Review

Amine-Based Solvents and Additives to Improve the CO2

Capture Processes: A Review
Dennis Loachamin, Jordan Casierra , Verónica Calva, Alex Palma-Cando , Edward E. Ávila
and Marvin Ricaurte *

Grupo de Investigación Aplicada en Materiales y Procesos (GIAMP), School of Chemical Sciences and
Engineering, Yachay Tech University, Hda. San José s/n y Proyecto Yachay, Urcuquí 100119, Ecuador
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The use of amine-based solvents for carbon dioxide (CO2 ) capture has shown significant
promise; however, operational challenges such as high energy requirements, solvent degradation, and
equipment corrosion highlight the need for enhanced solutions. This review focuses on identifying
amine-based solvents and additives that can improve CO2 capture efficiency while minimizing
costs and avoiding substantial modifications to existing industrial facilities. Specifically, the study
emphasizes the development of a comprehensive database of additives to optimize CO2 capture
processes. A detailed analysis of recent advancements in amine-based solvents was conducted,
with a focus on (i) process optimization strategies, (ii) sector-specific CO2 emission profiles, and
(iii) equipment issues associated with conventional chemical solvents. The study evaluates these
solvents’ kinetic and thermodynamic properties and their potential to address critical operational chal-
lenges, including reducing corrosion, solvent viscosity, and evaporation rates. The findings highlight
the pivotal role of amino group-containing compounds, particularly alkanolamines, in enhancing
CO2 capture performance. The structural versatility of these compounds, characterized by the pres-
ence of hydroxyl groups, facilitates aqueous dissolution while offering kinetic and thermodynamic
benefits. This review underscores the importance of continued innovation in solvent chemistry and
the integration of amine-based solvents with emerging technologies to overcome current limitations
and advance the implementation of efficient and sustainable CO2 capture technologies.
Citation: Loachamin, D.; Casierra, J.;
Calva, V.; Palma-Cando, A.; Ávila, Keywords: CO2 capture; industrial processes; additives; alkanolamines; chemical solvents; review
E.E.; Ricaurte, M. Amine-Based
Solvents and Additives to Improve
the CO2 Capture Processes:
A Review. ChemEngineering 2024, 8,
1. Introduction
129. https://doi.org/10.3390/
chemengineering8060129 Carbon dioxide (CO2 ) is one of the significant waste gases from factory exhaust and
industrial activities, transportation, and electricity; these production sectors emit the most
Academic Editor: Fausto Gallucci
CO2 by employing fossil fuels [1–3]. Most CO2 -containing gases fall into typical gas
Received: 4 November 2024 mixtures, such as fuel gas (H2 and CO2 ), flue gas (N2 and CO2 ), and CO2 -containing gas
Revised: 2 December 2024 mixtures that comprise high CO2 concentrations (>15 mole%), such as natural gas, biogas,
Accepted: 11 December 2024 landfill gas, and refinery gases [4–6]. As the concentration of greenhouse gases in the
Published: 13 December 2024 atmosphere increases, effective CO2 emission reduction strategies, such as carbon capture,
utilization, and storage (CCUS), are required to counter this trend [7–13]. Moreover, a carbon
capture strategy is essential to prevent CO2 emissions from all possible sources [14–18].
Emerging technologies focus on developing advanced materials and innovative tech-
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
niques to enhance CO2 capture efficiency and selectivity. Approaches such as metal–organic
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
frameworks (MOFs) [19], solid sorbents (e.g., zeolites or clay/sand pellets) [20,21], covalent
This article is an open access article
organic frameworks (COFs) [22], and covalent microporous polymers (CMPs) [23] have
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
demonstrated potential due to their high porosity [24], structural stability, and tunable
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
functionalities for CO2 adsorption [25]. Electrochemical processes leveraging renewable
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
electricity to integrate CO2 capture with green hydrogen production [26] and membrane
4.0/). separation technologies that offer modular, solvent-free solutions for CO2 capture are also

ChemEngineering 2024, 8, 129. https://doi.org/10.3390/chemengineering8060129 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/chemengineering

ChemEngineering 2024, 8, 129 2 of 20

gaining traction [27,28]. Additionally, advanced porous materials, including polymeric

and nanostructured adsorbents, are being developed to improve CO2 selectivity and effi-
ciency [29]. More ambitious methods, such as direct air capture (DAC) [30], aim to extract
CO2 directly from the atmosphere, promising net-negative emissions but facing challenges
such as low CO2 concentrations and high operational costs. Despite the significant advance-
ments, the scalability, and economic feasibility remain critical hurdles for the industrial
adoption of emerging technologies [31].
Conversely, mature technologies dominate industrial-scale CO2 capture due to their
reliability, scalability, and proven performance in diverse applications. Processes like amine-
based solvent absorption [32], widely used for post-combustion capture, are favored for
their high CO2 capture efficiency despite drawbacks such as high energy requirements for
regeneration and solvent degradation [33]. Pressure swing adsorption (PSA), temperature
swing adsorption (TSA), and vacuum swing adsorption (VSA) are established methods for
pre-combustion and high-purity CO2 capture, with VSA offering lower energy requirements
compared to TSA [34,35]. Cryogenic separation is suitable for streams with high CO2
concentrations, while calcium looping provides high thermal efficiency for large-scale
applications [34]. Additionally, oxy-fuel combustion produces concentrated CO2 streams
but faces challenges in retrofitting existing infrastructure due to high costs [36]. While
these technologies are well-suited for current industrial needs, continued evolution aims to
address energy intensity and integration challenges, creating opportunities for synergistic
advancements with emerging approaches. Table A1 summarizes the main advantages and
disadvantages of emerging and mature technologies for CO2 capture processes.
Chemical absorption with aqueous solvents has been the most reliable and promising
technology for CO2 capture after large-scale combustion [37]. It consists of reversible
reactions of CO2 with chemical solvents to form weakly bonded intermediate compounds
that can be regenerated by applying heat to the original solvent and CO2 stream [38].
Two technological approaches usually reduce the energy used for CO2 solvent regenera-
tion [39–41]: (a) new solvent development, either using a selective CO2 solvent or mixing
various solvents or additives, and (b) process optimization. Amine-based, carbonate-based,
aqueous ammonia, and ionic liquid-based systems are the standard systems for carbon
dioxide capture [42–46]. Among these technological options, the amine-based solvents are
the most mature technology and the most used worldwide [47–50].
Namieśnik and Zygmunt [51] stated that amines are organic compounds derived
from ammonia, like alcohols and ethers derived from water. Amines can be produced by
decomposing larger molecules, i.e., amino acids and ammonia synthesis [52]. In addition,
amines can be classified according to the number of alkyl (or aryl) groups attached to the
nitrogen atom as primary amines (with only one radical bonded), secondary amines (with
two radicals bonded), and tertiary amines (with three radicals bonded) [53]. Compared
to tertiary amines, primary and secondary amines may have mobile hydrogen atoms on
nitrogen, allowing for better performance [54]. Other amine-based solvents have also been
proposed for CO2 capture. Among these, heterocyclic amines stand out [55]. Heterocyclic
amines are compounds with at least one heterocyclic ring, a cyclic chemical structure with
two or more different elements [56]. Their reactivity in the capture process requires the
absorption of the acid-free carbonic proton produced by the interaction between CO2 and
water. Owing to its basicity (in virtually all amines), the amine–water reaction interaction
results in pH values higher than 8.5. Therefore, it facilitates faster CO2 reactivity. Piper-
azine [57,58] and 3-piperidine-1,2-propanediol [59] are examples of heterocyclic amines
used in CO2 capture processes.
Alkanolamines originate from primary amines [60]. This group comprises three com-
ponents: a hydroxyl group as the primary alcohol, an amino group as the primary amine,
and an alkane backbone. Secondary and tertiary alkanolamines, each composed of sec-
ondary and tertiary amines, contain one or more hydroxyl groups in their backbones [59,61].
The −OH group in alkanolamines reduces instability and favors solubility in water [62].
Altway et al. [63] stated that different amine-based solvents have been extensively stud-
 ChemEngineering 2024, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 21
ChemEngineering 2024, 8, 129 3 of 20

