 443 Interest in Reading 466
16-2c Display and Bulletin Boards 443 digital download figure 17-4 Family self-rating 468
16-2d Chalkboard or White Board Activities 444 17-2f Family Storytelling 469
16-3 Audiovisual Equipment 444 17-2g Families Can Build Children’s Self-Regulation 469
16-3a Listening Center Equipment 445 17-2h Home Reading and Writing Centers 470
16-3b The Use of Picture Files 446 teachsource video Parent Involvement in

16-3c Technology, Electronic Equipment, School Culture: A Literacy Project 470

and Literacy Learning 447 17-3 Home Visits and Outreach Efforts 471
16-3d E-books 447 17-3a Families Who Speak Languages Other
16-3e Technology and Dual Language Learners 448 Than English 471
16-4 Planning Language Centers and 17-3b African-American School Success 471
Computer Centers 448 17-3c Family Education Projects—Working Together 472
digital download figure16-10 Checklist for evaluating 17-3d Screen Viewing and Young Children’s
and improving the literacy environment 450 Language Development 472
teachsource video Preschool: Appropriate Learning 17-4 Home–School Communication 474
Environments and Room Arrangements 452 Planned Meetings and Conferences 475
17-4a
16-4a Software Selection 452 Fathers and Language Development 476
17-4b
16-4b Computer Location 453 Explaining Phonemic Awareness to Families 477
17-4c
Summary 453 Working with Hard-to-Reach Families 477
17-4d
Daily and Written Contacts 477
17-4e
Additional Resources 454
digital download figure 17-5 Sample of informal

letter to parents to strengthen school learning. 478

digital download figure 17-6 A partnership letter 478
17 The Family-Center 17-5 Family Resources at School
Partnership 456 and Volunteering 479
17-1 Families and Child Literacy 458
Summary 479
17-1a Developing Trust 461
17-1b Identifying Supportive Assistance 461
Additional Resources 481
teachsource video Communicating with Families:

Best Practices in an Early

Appendix 483
Childhood Setting 462
17-1c Early Childhood Language Arts Program Glossary 495
Planning 462
17-1d Obtaining Family Input 462 References 503

Index 515

xii  Contents

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Preface

Early Childhood Experiences in Language Arts: to both tailor and individualize his or her own
Early Literacy is a teacher-training text designed actions, comments, and activity plans to suit the
to help those working in the early childhood edu- needs of diverse children. Educators become bet-
cation field provide an opportunity-rich program ter equipped to identify child progress or sus-
full of interesting, appropriate, and developmen- pected lags in language use and growth. Toddlers’
tal language arts activities that reflect current physical development and concurrent mush-
standards. It is both a practical “how-to” manual rooming verbal skills appear in a predictable, yet
and a collection of resources that includes nu- individual, pattern. Chapter 3 provides the reader
merous classic, tried-and-true activities. with an accurate portrait of preschoolers’ emerg-
Because a comprehensive, dynamically ing language and literacy accomplishments,
planned early childhood language ar ts and also covers other concurrently developing
curriculum consists of four broad interrelated growth systems that affect language and literacy.
areas—speaking (oral), listening, writing, and These are physical, cognitive, perceptive, and so-
reading—each is fully explored and described in cioemotional areas. Finding a typical or average
separate chapters. Visual literacy is also covered, preschooler may be an impossible task, as pre-
as it is closely tied to the other language arts ar- schoolers, like adults, display infinite variety. The
eas, and because young children today have fre- well-known and well-documented characteristics
quent interactions with visual technology. of the preschool-aged child are presented.
The text recommends early childhood ed-
ucation students create, design, and prepare Section 2
classroom activities and environments based on Special attention is paid to second-language
newborn through kindergarten-age children’s learners and children with special needs in
assessed needs, interests, developmental level, Chapter 4, Understanding Differences. With the
and potential. Beginning teachers are urged number of second-language learners and chil-
to use their own unique teaching talents, skills, dren with special needs continuing to grow, it has
and creativity—along with their past memo- become more critical than ever for early child-
ries of the enjoyed childhood language-related hood teachers to create language-rich environ-
experiences—to help guide their instruction. It is ments and interact as enthusiastic, supportive,
hoped that the confidence and skills gained by and observant companions and collaborators.
readers will help to provide young children with Chapter 5 covers the basics of developing lan-
enthusiastic, knowledgeable teacher-companions guage arts programs based on identified goals,
who enjoy and encourage children in their dis- as well as assessment strategies, and includes
covery of the language arts. information about children’s literacy portfolios.
Specific teaching strategies are addressed in
Chapter 6, Promoting Language and Literacy, and
Organization and Content Chapter 7, Developing Listening Skills, to aid a
teacher’s knowledge and practice of professional
Section 1 responses and interchanges in daily conversa-
In Section 1, the first three chapters present a tion and discussions. Tips and suggestions are
detailed account of language acquisition, young designed to get the most “literacy-developing
children’s early communicative capacities, mileage” possible from daily happenings. Since
growth milestones, and age-level milestones (in- listening well is a learned skill, Chapter 7 does
fancy through preschool), along with suggested not leave it to chance, but promotes the teacher’s
professional techniques to promote each child’s role as cultivator of each child’s growing ability.
self-esteem and potential. In Chapter 1, the char-
acteristics of attuned and sensitive caregiver Section 3
behaviors have been highlighted to emphasize Children’s literature is introduced in Chapter 8
their significance. Infant and toddler chapters and begins with a brief history of picture book
(Chapters 1 and 2) increase the reader’s ability development and change over time. Readers are
  xiii

