Integrated Waste Management for a Smart City – BCV654C CIVIL DEPARTMENT

MODULE-1
Introduction to Solid Waste Management Municipal Solid Waste Characteristics and
Quantities generation rates and waste composition; Integrated waste management issues,
collection, recovery, reuse, recycling, energy-from-waste, and landfilling.

Solid waste refers to any discarded or unwanted materials. It includes various items such as
paper, plastics, glass and food waste. The solid waste can include sludge from industrial plants
or other discarded materials that result from industrial, commercial, mining and agricultural
operations.
Solid waste can come from a variety of sources and consist of multiple types of trash generated
from different human activities. These waste types can be categorized into several groups
based on their origin, composition and characteristics:

• Municipal Solid Waste (MSW): This type includes everyday items discarded by
households, such as paper, plastics, food scraps, textiles, packaging materials, yard waste
and household hazardous waste like batteries or cleaning products.
• Industrial Waste: Generated by industrial processes and manufacturing activities,
industrial waste comprises materials like scrap metal, chemicals, solvents, sludge and other
by-products from factories and production facilities.
• Commercial Waste: Originating from commercial establishments such as offices,
restaurants, shops and institutions, this waste type includes paper, packaging materials,
food waste and other discarded items.
• Construction and Demolition Debris (C&D): Generated from construction, renovation
and demolition activities, C&D waste includes concrete, wood, bricks, asphalt, metals,
drywall and other materials used in building structures.
• Hazardous Waste: Materials that pose a risk to human health or the environment due to
their toxic, flammable, corrosive or reactive nature are considered hazardous. This
category includes items like batteries, fluorescent bulbs, pesticides, certain chemicals and
medical waste.
• Electronic Waste (E-waste): Discarded electronic devices and equipment, such as
computers, televisions, smartphones and appliances, can contain hazardous materials like
lead, mercury and other components that require specialized handling and disposal.
• Agricultural Waste: Generated from farming activities, agricultural waste includes crop
residues, animal manure, pesticides and other waste produced in agricultural processes.

Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)—more commonly known as trash or garbage—consists of

everyday items we use and then throw away, such as product packaging, grass clippings,
furniture, clothing, bottles, food scraps, newspapers, appliances, paint, and batteries. This
comes from our homes, schools, hospitals, and businesses.

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Sources of MSW
• Homes: Items like food scraps, clothing, furniture, and packaging
• Businesses: Items like packaging, office supplies, and used electronics
• Schools: Items like paper, food, and packaging
• Hospitals: Items like medical waste, which can be infectious or non-infectious

Types of MSW
• Paper: Newspapers, paper products, and other paper items
• Plastics: Plastic bottles, plastic plates, and plastic wrap
• Glass: Bottles and other glass items
• Food: Food scraps and other food items
• Yard waste: Grass clippings and other yard waste
• Textiles: Clothing, leather, and other textiles
• Metals: Cans and other metal items

WASTE GENERATION AND COMPOSITION

Information on waste quantity and composition is important in evaluating alternatives in
terms of equipment, systems, plans, and management programs. For example, if wastes
generated at a commercial facility consist of only paper products, the appropriate equipment
is shredders and balers. Similarly, on the basis of the quantity generated, we can plan
appropriate means for separation, collection, and recycling programs. That is to say, the
success of SWM depends on the appropriate assessment of the quantity of waste generated.
Waste generation

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Waste generation encompasses those activities in which waste, be it solid or semi-solid

material, no longer has sufficient economic value for its possessor to retain it. The processing
of raw materials is the first stage when wastes are generated, and waste generation continues
thereafter at every step in the process as raw materials are converted into final products for
consumption. Figure 1 below
shows a simplified material-flow diagram indicating the path of generation of solid wastes.