Alkanolamines originate from primary amines [60]. This group comprises three
components: a hydroxyl group as the primary alcohol, an amino group as the primary
ied
amine,for
andCO 2 capture
an alkane backbone.purposes.
Secondary and Figure
tertiary 1 shows theeach
alkanolamines, chemical
composed ofstructure of the most com-
secondary and tertiary amines, contain one or more hydroxyl groups in their backbones
monly used amines for CO 2 capture—monoethanolamine
[59,61]. The −OH group in alkanolamines reduces instability and favors solubility in water
(MEA), diethanolamine (DEA),
methyldiethanolamine (MDEA),
[62]. Altway et al. [63] stated that piperazine
different amine-based (PZ),
solvents and
have beendiisopropanolamine
extensively (DIPA) [44,64].
studied
The for CO2 capture
dominant purposes. Figure
mechanism for CO 1 shows the chemical
capture by structure
these of the involves
amines most the formation of car-
2
commonly used amines for CO2 capture—monoethanolamine (MEA), diethanolamine
bamates through a nucleophilic attack of the amine nitrogen
(DEA), methyldiethanolamine (MDEA), piperazine (PZ), and diisopropanolamine (DIPA) on the carbon of CO 2 , forming
carbamic acid, which
[44,64]. The dominant subsequently
mechanism for CO2 capturedeprotonates to produce
by these amines involves a carbamate ion. This reaction
the formation
of carbamates through a nucleophilic attack of the amine nitrogen on the carbon of CO2,
is prevalent in primary and secondary amines, such as MEA and DEA [65]. In contrast,
forming carbamic acid, which subsequently deprotonates to produce a carbamate ion.
tertiary
This reactionamines like
is prevalent MDEAanddo
in primary not form
secondary carbamates
amines, such as MEA and directly,
DEA [65].but promote CO2 capture
through the bicarbonate
In contrast, tertiary amines like MDEAequilibrium by facilitating
do not form carbamates thepromote
directly, but conversion
CO2 of dissolved CO2 into
capture through the bicarbonate equilibrium by facilitating the conversion of dissolved
bicarbonate ions [66]. Adding PZ as an activator in tertiary
CO2 into bicarbonate ions [66]. Adding PZ as an activator in tertiary amine systems
amine systems enhances the
reaction
enhances the kinetics, enabling
reaction kinetics, faster
enabling fasterabsorption
absorption ratesrates
[67]. [67].

Figure 1. Chemical
Figure 1. Chemical structures
structures of the most
of the most common common
amine used amine used in CO2 capture.
in CO2 capture.

A formulated amine can generally be defined as an amine specifically designed to

A formulated amine can generally be defined as an amine specifically designed to carry
carry out basic functions or simple tasks. Major solvent producers sell many patented
out basic
solvents basedfunctions
on formulated or amines
simple tasks.
with a highMajor
degree of solvent producers
secrecy about sell many patented solvents
the chemical
composition
based and the operational
on formulated amines performance
with a high of these
degree commercial
of secrecysolvents [68]. the chemical composition
about
Nevertheless, formulated amines are versatile chemical solvents suitable for industrial
and the operational performance of these commercial solvents [68]. Nevertheless, formu-
applications [68,69]. According to Koehler and Claffey [70], polyisobuteneamine (PIBA)
lated
has beenamines areforversatile
widely used chemical
formulated amines. solvents
Chowdhury suitable
et al. [59] exploredfor industrial
mixtures of applications [68,69].
amine sorbents,
According tomainly
Koehler primary
andand tertiary [70],
Claffey or secondary and tertiary amines,(PIBA)
polyisobuteneamine for has been widely used
example, MEA and MDEA or DEA and MDEA, respectively. These integrated
for formulated
components amines.
have higher Chowdhury
reaction et al. [59]
rates than the primary explored
and secondary mixtures
amine solvents of amine sorbents, mainly
primary
proposed forand tertiary
industrial or secondary
gas processing. Amines thatand aretertiary
consumed amines,
in industrialfor example, MEA and MDEA or
processes
have become impractical. Storage-deteriorated amines need to be cleaned before use, and
DEA and MDEA, respectively. These integrated components
they are too expensive owing to amine loss through oxidation and additional losses in
have higher reaction rates than
the primary
cleaning processes.and secondary amine solvents proposed for industrial gas processing. Amines
Adding additives to chemical solvents could efficiently separate CO
that are consumed in industrial processes have become impractical. Storage-deteriorated 2 gas, such as

ionic liquids, surfactants, and physical and chemical absorbers [71,72]. Additives, such as
amines need
aqueous amine to becontain
solvents, cleanedeitherbefore
a single use,
amine and theyamines.
or several are tooWhileexpensive
single- owing to amine loss
through oxidation
amine solvents and additional
are still commercially losses
used, amine blendsin andcleaning
formulatedprocesses.
amines tend to
be rational alternatives for gas separation. Newly produced high-performance solvents
Adding additives to chemical solvents could efficiently separate CO2 gas, such as
are also based on amine blends [66,68]. Several research studies have been focused on
ionic liquids,
discovering surfactants,
new mixed amine solvents,andprimarily
physical and chemical
concentrating absorbers
on the laboratory scale [71,72]. Additives, such
as
[66],aqueous amine amine
and on conventional solvents,
blendscontain either
and/or additives a single
to improve theamine or several amines. While single-
capture processes
of current industrial technologies [73]. Capturing and releasing CO2 via a cyclical chemical
amine solvents are still commercially used, amine blends and formulated amines tend to
be rational alternatives for gas separation. Newly produced high-performance solvents
are also based on amine blends [66,68]. Several research studies have been focused on
discovering new mixed amine solvents, primarily concentrating on the laboratory scale [66],
and on conventional amine blends and/or additives to improve the capture processes of
current industrial technologies [73]. Capturing and releasing CO2 via a cyclical chemical ab-
sorption/regeneration mechanism is expected to result in more than half the cost of capturing
absorbent regeneration and reducing the energy consumption of absorbent regeneration [59].
Several amine solvent solutions have been studied. However, an ideal solvent has
not been found. One of the essential factors is implementing a closed process that allows
solvents to be reused at minimal environmental and economic costs. Researchers must al-
ways consider the overall effect of the implementation of new technology and how it can be
tested to provide solutions on a local or global scale [74]. Efforts by the scientific community
have focused on finding additives that improve carbon dioxide capture processes [75]. This
could be due to the increase in operational problems caused by conventional amines in their
industrial use, such as technologies employed in natural gas, petroleum, coal-fuel-fired
thermal power plants, and chemical process industrial units [76]. Furthermore, the high
capital required to acquire permits and licenses for formulated amines is confidential [77].
ChemEngineering 2024, 8, 129 4 of 20