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
urged to discover new and older classics and awareness, sight reading, and invented spelling
skillfully share them with children in a way that are clearly explained in Chapter 14, Print—Early
increases each child’s love of story and joy in ac- Knowledge and Emerging Interest. This chapter in-
quiring new knowledge and skill. This chapter is troduces and outlines the probable sequence of
extensive and alerts readers to the many types of events that proceed a child’s printing his first
books available and their appeal to young listen- alphabet letter. Using the appropriate form of
ers. Text discussions include teacher techniques printscript letters is emphasized as teachers model
that build children’s comprehension of stories and write alphabet letters. A number of print-
and also their understanding of books’ connec- related child activities are included, as well as
tion to writing (print), viewing, reading, and oral sample print alphabets with construction arrows.
expression. During book readings, educators are Print-rich and print-appropriate classroom envi-
directed to share their thinking aloud and to de- ronments are suggested. Children’s natural curi-
fine new words to increase children’s vocabulary, osity and their innate ability aids their emergence
analysis, and problem solving abilities. as competent readers when formal instruction
Chapters 9, 10, and 11 concentrate on de- begins in kindergarten. Chapter 15 describes
velopmentally appropriate vehicles to widen the desirable skills, knowledge, and abilities that
children’s background and knowledge and expe- promote children’s progress in learning to read.
rience in storytelling, poetry, and flannel board The differences in reading instruction methodol-
activities. Teacher skill in the presentation of ogy are discussed so that early childhood educa-
these language arts subsections is recommended, tors become aware of what types of instruction
and suggested stories, poems, and flannel board are used in the first grades of school.
sets give beginning teachers an initial collection
Section 6
to immediately try out and enjoy with young
Chapter 16 looks at the physical features and
children. The use of puppetry and classroom
equipment needed to enhance learning in a
dramatization is also included in these chapters.
literacy-based classroom. Chapter 17 discusses
Section 4 the critical importance of increasing a family’s
In order to increase children’s ability to express ability to partner with their children’s school
their ideas and dramatize real life or fantasy ex- and teachers. Suggestions are included to in-
perience, Chapter 12 discusses an early child- crease the beginning teacher’s ability to estab-
hood educator’s promotion of children’s oral lish fruitful school-home relationships. Parent
expression and symbolic (dramatic) play. The tips to extend language and provide literacy-
beginning teacher’s ability to plan, conduct, enriched home environments and activities are
and manage small and large groups in a com- listed. The text urges educators to honor chil-
petent and professional manner is the subject dren’s homegrown literacy knowledge and skills.
of Chapter 13, which also focuses upon the lan- Well-prepared educators recognize that families
guage and literacy producing aspects of chil- may use various and diverse vocabulary- and
dren’s group experiences. Again many circle literacy-building strategies. Cultural differences
time hints are provided, along with suggested are increasingly commonplace in America’s
games and activities, such as finger plays, poems, classrooms, and each child’s unique difference
songs, chants and choruses, and body move- is respected and dignified as teachers promote
ments connected to words. the English language arts.