Hence, this state-of-the-art review from the last 20 years focuses on scientific articles,
proceedings, and patents to identify chemical solvents and additives to improve the CO2
capture process in mainly amine-based solutions. The identification and classification of
chemical solvents and additives reduce typical problems related to amine usage, such as
volatility and corrosion of equipment and pipes, as well as reduce unscheduled downtime
as much as possible, high regeneration temperatures, and high energy consumption. An
extensive and in-depth study of chemical additives employed to enhance and improve
CO2 capture is carried out to establish the most effective options for choosing possible
additives for future studies. The chemical solvents and additives obtained are then classified
according to technical aspects, such as their performance and viability. Moreover, we
identify some characteristics when choosing different additives (as their efficiency might
come from kinetics or thermodynamic enhancement) and analyze the actual tendencies
within this field of investigation.

2. Methodology
A systematic search was conducted in several databases to ensure a comprehensive
review of amine-based solvents and additives that could improve CO2 capture, using
keywords aligned with the study’s objectives. First, the most effective characteristics for
choosing amine-based compounds as chemical solvents to enhance and improve CO2
capture were established. Second, the solvents and additives identified were classified
according to their technical aspects, such as their performance and feasibility. Finally, some
physicochemical characteristics of the kinetic and thermodynamic types were identified as
related to the stability of the derivatives formed by the interaction between CO2 and the
compounds. At the beginning of the study, the search focused on keywords and databases
centered on the study’s objectives, as indicated in Table 1. Therefore, the selection was
based on common words plus compound terms, and one more was added to the above
results to narrow down the search criteria. This study was based on a literature review
focused on the last 20 years consulting scientific articles, proceedings, and patents on
databases and search engines such as Scopus, Web of Science, Crossref, Google Patents,
SciFinder, and OnePetro.

Table 1. The establishment of keywords employed for the search in the search-motor database
was consulted.

Establishment Specific Words Variable Words

Classification; mechanism;
kinetics; formulated amines;
Amine-based solvents amine mixtures; solvents;
CO2 capture amine
Additives improvements industrial problems; processes;
improvements; conventional;
renewable

Research Approach
More than 150 research articles were found, starting at the beginning of the 21st
century to 2024, where a clear tendency to increase research on amine-base compounds as
chemical solvents for CO2 capture exponentially was observed (Figure 2), with than 70% of
the publications in the period 2015–2014.
The scientific community’s effort to find additives that improve CO2 capture tends to
increase. This could be due to the increase in operational problems that conventional amines
cause in their industrial use, such as technologies employed in natural gas, petroleum, coal-
fuel thermal power plants, and chemical process industrial units [41]. Furthermore, the high
capital required to acquire permits and licenses for formulated amines is confidential [42].
There might be many cases that solve and prove this trend, but this study proposes one
by assuming that a chemical capture process undergoes amine-based blends composed of
additives. In that case, the capture process rate might increase, helping industrial operation
 ChemEngineering 2024, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 21

ChemEngineering 2024, 8, 129 5 of 20

Research Approach
More than 150 research articles were found, starting at the beginning of the 21st
century to 2024, where a clear tendency to increase research on amine-base compounds as
units prevent their main problems like corrosion and reducing maintenance and energetic
chemical solvents for CO2 capture exponentially was observed (Figure 2), with than 70%
costs,
of especially
the publications inperiod
in the countries that base their economies on oil and gas production.
2015–2014.

Figure 2. Publication’s trend of amine-based solvents and additives to improve CO2 capture.
Figure 2. Publication’s trend of amine-based solvents and additives to improve CO2 capture.
The scientific community’s effort to find additives that improve CO2 capture tends to
3. Challenges
increase. This could in
be Amine-Based
due to the increase Solvents Used
in operational in CO
problems Capture Processes
that2conventional
amines cause in their industrial use, such as technologies employed in natural gas,
Typically,
petroleum, coal-fuel the capture
thermal power process
plants, andthat usesprocess
chemical aqueous amines
industrial includes two units (Figure 3):
units [41].
The first column,
Furthermore, labeled
the high capital the to
required absorber, is where
acquire permits absorption
and licenses occurs due to contact between
for formulated
amines
the souris confidential
gas and[42].theThere might besolvent
chemical many casesinthat solve and prove this arrangement.
a countercurrent trend, but The second column,
this study proposes one by assuming that a chemical capture process undergoes amine-
labeled
based the
blends stripper,
composed releases
of additives. In the previously
that case, the captureabsorbed
process rate CO
might and regenerates the chemical sol-
2 increase,
vent, which
helping can
industrial be used
operation again
units to promote
prevent their main absorption
problems like in the first
corrosion andcolumn [78,79]. Additional
reducing maintenance and energetic costs, especially in countries that base their
equipment, like pumps, condensers, and reboilers, must perform well in gas-processing
economies on oil and gas production.
quantities and reduce energy consumption. The sweet gas must meet quality specifications
3. Challenges inon
depending
ChemEngineering 2024, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Amine-Based
downstreamSolvents Used in gas
natural CO2 Capture
usage Processes
[80]. The CO2 content
6 of 21 must be <1–2 mole% if
Typically, the capture process that uses aqueous amines includes two units (Figure
used as fuel gas [81].
3): The first column, labeled the absorber, is where absorption occurs due to contact
between the sour gas and the chemical solvent in a countercurrent arrangement. The
second column, labeled the stripper, releases the previously absorbed CO2 and
regenerates the chemical solvent, which can be used again to promote absorption in the
first column [78,79]. Additional equipment, like pumps, condensers, and reboilers, must
perform well in gas-processing quantities and reduce energy consumption. The sweet gas
must meet quality specifications depending on downstream natural gas usage [80]. The
CO2 content must be <1–2 mole% if used as fuel gas [81].