Section 5
Quality language arts programs in early child-
hood centers are increasingly focused on the pro-
New Features
motion of each child’s ability to learn to read with The eleventh edition includes a number of new
ease when formal reading instruction begins. features to aid the student’s mastery of each
The alphabetic principle, orthographic and print chapter’s content.
xiv  Preface

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 ●●
NEW Learning Objectives at the beginning ●●
Updated coverage of technology and lit-
of each chapter now correlate with main head- eracy learning including information about
ings within the chapter and the Summary at the joint position statement from NAEYC, the
the end of the chapter. The objectives highlight Fred Rogers Center for Early Learning, and
what students need to know to process and un- Children's Media at St. Vincent College.
derstand the information in the chapter. After ●●
Additional attention to children’s oral lan-
completing the chapter, students should be guage experience has been included to help
able to demonstrate how they can use and ap- beginning teachers increase children’s conver-
ply their new knowledge and skills. sation and expression of ideas and discoveries.
●●
NEW and improved integration of early ●●
Newly described teacher interaction be-
childhood professional standards helps stu- haviors (Chapter 8) are used in the discussion
dents make connections between what they are of children’s comprehension of storybook read-
learning in the textbook and the standards. This alouds and the promotion of their development
edition now contains a list of standards cov- of analytical thinking while enjoying literature.
ered at the beginning of each chapter, including
NAEYC’s Early Childhood Program Standards
and Accreditation Criteria, 2007; Developmen-
tally Appropriate Practice (DAP): Focus on In-
Other Features
fants and Toddlers (2013); and Common Core ●●
TeachSource Videos—The TeachSource Vid-
Standards for English language arts and liter- eos feature footage from the classroom to help
acy. These standards are called out with icons students relate key chapter content to real-life
throughout the text; a complete list of the stan- scenarios. Critical-thinking questions following
dards can be found in the standards correlation each video provide opportunities for in-class or
chart on the inside front and back covers. online discussion and reflection.
●●
NEW TeachSource Digital Downloads are ●●
Discussion Vignettes—Discussion Vignettes
downloadable and sometimes customizable introduce chapters with real-life classroom
practical and professional resources, which al- teaching situations that promote student analy-
low students to immediately implement and sis. The Questions to Ponder that follow pro-
apply the textbook’s content in the field. Stu- mote reflection and class discussion.
dents can download these tools and keep them ●●
Additional Resources—This section follows
forever, enabling preservice teachers to begin
each chapter’s summary. It presents readings
building a library of practical, professional re-
for students wanting further depth, reinforce-
sources. Look for the TeachSource Digital
ment of chapter topics, and/or pursuit of special
Download label that identifies these items.
interests. Resources such as commercial educa-
●●
New MindTap for Education is a first-of-its tional materials, professional organizations in
kind digital solution that prepares teachers by which further information can be obtained, and
providing them with the knowledge, skills, and helpful websites are also included.
competencies they must demonstrate to earn ●●
In addition to current research, the eleventh
an education degree and state licensure, and
edition continues to use classic findings and
to begin a successful career. Through activities
recommendations.
based on real-life teaching situations, MindTap
elevates students’ thinking by giving them ex-
periences in applying concepts, practicing skills,
and evaluating decisions, guiding them to be-
Supplements
come reflective educators. ●●
NEW MindTap™, The Personal Learning
●●
NEW Brain Connection boxes place additional Experience, for Machado’s, Early Child-
emphasis on brain-based learning practices. hood Experiences in Language Arts: Early