Figure 3. Typical process flow diagram of the CO2 capture process using amine-based solvents.
Figure 3. Typical process flow diagram of the CO2 capture process using amine-based solvents.
(Adapted from [79]). © 2023 by the authors.
(Adapted from [79]). © 2023 by the authors.
CO2 capture processes using aqueous amines as chemical solvents employ amine-
based compounds that have been thoroughly tested on laboratory and pilot scales to study
CO2 capture processes using aqueous amines as chemical solvents employ amine-
their ability to achieve high absorption potential, cyclic loading and cyclic capacity,
based
improvedcompounds
absorption rate,that have regeneration
low solvent been thoroughly testedcorrosion,
energy, decreased on laboratory
and and pilot scales to
study their ability to achieve high absorption potential, cyclic loading and cyclic capacity,
thermal degradation [82]. The effectiveness of several chemical solvents depends not only
on their CO2 absorption capacity and efficiency, particularly the role of the
improved absorption rate, low solvent regeneration energy, decreased corrosion, and
thermodynamic solution, but also on their kinetics [83–85]. It has been shown that using
thermal degradation
amines as additives, the most[82]. The
widely usedeffectiveness
chemical solvents of toseveral chemical
capture and sequestersolvents depends not only
carbon
on dioxide,
their CO2isabsorption
an exciting option for improving
capacity and the overall performance
efficiency, particularly[72,86].the role of the thermodynamic
Most amine-based chemical compounds and blends have been employed as 10–65
solution, butinalso
wt.% solutions on their
deionized kinetics
or distilled water [83–85]. It has
[40,60,82,87,88]. been shown
However, thatto using amines as additives,
it is essential
the most
mention thatwidely
in variousused chemical
processes, amines can solvents to capture as
vary their concentrations and sequester
a function of carbon dioxide, is an
the desired grade of capture, operational arrangements of the industrial plant, or even the
exciting option for improving the overall performance
characteristics of the gas current employed due to corrosion problems [89]. Higher
[72,86].
Most amine-based
concentrations chemical
can reduce the circulation compounds
of amines andabsorption
and increase blends temperature
have been employed as 10–65 wt.%
and corrosion
solutions in rate. Amine units
deionized can usually water
or distilled meet performance promises and
[40,60,82,87,88]. have no it is essential to mention
However,
operational issues during early service. However, device efficiency typically deteriorates
with time, primarily due to the build-up of pollutants and impurities and lack of
maintenance [40].
A single method cannot be selected based only on the solution flow rate when
employing amine-based compounds as chemical solvents. Consequently, it is essential to
point out the typical characteristics of conventional amines. Chemical solvents employed
as aqueous amines have advantages and disadvantages [90], as illustrated in Table 2.
ChemEngineering 2024, 8, 129 6 of 20

that in various processes, amines can vary their concentrations as a function of the desired
grade of capture, operational arrangements of the industrial plant, or even the character-
istics of the gas current employed due to corrosion problems [89]. Higher concentrations
can reduce the circulation of amines and increase absorption temperature and corrosion
rate. Amine units can usually meet performance promises and have no operational issues
during early service. However, device efficiency typically deteriorates with time, primarily
due to the build-up of pollutants and impurities and lack of maintenance [40].
A single method cannot be selected based only on the solution flow rate when employ-
ing amine-based compounds as chemical solvents. Consequently, it is essential to point out
the typical characteristics of conventional amines. Chemical solvents employed as aqueous
amines have advantages and disadvantages [90], as illustrated in Table 2.

Table 2. Advantages and disadvantages of amine-based technology for CO2 capture.

Advantages Disadvantages
• Low carbon dioxide loading capacity
• The high corrosion rate of the equipment
• Amine oxidation by SO2 , NO2 , HCl, and
• Less volatile HF, and the presence of oxygen in the
• Good stability of absorbent natural gas stream
• Enhancement role used as additives • High energy consumption during
• Mature technology high-temperature absorbent regeneration
• Toxicity and environmental issues
• High capital costs (CAPEX) and
operational costs (OPEX)

Amine solvents can cause operational problems in absorption units [91], which can be
mitigated by maintaining a temperature approach between the lean amine and feed gas,
skimming hydrocarbons from rich amine flash drums and reflux drums, and improving
particulate filters and carbon filters [37,40,92,93]. The drawbacks of the most common
amines employed in the capture process are as follows [64,94–96]:
1. Low carbon dioxide loading capacity. The solubility of CO2 in the liquid phase is essential
for adequately measuring the absorption effectiveness. As a result, replacing water
in amine solvents with organic co-solvents such as alcohols will also increase the
physical solubility of CO2 in solutions, enhance solvent regeneration performance,
and reduce regeneration costs. However, the elevated volatility of co-solvents is a
drawback for industrial applications. In addition, the higher viscosity of organic
solvents such as amines may harm the heat exchanger efficiency, absorption kinetics,
and pumping costs [91].
2. High corrosion rate of the equipment. CO2 capture systems as amine-based chemical
solvents are used in industrial processes, which may corrode lines and equipment
owing to their chemical nature, leading to bicarbonate and carbamate species [97,98].
Some techniques have been implemented, such as incorporating corrosion inhibitors
or introducing alternate absorption liquids [99–101]. Electrochemical tests must be
performed to clarify the potential harm incurred by the preceding evidence [102].
Other operational problems include solvent chemical instability, which is more prone
to using primary and secondary amines than tertiary amines [103].
3. Amine oxidation by SO2 , NO2 , HCl, and HF, and the presence of oxygen in the natural gas
stream. Oxidative degradation of amine solutions reduces CO2 capacity absorption
and can increase corrosion in natural gas treatment facilities [104,105]. Vega et al. [106]
summarized the main degradation products of the common amine-based solvents.
4. High energy consumption during high-temperature absorbent regeneration. In comparison,
mixed amine solvents can lead to a lower circulation flow rate, which means smaller
equipment sizes and lower capital and operational costs [91]. Using an alkanolamine,
such as a liquid absorbent, causes variable debris and operative problems such as
ChemEngineering 2024, 8, 129 7 of 20

corrosion, volatility, and thermal degradation at 100–150 ◦ C, making it difficult to

control. Therefore, the use of power and cost is high and may increase in each
absorption process [107]. Thus, developing improved chemical methods for CO2
capture processes is required to prevent high temperatures and mitigate their adverse
effects [108,109]. The amine degradation activity can result in the loss of solvents,
accumulation of byproducts, foaming, and corrosion, significantly affecting the CO2
capture efficiency [110]. Moreover, as is well known in industrial applications, a
high-grade amine vaporization loss arises in the absorber when the sweet gas escapes
and is saturated with water at a higher temperature.
5. Toxicity and environmental issues. Solvent emissions are a severe problem in the in-
dustrialization of the amine-based CO2 capture process [111]. Amine-based solvent
degradation during operation, driven by thermal and oxidative stresses, generates
harmful byproducts such as nitrosamines, nitramines, and aldehydes, which can pose
risks to human health and ecosystems. Nitrosamines, in particular, are classified as
potential carcinogens and have strict regulatory limits in many jurisdictions [112].
Additionally, amines and their degradation products can leach into water systems if
they are not properly managed, leading to contamination and ecological harm [113].
The corrosive nature of amine solutions also contributes to increased maintenance and
material costs, potentially exacerbating waste management issues, as corroded mate-
rials require disposal [114]. Advanced solvent formulations with improved thermal
and oxidative stability can reduce the formation of hazardous byproducts. In contrast,
process design improvements such as effective byproduct removal and closed-loop
systems can minimize environmental release.
6. High capital costs (CAPEX) and operational costs (OPEX). CAPEX is associated with
the equipment required for CO2 absorption and amine-based solvent regeneration.
Developing new equipment materials and process optimization could help reduce the
capital cost for existing and new industrial facilities [115–117]. For its part, OPEX is
associated with plant operation and maintenance issues; these costs can be minimized
by reducing the viscosity and foaming of the aqueous solution, reducing the amine
loss through evaporation, lowering energy consumption in the solvent regeneration
unit, and reducing the corrosion rate. Some additives have been tested to improve
the operational performance of amine-based solvents, e.g., imidazolium-based ionic
liquids can reduce the viscosity [118], piperazine and bicine control the foam for-
mation [119], and ionic surfactants can reduce the energy requirement in the amine
regeneration processes [120]. Blending two or more amines has been recognized as an
efficient strategy to formulate competitive liquid sorbents, as it allows one to benefit
from the advantages of each individual amine, improving the CO2 absorption and
desorption rates and energy consumption during the regeneration process [73].

4. Amine-Based Solvents and Additives to Improve the CO2 Capture Process

4.1. Classification According to Their Chemical Nature
A classification based on the origin of the compounds was performed, focusing on
their chemical nature, as shown in Table 3. Extensive research has been conducted on
chemical solvents, additives, and promoters to improve CO2 absorption. According to their
chemical nature and engineering aspects, the criteria for classification are conventionally
named products employed in the CO2 capture process. The additives were grouped into
primary, secondary, and tertiary amine categories. Additional classifications correspond to
other amine compounds with structures different from those of primary, secondary, and
tertiary amino acids (containing a mixture). Some other compounds that do not contain
amines in their chemical structures but remain as chemical solvents are also classified
as other chemical compounds. The chemical compounds were classified into families
because it is necessary to manage the information efficiently. However, this study found
that additives are not just close to kinetic or thermodynamic improvements. Additives
can also control foaming production or protect the available equipment to avoid corrosion.
ChemEngineering 2024, 8, 129 8 of 20

Hence, chemical solvents as additives/promoters to improve chemical absorption are at the

forefront of investigative applications. The main benefit comes from the existence of these
chemical additive (purchasable) compounds. Its utilization is being tested, and the current
infrastructure does not need to be transformed or adapted for its implementation. Details
of each compound identified in this study can be found in the Supplementary Materials.

Table 3. Abbreviations in the classification of amine-based solvents and additives.

Chemical Nature
Compounds Identified Compounds [References]
(Abbreviation)
AMP [85,121–126]; AMPD [121]; AEDP [121,124]; THAM [121,127];
MEA [78,85,96,122–126,128–134]; DEEA [59,60,87,108,134–138];
AEEA [122,126,131,136]; AEP [122]; DMEA [59,60,108,126,137];
DMA-1P [59,60]; DEA-1P [59,60]; DMA-2P [59,60]; DEA-2P [59,60];
DIPAE [59]; DMA-2M-1P [59,60]; DMA-2,2-DM-1P [59];
4EMA-2B [59]; EDEA [59,135]; IPDEA [59,123]; tBDEA [59];
Alkanolamine Family
43 DMA-1,2-PD [59,60]; DEA-1,2-PD [59,60]; TEA [59,139];
(AAM)
MDEA [59,60,78,85,88,96,123,124,126,129,137,139–145];
DEAB [60]; DEA [78,96,123,124,126,131,145]; MAMP [123];
EAMP [123]; IPAE [123]; IBAE [123]; SBAE [123]; MMEA [124,126];
NBMEA [124]; TBMEA [124]; EMEA [124,135]; DIPA [124];
AMPDI [124]; MAPA [87,129]; TEPA [129]; DGA [85]; TIPA [137,139];
triMEA [126]
PZ [78,85,122,124,131,146,147]; NMP [146,148]; IMI [146];
4-A1MPD [134]; 1-(2HE)PRLD [59]; PRLD-1,2-PD [59]; 1-(2HE)PP [59]; 3PP-1,2-PD [59];
Heterocyclic Amines 1M-2PPE [59,123]; 3H-1MPP [59]; 1E-3HPP [59];
21
(HCA) AEPI [88,143,149]; BTA [140]; H [149]; SRT [149]; 2-PMA [149];
2-2-AEP [149]; 4-2-AEM [149]; NFM [148]; PYR [139]; DMP [126]
Arg [142,150]; L-His [149]; D-His [149]; L-Phe [149]; D-Phe [149];
Amino Acids
12 L-DOPA [149]; D-DOPA [149]; L-Trp [149]; D-Trp [149]; L-Tyr [149];
(AmA)
D-Tyr [149]; 4-A-L-Phe [149]
BEHA [78]; N,N-DM13PDA [134]; N,N-DM12EDA [126,134];
Amine Family
10 TMEDA [110,126]; TMPDA [110]; TMBDA [110]; EDA [43,78,135];
(AF)
DETA [129,141]; TETA [88,129,141]; TELA [78,85]
[EMIM]BF4 [71]; [EtOHMim][PF6] [151]; [EtOHMim][BF4] [151];
Ionic Liquids
10 [EtOHMim]Cl [151]; [Choline][PF6] [151]; [Choline][BF4] [151];
(IL)
[Choline]Cl [151]; 2-PHEN [152]; 3-PHEN [152]; 4-PHEN [152]
Organic Salts TBAB [71,153,154]; TBAF [155]; TBAC [153]; TBPB [152,153];
5
(OS) TBPC [153]
Alcohols
3 TEG [146]; MeOH [131,156]; PHEN [152]
(Al)
Antifoam Emulsions
2 SAG 7133 [140]; VP 5371 [140]
(AE)
Catecholamines
2 DA [149]; ADR [149]
(Cam)
Cyclic Esters
2 PC [71,148]
(CEs)
Cyclic Ethers
2 PEGDME [148]; THF [153,154]
(CEt)
Corrosion Inhibitors
1 CRO27005 [140]
(CI)
Inorganic Compounds
1 AM [121,151]
(IC)
Resines
1 Amberlite IRA-402 [108]
(R)
Surfactants
1 SDBS [71]
(S)
Thiophenes
1 SUF [146,148]
(TF)
Note: The full names and CAS registry numbers of all additives listed above are available in the Supplementary
Materials.
ChemEngineering 2024, 8, 129 9 of 20

ChemEngineering 2024, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW

Figure 4 shows the percentage of additives being used as promoters in the chemical 10 of 21

absorption of carbon dioxide. The compounds with amines in their structure are separated
into four groups because of their nature; the remnant components are described as each
one’s
one’s chemical
chemical family. important to
family. It is also important to clarify
clarify that
that the
the compounds
compoundsdescribed
describedinin
Figure
Figure 44 are
are mainly
mainly used
used as
as promoters, considering the
promoters, considering the employment
employmentof ofaabase
basesolution
solution
(unrelated to basicity) as the support or template of the chemical experiments
(unrelated to basicity) as the support or template of the chemical experiments and and howhowthe
promoters showshow
the promoters their their
improvements. Regarding
improvements. additives,
Regarding compounds
additives, containing
compounds amine
containing
groups in their in
amine groups structure are the are
their structure mostthecommonly employed
most commonly in carbon
employed in dioxide capture,
carbon dioxide
representing 74% of the
capture, representing total
74% of compounds.
the total compounds.