Preface  xv

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Literacy, Eleventh Edition, represents a new MindTap Moves
approach to teaching and learning. A highly Students Up Create
personalized, fully customizable learning Bloom’s Revised
Taxonomy
platform, MindTap, helps students to elevate Evaluate
thinking by guiding them to:
●●
Know, remember, and understand concepts Analyze
critical to becoming a great teacher;
●●
Apply concepts, create tools, and demon- Apply
strate performance and competency in key
areas in the course; Understand
●●
Prepare artifacts for the portfolio and even-
tual state licensure, to launch a successful Remember & Know
teaching career; and Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. (Eds.). ( ). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and
assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. New York: Longman.
●●
Develop the habits to become a reflective
practitioner.
As students move through each chapter’s
Learning Path, they engage in a scaffolded Student Progress App makes grades visible in
learning experience designed to move them up real time so students and instructors always
Bloom’s Taxonomy from lower- to higher-order have access to current standings in the class.
thinking skills. The Learning Path enables pre- MindTap for Early Childhood Experiences
service students to develop these skills and gain in Language Arts, Eleventh Edition, helps in-
confidence by: structors easily set their course because it
●●
Engaging them with chapter topics and integrates into the existing Learning Manage-
activating their prior knowledge by watching ment System and saves instructors time by al-
and answering questions about TeachSource lowing them to fully customize any aspect of
videos of teachers teaching and children the learning path. Instructors can change the
learning in real classrooms; order of the student learning activities, hide
activities they don’t want for the course, and—
●●
Checking their comprehension and under-
most importantly—add any content they do
standing through Did You Get It? assess-
want (e.g., YouTube videos, Google docs, links
ments, with varied question types that are
to state education standards). Learn more at
autograded for instant feedback;
www.cengage.com/mindtap.
●●
Applying concepts through mini-case sce-
narios—students analyze typical teaching
and learning situations and create a reasoned Online Instructor’s Manual
response to the issue(s) presented in the sce- with Test Bank
narios; and
An online Instructor’s Manual accompanies
●●
Reflecting about and justifying the choices this book. It contains information to assist the
they made within the teaching scenario instructor in designing the course, including:
problem. sample syllabi, discussion questions, teaching
MindTap helps instructors facilitate bet- and learning activities, field experiences, learn-
ter outcomes by evaluating how future teach- ing objectives, and additional online resources.
ers plan and teach lessons in ways that make For assessment support, the updated test bank
content clear and help diverse students learn, includes true/false, multiple-choice, match-
assessing the effectiveness of their teaching ing, short-answer, and essay questions for each
practice, and adjusting teaching as needed. The chapter.

xvi  Preface

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 PowerPoint® Lecture Slides She received her Master’s Degree from San
Jose State University and her community col-
These vibrant Microsoft ® PowerPoint lecture lege life credential with coursework from the
slides for each chapter assist you with your University of California at Berkeley. Her experi-
lecture by providing concept coverage using ence includes working as an elementary school
images, figures, and tables directly from the teacher, preschool owner/director, work expe-
textbook. rience instructor/advisor, early childhood and
family studies community college and university
instructor, and an education consultant in pub-
Cognero lic, private, and parent cooperative programs.
Cengage Learning Testing Powered by Cognero Ms. Machado is an active participant in several
is a flexible online system that allows you to professional organizations concerned with the
author, edit, and manage test bank content from education and well-being of young children and
multiple Cengage Learning solutions; create their families. She is a past president of Califor-
multiple test versions in an instant; and deliver nia Community College Early Childhood Edu-
tests from your LMS, your classroom, or wher- cators (CCCECE) and the Peninsula Chapter
ever you want. of the California Association for the Education
of Young Children. In addition to Early Child-
hood Experiences In Language Arts, she co-au-
thored with Dr. Helen Meyer-Botnarescue a
Professional text for student teachers called Student Teaching:
Enhancement Book Early Childhood Practicum Guide, Seventh Edi-
tion, ©2011. She also co-authored Employment
A new supplement to accompany this text is Opportunities in Education: How to Secure Your
the Language Arts and Literacy Professional Career, ©2006, with Romana Reynolds. Ms.
Enhancement booklet for students. This book, Machado consults with parents, teachers, and
which is part of Cengage Learning’s Early administrators, and interacts with young chil-
Childhood Education Professional Enhance- dren in classrooms in Cascade, Idaho, and San
ment series, focuses on key topics of interest to Jose, California.
future early childhood teachers and caregivers.
Students will keep this informational supple-
ment and use it for years to come in their early
childhood practices. Acknowledgments
The author wishes to express her appreciation to
the following individuals and agencies.
About The Author The students at San Jose City College, AA Degree
The author’s experience in the early childhood Program in Early Childhood Education
education field has included full-time assign- Arbor Hill Child Care Center, Albany, NY
ment as community college instructor and San Jose City College Child Development
department chairperson. Her duties included Center’s director and teachers
supervision of early childhood education stu-
Evergreen Valley College Child Development
dents at two on-campus laboratory child devel-
Center’s director and staff members, San
opment centers at San Jose City College and
Jose, CA
Evergreen Valley College, as well as child centers
in the local community. Her teaching responsi- James Lick Children’s Center, Eastside High
bilities encompassed early childhood education, School District, San Jose, CA
child development, and parenting courses. Kiddie Academy, Albany, NY

Preface  xvii

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Piedmont Hills Preschool, San Jose, CA Wendy Fletcher, Wiregrass Georgia Technical
Pineview Preschool, Albany, NY College
St. Elizabeth’s Day Home, San Jose, CA Karen Ray, Wake Technical Community College
W.I.C.A.P. HeadStart, Donnelly, ID
Cascade Elementary School – Pre-K Class, To The Student
Cascade, ID
Because you are a unique, caring individual who
The staff at Cengage Learning has chosen an early childhood teaching career or
In addition, special appreciation is due the review- who is currently working with children, this text
ers involved in the development of this edition is intended to help you discover and share your
Cecile Arquette, Bradley University developing language arts gifts and talents. Create
Katrin Blamey, DeSales University your own activities using your college course-
work and life experiences and an assessment
Johnny Castro, Brookhaven College
of what would be valuable growing opportuni-
Roseann Chavez, Warren County Community ties for the children you teach. Design and base
College your activities on an understanding of current
Tina Dekle, Vance-Granville Community research and theory. Consider the wisdom you
College have gained through your past experiences with
Deirdre Englehart, University of Central Florida children. Share your specialness and make your
classroom memorable as a place where literature
Randa Gamal, Central New Mexico Community
and communication thrive.
College
In this text, I urge you to become a skilled
April Grace, Madisonville Community College teacher who interacts, converses, and collabo-
Jeanne Helm, Richland Community College rates, and acts as “a subtle opportunist,” getting
Annemarie Hindman, Temple University the most possible out of each child–adult interac-
Colleen Lelli, Cabrini College tion. Make your joy in the language arts the chil-
dren’s joy. You can make a difference in young
Jeannie Morgan-Campola, Rowan Cabarrus children’s lives. Ideally, this text will help you be-
Community College come the kind of teacher who does. Because I
Crystal Stephens, Western Piedmont Community am growing, too, I invite your suggestions and
College comments, so that in future editions I can refine
Maria Vazquez, Florida International University and improve this text’s value.

xviii  Preface

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Section One : Language Development: Emerging Literacy in the Young Child

1 Beginnings of Communication

Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1-1 Discuss the reciprocal behaviors of infants, parents,
and caregivers.
1-2 Name four important influences that may affect an
infant’s language growth and development.
1-3 Compare two theories of human language
emergence.
1-4 Name two areas of particular importance to infant
care addressed in Developmentally Appropriate
Practice (DAP) guidelines.
1-5 Discuss the behaviors and vocalizing efforts that
infants use to communicate their needs and desires.
1-6 Describe what caregiver actions should take place
when infants develop joint attentional focus.
1-7 Name and comment upon early reading and writing
activities in late infancy.
1-8 Identify how infant centers monitor each infant’s
language and communicating behaviors.