Figure4.
Figure 4. Amine-based
Amine-based solvents and additives
additives employed
employed to
toimprove
improveCO
CO2 2capture.
capture.

The
The primary
primary group
group of of compounds
compounds used used in in CO
CO22capture
captureprocesses
processesisisthe thealkanolamine
alkanolamine
family,
family,which
whichisis formed
formed mainly
mainly by by primary alkanolamines (composed
primary alkanolamines (composedof ofprimary
primaryamines
amines
and alcohols). Other groups are secondary and tertiary alkanolamines,
and alcohols). Other groups are secondary and tertiary alkanolamines, formed by formed by secondary
and tertiary amines
secondary and oneamines
and tertiary or moreand hydroxyl
one or groups.
moreTohydroxyl
unite all alkanolamine
groups. To groups,
unite all an
alkanolamine family was established. These are the most
alkanolamine groups, an alkanolamine family was established. These are the most frequent additives that enhance
the capture
frequent processthat
additives because
enhance thethealcohol
capture group
processincreases
becausetheir solubility,
the alcohol groupavoiding
increasesthe
blend’s
their solubility, avoiding the blend’s major viscosity problems. Reciprocal alkanolaminesas
major viscosity problems. Reciprocal alkanolamines are widely developed
promoters
are widelybecause
developed of their availability
as promoters at purchase
because of their and use; they
availability are the most
at purchase andcommonly
use; they
employed chemical solvents in industrial applications.
are the most commonly employed chemical solvents in industrial applications. Here lies the most typical
Hereamine
lies
MEA.
the mostThis group’s
typical amine mostMEA. typical secondary
This group’s most and tertiary
typical aminesand
secondary aretertiary
DEA and aminesMDEA,
are
respectively. These amines are also considered base solutions
DEA and MDEA, respectively. These amines are also considered base solutions because because of their current
industrial applications.
of their current industrial Many types of Many
applications. research typeshave commonly
of research haveevaluated
commonly their possible
evaluated
improvements, such as Liu et al. [60] and You et al. [121], who
their possible improvements, such as Liu et al. [60] and You et al. [121], who stated that stated that low-energy
regeneration has drawn a great
low-energy regeneration deal ofainterest
has drawn great deal in absorption
of interestcompared
in absorptionto other traditional
compared to
amine absorbents.
other traditional amine absorbents.
The
The second
second group
group consists
consists of of amine-cyclic-based
amine-cyclic-basedadditives additivesand andheterocyclic
heterocyclicamines.
amines.
Their
Theirnames
names reveal
reveal their
their forms
forms andand importance,
importance, mainly mainlyas as kinetic
kineticpromoters,
promoters,whichwhichwillwill
be explained below. The most studied additive in this category
be explained below. The most studied additive in this category has been piperazine (PZ), has been piperazine
(PZ),
which which consists
consists of a of a six-membered
six-membered ring,ring,
fourfour carbons,
carbons, andand twotwonitrogens
nitrogensininopposite
opposite
positions.
positions. PZ can be considered a new standard for CO2 capture technology [147] duetoto
PZ can be considered a new standard for CO 2 capture technology [147] due its
“high absorption rate, good stability, low viscosity, and high
its “high absorption rate, good stability, low viscosity, and high capacity” [146]. capacity” [146].
The
The third
third group
group corresponds
corresponds to to amino
amino acidsacids that
that have
haveappeared
appearedininrecent
recentyears.
years.
Many studies have been conducted to justify their new importance
Many studies have been conducted to justify their new importance as additives in the as additives in the
capture
captureprocess.
process. According
According to Bavoh et
to Bavoh et al.
al. [157],
[157],amino
aminoacidsacidshave
havechemically
chemicallymore morerobust
robust
interactions with water through zwitterion mechanisms and can
interactions with water through zwitterion mechanisms and can be more environmentally be more environmentally
friendly. The next group is ionic liquids (IL); these compounds have the same
characteristics as amino acids, i.e., the strong electronic interaction between the
ChemEngineering 2024, 8, 129 10 of 20

friendly. The next group is ionic liquids (IL); these compounds have the same characteristics
as amino acids, i.e., the strong electronic interaction between the compounds and CO2 [46].
Their stability is also higher than that of the conventional additives. However, it is challenging
to synthesize ionic compounds as they require specific ambient conditions and are among the
most expensive compounds to investigate [158]. Additionally, the use of IL has been proposed
to increase exponentially over time, as stated in the investigation by Haider et al. [158].
In addition, one of the major groups is the amine family. This group is composed of
smaller families that contain only amine groups. The four smaller ones are monoamines,
consisting of compounds with only one amine group; diamines, consisting of two amine
groups; triamines, consisting of three amine groups; and tetramines, consisting of four
amine groups, depicting the presence of primary, secondary, or tertiary amines.
As seen in Figure 4, the alkanolamine family, heterocyclic amine, amino acid, ionic
liquid, and amine family comprise the top five employed additives. These compounds are
called the big five compounds because they represent 83% of the total additives considered
in this study. Smaller percentages are compounds with no amine groups, which might
cause their use. They include organic salts, alcohols, surfactants, catecholamines, antifoam
emulsions, inorganic compounds, cyclic esters, cyclic ethers, corrosion inhibitors, thio-
phenes, and resins. Most of them can be related to additives. Their efficiency is not focused
on improving the in situ capture process itself, but instead on improving the technical
aspects of capture, such as foam formation or one of the process’s significant problems,
such as corrosion.
Blended solvents, composed of an amine blend and some chemical additives, have
been proposed to overcome the limitations of chemical absorption with amine-based sol-
vents. The benefits of amine blends are also limited to individual amines on the market [123].
Gómez-Díaz et al. [84] studied the effect of primary amines (MEAs), secondary amines
(DEAs), and tertiary amines (TEAs) on absorption with and without the addition of CO2
with a purity of 99.99%. They demonstrated that the primary reaction was carbamate
formation when MEA and DEA were employed. The stability of DEA-carbamate was lower
than that of MEA-carbamate because of the higher steric hindrance of DEA. Therefore, it
reduced the overall rate and lowered the absorption value. Because TEA reacts differently
with CO2 and water, it has a different absorption value. If an additive is added to amines,
their properties change. Gómez-Díaz et al. [84] concluded that the absorption efficiency of
amines can be disposed of according to the following scale: DEA < MEA < TEA. This scale
can be modified by incorporating various additives, with the primary objective being the
investigation of kinetic or thermodynamic additives to enhance its properties. An example
of kinetic and thermodynamic promoters occurs in MEA in the presence of sodium dodecyl
sulfate (SDS); tetra-n-butylammonium bromide (TBAB) can increase the mass transfer rate
and solubility in the presence of the additive, respectively [159].
Another study of conventional MDEA was conducted by Wang et al. [88]: A mixture
of simulated carbon dioxide and nitrogen flue gas was combined to perform this exper-
iment, with no further purification (99.99%) and distilled water. It was prepared under
two conditions: absorption and desorption. The amine additives were triethylenetetramine
(TETA) and 1,3-Diamino-2-propanol (AEP), each employed with different compositions
at vol%, one with the conventional amine and distilled water; the other with the amine
additive TETA and distilled water; and the final with MDEA, TETA, AEP, and distilled
water at different compositions. The experiment was conducted at 25 ◦ C with 1 bar of
absorption and 100 ◦ C with 1 bar for desorption. It was observed that the viscosity and
concentration of the amine blend increased with the addition of additives. The results
indicate that the absorption capacity increased with the addition of additives to the amine
base solution. These results also recalled that the activation effect of the chemical solvents
was much better than expected, as MDEA < MDEA + TETA < MDEA + TETA + AEP.
Similarly, the desorption efficiency of the additives also improved as solvents were added.
However, the negative effect reflected in the experiment was the increase in viscosity;
thus, it was confirmed that there was a noticeable increase in viscosity with an increasing
ChemEngineering 2024, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 o