NAEYC Program Standards

1A05 Teacher shares information with families about
classroom expectations and routines.
1B01 Teaching staff foster children’s emotional well-
being by demonstrating respect for children and
creating a positive emotional climate as reflected
in behaviors, such as frequent social conversations,
joint laughter, and affection.
1B11 Teaching staff engage infants in frequent face-
to-face social interactions each day.
1B14 Teaching staff quickly respond to infants’ cries
or other signs of distress by providing physical
comfort and needed care.

Developmentally Appropriate Practice

(DAP)
1A2 The infant’s primary caregiver comes to know the
child and family well, and so is able to respond to
that child’s individual temperament and needs and
cues, and to develop a mutually satisfying pattern of
communication.
1B1 Caregivers talk in a pleasant, calm voice, making
frequent eye contact.
1C1 Caregivers often talk about what is going on with
the infant.
1D2 Caregivers observe and listen and respond to
sounds the infant makes.
1D3 Caregivers frequently talk to, sing to, and read to
infants.
3B3 Appropriate games are played with interested
infants.

Common Core State Standards for

English Language Arts and Literacy
L.CCR 3 Apply knowledge to understand how language
functions in different contexts.
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 ©SergeBertasiusPhotography/Shutterstock.com

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
A New Sign to positive caregiver sensitivity. Gerber, Whitebook,
& Weinstein (2007) note that the quality of caregiver
Noah, 10 months, had a new sign for “cracker”
practices has been linked to children’s brain develop-
that he had used a few times during the day at ment and cognitive functioning.
the infant center. He was very pleased when For you to become the kind of educator children de-
serve, one who enhances language growth, you should
his “sign” resulted in someone bringing him begin by believing that most infants are able and natu-
a cracker. At pick-up time, one of the staff ral communicators from birth onward unless some life
circumstance has modified their natural potential. Infant
believed it important to talk to Noah’s dad. care facilities with well-planned, positive, and growth-
Mr. Soares did not really understand what the producing environments—that are staffed with skilled,
knowledgeable, and well-trained adults who offer de-
teacher, Miss Washington, was talking about velopmentally appropriate activities—provide a place
when she said “signing.” Miss Washington where infants can and do thrive.
Each infant is a unique combination of inherited
gave Mr. Soares a quick explanation. He traits and environmental influences. Structural, hor-
smiled proudly and then said, “That’s great. monal, and chemical influences present before birth may
have affected the growth and development of the fetus
I’ll talk to his mom and let her know.” (Gould, 2002). Newborns seem to assimilate information
immediately and are interested in their surroundings.
Some suggest an infant possesses “the greatest mind”
Questions to Ponder
in existence and is the most powerful learning machine
1. Miss Washington had a new language-related topic in the universe. During the third trimester of pregnancy,
for the next staff meeting. What would you suspect it most mothers notice that their babies kick and move in
was? response to music or loud noises. The sound of speech
2. Did this episode tell you something about the may draw a less spirited reaction, but there is little ques-
language-developing quality of the infant center? tion that fetuses hear and react to a wide variety of
3. What do you know about male infants and their sounds and seem to recognize the rhythm of their moth-
signing ability compared with that of female infants? er’s voice.
Could you describe infant signing behavior? Technology can now monitor the slightest physical
changes in breathing, heartbeat, eye movement, and suck-
(If you are hesitating, this chapter provides answers.)
ing rhythm and rates. Babies begin learning how to carry
on conversations quickly and sucking patterns produce a
In this chapter the reader is acquainted with those ele-
rhythm that mimics that of give-and-take dialogues. In-
ments in an infant’s life that facilitate optimal growth
fants respond to very specific maternal signals, including
in communication and language development. So- tone of voice, facial changes, and head movements.
cioemotional, physical, cognitive, and environmental Greenspan (1999) suggests what may happen when
factors that influence, promote, or deter growth are interacting with a one- or two-month-old baby at a re-
noted. Recommended interaction techniques and strat- laxed time after a nap or feeding:
egies are supported by research and reflect accepted
… when you hold him at arm’s length and look directly
appropriate practices and standards. As foundational into his eyes with a broad smile on your face, watch his
aspects of infant communication are presented, boxed lips part as if he’s trying to imitate your smile. (p. 31)
descriptions of the attuned and reciprocal behaviors
Babies gesture and make sounds and seem to hold
caregivers make with infants are provided. Caregivers
up their ends of conversations, but, at times, they ap-
establish a relationship with each infant in their care, pear to suppress output and channel their energy into
and the quality of that relationship serves to moti- seeing and hearing. Their eye contact with their caregiv-
vate each infant to engage in learning (McMullen & ers, called gaze coupling, is believed to be one of their
Dixon, 2006). Higher levels of warmth are connected first steps in establishing communication. Infants can