ChemEngineering 2024, 8, 129 11 of 20

viscosity with an increasing volume fraction of additives. Even though the experim
revealed no direct relationship between the absorption performance and viscosity,
volume fraction
additional of additives.
negative effect wasEventhe
though
low the experiment
desorption revealed no direct relationship
efficiency.
between the absorption performance and viscosity, an additional negative effect was the
low desorption efficiency.
4.2. Improvements in the CO2 Capture Process
4.2. Improvements
According to in the
theCO 2 Captureclassification,
additive Process the analysis proposed in this study reve
According to the additive classification,
the different improvements of the additives’ the analysis
differentproposed in this
families. The study reveals
results are shown
the different improvements of the additives’ different families. The results are shown in
Figure 5. The final classification of additives can be divided into enhancements t
Figure 5. The final classification of additives can be divided into enhancements that directly
directly affect the capture process per se and others that involve enhancements t
affect the capture process per se and others that involve enhancements that prevent specific
prevent specific problemsand
problems in the equipment in around
the equipment and around the process.
the process.

Figure 5.
Figure Type ofofadditives’
5. Type additives’enhancements.
enhancements.
Thermodynamic enhancements are related to those that affect the solubility, vis-
Thermodynamic
cosity, enhancements properties
evaporation, and physicochemical are related toadditives
of the those that
in theaffect
blends.the For solubil
viscosity,
example, You evaporation,
et al. [121]and physicochemical
employed propertiesas
different alkanolamines ofadditives,
the additives
such asin AMP
the blends.
example, You et al. [121] employed different alkanolamines as additives, such(2-as AMP
(2-amino-2-methyl-1-propanol), AMPD (2-amino-2-methyl-1,3-propanediol), AEDP
amino-2-ethyl-1,3-propanediol), and
amino-2-methyl-1-propanol), AMPDTHAM (2-amino-2-methyl-1,3-propanediol),
(tri(hydroxymethyl) aminomethane), to testAEDP
their efficiency as thermodynamic promoters to avoid evaporation in the experiment,
amino-2-ethyl-1,3-propanediol), and THAM (tri(hydroxymethyl) aminomethane), to t
demonstrate it in different graphs of removal efficiency, and quantify the results at the
their efficiency as thermodynamic promoters to avoid evaporation in the experime
scale of weight loss. In addition, Xu et al. [151] used different ionic liquids to test their
demonstrate
efficiency. Theitresults
in different
are showngraphs
as theofvariation
removal in efficiency, and quantify
CO2 concentration the results at
for the different
scale of weight
additives loss. In
in the treated addition,
gas, Xu et
the variation in al.
the [151]
blend used different
concentration in ionic liquids
the process, andto test th
a comparative table of the total CO capacity in blended solutions. This
efficiency. The results are shown2 as the variation in CO2 concentration for the differ gives the final
result of the
additives in improvement
the treated gas, in both
the experiments;
variation inthus, the thermodynamic
the blend concentration improvement
in the process, an
is confirmed. Kinetic enhancements are based on the reaction mechanism that can be
comparative table of the total CO2 capacity in blended solutions. This gives the final res
macroscopically observed during the tests and at the absorption–desorption rate. Xiao
ofet the improvement
al. [134] tested differentin amine
both compounds,
experiments; thus, the thermodynamic
an alkanolamine, two diamines, and improvement
one
confirmed. Kinetic enhancements are based on the reaction
heterocyclic amine, such as DEEA (diethylethanolamine), N,N-DM13PDA (N,N-dimethyl- mechanism that can
macroscopically
1,3-propanediamine), observed during the
N,N-DM12EDA tests and at the absorption–desorption
(N,N-dimethyl-1,2-ethanediamine); and 4-A1MPD rate. Xiao
(4-amino-1-methylpiperidine), respectively. The evaluation was
al.[134] tested different amine compounds, an alkanolamine, two diamines, and operformed to observe the
absorption curves
heterocyclic versussuch
amine, carbamate formation(diethylethanolamine),
as DEEA rate data of carbamate bicarbonate concen-
N,N-DM13PDA (N
trations versus CO2 loading. Wang et al. [86] studied the influence of TETA and AEP in
dimethyl-1,3-propanediamine), N,N-DM12EDA (N,N-dimethyl-1,2-ethanediamine); a
MDEA. The CO2 absorption capacity, average CO2 absorption rate, and absorption and
4-A1MPD
desorption (4-amino-1-methylpiperidine),
rates were quantified as a functionrespectively. The evaluation
of time. Both experiments wasinperformed
resulted an
observe
improvement the inabsorption curves
absorption rates, versus
which carbamate
confirmed formation
the improvement rate data
in kinetic of carbam
efficiency.
bicarbonate concentrations versus CO2 loading. Wang et al. [86] studied the influence
TETA and AEP in MDEA. The CO2 absorption capacity, average CO2 absorption rate, a
absorption and desorption rates were quantified as a function of time. Both experime
resulted in an improvement in absorption rates, which confirmed the improvement
kinetic efficiency.
At this point, a few compounds may reflect both improvements, as suggested by
ChemEngineering 2024, 8, 129 12 of 20

At this point, a few compounds may reflect both improvements, as suggested by

the analysis of different studies that or many not contain dual information. Yuan and
Rochelle [146] investigated the effects of piperazine (PZ) with different additives. The
results reflected an improvement in viscosity and solubility with piperazine usage, which
can be categorized as a thermodynamic improvement according to the present study’s
classification. On the other hand, piperazine blends also exhibited an increase in the
CO2 absorption rate capacity, cyclic capacity, and average absorption rate, which in this
study can be reflected as a kinetic improvement. Finally, the other enhancements were
strongly related to the surroundings of the capture process, as foam can be produced
during this process. Antifoam emulsions were then added to control this formation.
Mota-Martínez et al. [140] investigated it and studied the effect of corrosion inhibitors on
the blends. Vullo et al. [149] studied the effect of additives, such as amines and amino acids,
which slightly improved the kinetic parameters of the blends. This category is located
within others because the effects have been proven in the catalytic processes of carbon
anhydrases when analyzing the investigation results. Thus, this process can be stigmatized
at a much smaller scale than that proposed in this study. Additionally, the first study can
reduce the maintenance frequency of the absorption–desorption equipment.