rhythm — uniform or patterned recurrence of a beat, accent, or melody in speech.

gaze coupling — infant-mother extended eye contact.

4  section one : Language Development: Emerging Literacy in the Young Child

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 shut off background noises and pay attention to slight
changes in adult voice sounds. TeachSource Video 1-1
An attuned adult responds with sensitivity and ac-
curacy based on an understanding of an infant’s (child’s)
cues.

an attuned adult would:

●● notice infant actions, including gestures, body position-

© 2016 Cengage Learning®

ing, noisemaking, eye gazing, and any shift from listen-
ing to watching.
●● make face-to-face contact frequently.
●● display admiration, affection, and pleasure and smile
frequently.
●● provide verbal and nonverbal communication. Observing and Monitoring
●● seek to maintain and prolong eye contact. Language Development in
Infants: The Importance of
McMillen (2013) posits babies are captivat-
Assessment
ing, wondrous, and beguiling beings coming into
This video provides an example of a body motion
the world fully equipped to enchant and draw us
play that is taking place with infants.
in. The qualities an infant inherits from parents
and the events that occur in the child’s life help 1. How long were the infants able to attend to the
body play before they started turning away?
shape the child’s language development. Gender,
temperament, and a timetable for the emergence 2. The babbling of a consonant was demonstrat-
of intellectual, emotional, and physical capabili- ed by a child; do you know which consonant?
ties are all genetic givens. In the short four to 3. Did you notice infants imitating teacher actions?
five years after birth, the child’s speech becomes 4. Did teachers really understand why toddlers
purposeful and similar to adult speech. This were distressed or did they have to guess?
growing language skill is a useful tool for satisfy-
ing needs and exchanging thoughts, hopes, and
dreams with others. As ability grows, the child
understands and uses more of the resources of
oral and recorded human knowledge and is well
on the way to becoming a literate being. animals. Our advanced mental capabilities,
The natural capacity to categorize, to in- such as thought, memory, language, math-
vent, and to remember information aids the ematics, and complex problem solving, are
child’s language acquisition. Although unique unique to human beings. Humans have the
among the species because of the ability to unique species-specific ability to test hypoth-
speak, human beings are not the only ones eses about the structure of language. They can
who can communicate. Birds and animals also also develop rules for a particular language
imitate sounds and signals and are believed to and remember and use them to generate ap-
communicate. For instance, chimpanzees ex- propriate language. Within a few days after
posed to experimental language techniques birth, human babies recognize familiar faces,
(American Sign Language, specially equipped voices, and even smells and prefer them to un-
machines, and plastic tokens) have surprised familiar ones.
researchers with their language abilities. Some Infant research has advanced by leaps and
have learned to use symbols and follow linguis- bounds to reveal amazing newborn abilities.
tic rules with a sophistication that rivals that of Long before they can talk, for example, babies
some two-year-olds. Researchers continue to remember events and solve problems. They
probe the limits of their capabilities. However, can recognize faces, see colors, hear voices,
a basic difference between human beings and discriminate speech sounds, and distinguish
other species exists. basic tastes. When you combine the psycho-
It is the development of the cerebral cor- logical and neurological evidence, it is hard not
tex that sets humans apart from less intelligent to conclude that babies are just plain smarter
chapter 1 : Beginnings of Communication   5

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
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