5. Final Remarks and Perspectives

This extensive research review of different articles and their subsequent classifications
according to the characteristics of the additives made it possible to classify them according
to their chemical nature. It has been shown that amine compounds, specifically alka-
nolamines, are the primary group and the most employed additives because of their high
percentage of use to improve CO2 capture. Few additives enhance industrial operability
compared to those that can improve kinetic and thermodynamic conditions. Both are the
most desirable because they are the source of the most significant improvements, such
as reducing additive volatility, decreasing viscosity, or increasing capture rate. Likewise,
avoiding changes in current capture units by considering new additives does not affect the
economy of industries or the environment. It is suggested that the selection or design of
tertiary alkanolamines should be made with linear alkanol chains instead of branched ones
for better CO2 capture performance in industrial applications.
Amine-based solvents remain a cornerstone of CO2 capture technology due to their
high capture efficiency and seamless integration with existing infrastructure, particularly
in post-combustion applications. Despite their widespread adoption, these solvents are
hindered by several challenges, including substantial energy requirements for solvent
regeneration, chemical degradation leading to byproduct formation, equipment corrosion,
and environmental concerns associated with waste management [64]. To address these
limitations, ongoing research is advancing the development of next-generation amine-based
solvents. Innovations such as blended amine formulations and novel solvent chemistries
are being explored to reduce energy consumption, enhance thermal and oxidative stability,
and minimize corrosivity [160]. Complementary process optimization strategies, including
advanced heat integration techniques, intercooling, and energy recovery systems, aim to
improve overall operational efficiency [118]. Furthermore, integrating renewable energy
sources into the regeneration process presents an opportunity to significantly reduce the
carbon footprint of these systems [161].
The integration of amine-based solvents with emerging technologies also holds con-
siderable promise. Hybrid systems that combine amine solvents with technologies such as
membranes or solid sorbents could capitalize on the strengths of each approach, potentially
achieving greater efficiency and flexibility in CO2 capture [162]. These advancements
highlight the enduring relevance of amine-based solvent technologies. However, their
future success depends on continued innovation to mitigate environmental and economic
impacts while maintaining scalability and reliability for industrial applications [163].
ChemEngineering 2024, 8, 129 13 of 20

Supplementary Materials: The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https:
//www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/chemengineering8060129/s1, Table S1. Additive classification:
alkanolamine family; Table S2. Heterocyclic amines; Table S3. Amino acids; Table S4. Amine
family; Table S5. Ionic liquids; Table S6. Organic salts; Table S7. Chemical compounds with other
functional groups.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, D.L. and M.R.; methodology, D.L. and M.R.; validation,
J.C., V.C., E.E.Á. and A.P.-C.; formal analysis, V.C., E.E.Á., A.P.-C. and M.R.; investigation, D.L. and
M.R.; data curation, A.P.-C.; writing—original draft preparation, D.L.; writing—review and editing,
J.C., V.C., A.P.-C. and M.R.; visualization, M.R.; supervision, M.R. All authors have read and agreed
to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: Data supporting this study’s findings are available from the corre-
sponding author (M.R.), upon reasonable request.
Acknowledgments: The authors acknowledge the support of the School of Chemical Sciences and
Engineering at Yachay Tech University (project number: CHEM21-10). We want to express our
gratitude to Andrew Nelson from Yachay Tech University for his assistance in proofreading this
manuscript, particularly concerning grammar and English style.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Appendix A

Table A1. Advantages and disadvantages of emerging and mature technologies for CO2 capture.

Category Technology Advantages Disadvantages

High selectivity and
Limited scalability; high material costs;
Emerging Metal-Organic tunable structures;
stability challenges under
technologies Frameworks (MOFs) low regeneration energy; potential
industrial conditions.
for direct air capture.
Sensitivity to humidity; performance
Reusable; reduced energy
Solid sorbents degradation over multiple cycles;
requirements; lower environmental
(e.g., zeolites) limited CO2 loading capacity compared
impact compared to liquid solvents.
to liquid systems.
High porosity and
Limited scalability; challenging
structural stability;
Covalent Organic synthesis methods; potential
tunable functionality for
Frameworks (COFs) degradation in industrial
CO2 selectivity;
environments.
low regeneration costs.
Expensive synthesis; lower CO2
High surface area and CO2 affinity;
Covalent Microporous capture capacity compared to some
lightweight and chemically robust;
Polymers (CMPs) MOFs; potential difficulty in
customizable functionality.
scaling production.
Low-temperature operation; direct High operational costs; limited
Electrochemical
utilization of renewable electricity; industrial deployment; lower capture
processes
integration with green hydrogen. rates in current designs.
Low CO2 purity for some applications;
Compact design; no chemical
susceptibility to fouling;
Membrane separation solvents required; modular
energy-intensive compression required
scalability.
for high-pressure streams.
Captures CO2 directly from High energy and cost demands; low
Direct Air Capture (DAC) ambient air; CO2 concentrations in air require large
potential for net-negative emissions. processing volumes.
ChemEngineering 2024, 8, 129 14 of 20

Table A1. Cont.

Category Technology Advantages Disadvantages

High energy consumption for
High capture efficiency; proven
Mature Chemical solvents regeneration; solvent degradation and
scalability; compatibility with
Technologies (e.g., Amine-based solvents) corrosivity; high capital and
existing infrastructure.
operational costs.
Requires high-pressure gas streams;
Well-suited for pre-combustion
Pressure Swing limited effectiveness for
capture; rapid cycle times; no
Adsorption (PSA) low-concentration CO2 sources;
chemical solvents required.
energy-intensive compression.
High selectivity for CO2 ; effective High energy requirements due to
Temperature Swing
for low-pressure or dilute gas heating; slower cycle times because of
Adsorption (TSA)
streams; simple regeneration. thermal inertia.
Lower energy requirements Requires robust vacuum equipment;
Vacuum Swing compared to TSA; faster cycle times; less effective for dilute or very
Adsorption (VSA) effective for high-concentration low-pressure gas streams; higher
streams. capital and maintenance costs.
Produces high-purity CO2 ; Very energy-intensive due to cooling
Cryogenicseparation well-suited for gas streams with requirements; high capital costs;
high CO2 concentrations. limited viability for dilute CO2 sources.
High-temperature operation; potential
High thermal efficiency; suitable for
for sorbent attrition; requires
Calcium looping large-scale applications; regenerable
integration with existing industrial
sorbents.
processes.
Produces a concentrated CO2 Requires oxygen separation, which is
Oxy-fuel Combustion stream, simplifying capture; energy-intensive; retrofitting existing
integrates with power generation. systems is complex and costly.

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