Fig 1: Material Flow and Waste

Generation
It is suggested that we can reduce the amount of solid waste by limiting the consumption of
raw materials and increasing the rate of recovery and reuse. There needs to be, therefore, a
societal change in the perception of wastes. This sounds simple But, implementing changes in
the society is difficult, unless appropriate management solutions are provided. That said, we
also must note that the changes in waste generation contribute to changes in waste
composition.
Waste composition:
Some of the general observations associated with the composition of wastes include the
following:
The major constituents are paper and decomposable organic materials. More often than not,
metal, glass, ceramics, textile, dirt and wood form part of the composition, and their relative
proportion depends on local factors. Average proportions of the constituents reaching the
disposal sites are
consistent and urban wastes are fairly constant although subject to long-term changes such
as seasonal variations. Waste composition varies with the socio-economic status within a
particular

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community, since income, for example, determines life style, composition pattern and cultural
behaviour. Table 2.1 illustrates this phenomenon in India:

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Waste composition also depends on the moisture content, density and relative distribution of
municipal wastes, as shown in Table 2.2 below, and is important for the characterisation of
solid waste for most applications.

Note that the density of waste changes as it moves from the source of generation to the point
of ultimate disposal, and such factors as storage methods, salvaging activities, exposure to
weather, handling methods and decomposition influence the density. In short, predicting
changes of waste composition is as difficult as forecasting waste quantities.

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Factors causing variation:

As we know, wastes cause pollution. While the nature of wastes determines the type and
intensity of pollution, it also helps us decide on the appropriate application, engineering
design and technology for management. For example, the nature of wastes has implications
for collection, transport and recycling. For effective SWM, therefore, we not only need
information about the present but also the expected future quantity and composition of
wastes. There are several factors, which affect the present as well as the future waste quantity
and composition, and some of which are listed below:
• Geographic location: The influence of geographic location is related primarily to
different climates that can influence both the amount of certain types of solid wastes
generated and the collection operation. For instance, substantial variations in the
amount of yard and garden wastes generated in Various parts of India are related to
the climate. To illustrate, in the warmer southern areas, where the growing season is
considerably longer compared to the northern areas, yard wastes are collected in
considerably larger quantities and over a longer period of time.

• Seasons: Seasons of the year have implications for the quantities and composition of
certain types of solid wastes. For example, the growing season of vegetables and fruits
affect the quantities of food wastes.

• Collection frequency: A general observation is that in localities, where there are

ultimate collection services, more wastes are collected. Note that this does not mean
that more wastes are generated. For example, if a homeowner has access to only one
or two containers per week, due to limited container capacity, he or she will store
newspapers or other materials in some specified storage area. However, the same
homeowner will tend to throw them away, if there is access to unlimited container
services. In this latter situation, the quantity of waste generated may actually be the
same but the quantity collected, as it relates to the frequency of collection, is
considerably different.

• Population diversity: The characteristics of the population influence the quantity and
composition of waste generated. The amount of waste generated is more in low-income
areas compared to that in high-income areas. Similarly, the composition differs in
terms of paper and other recyclables, which are typically more in high-income areas
as against low income areas (see Table 2.1).

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• Extent of salvaging and recycling: The existence of salvaging and recycling operation
within a community definitely affects the quantity of wastes collected.

• Public attitude: Significant reduction in the quantity of solid waste is possible, if and
when people are willing to change – on their own volition – their habits and lifestyles
to conserve the natural resources and to reduce the economic burden associated with
the management of solid wastes.

• Legislation: This refers to the existence of local and state regulations concerning the
use and disposal of specific materials and is an important factor that influences the
composition and generation of certain types of wastes. The Indian legislation dealing
with packing and beverage container materials is an example. In short elements that
relate to waste generation include land use characteristics, population in age
distribution, legislation, socio economic conditions, household and approximate
number.

WASTE CHARACTERISTICS:

In order to identify the exact characteristics of municipal wastes, it is necessary that we

analyse them using physical and chemical parameters .
Physical characteristics
Information and data on the physical characteristics of solid wastes are important for the
selection and operation of equipment and for the analysis and design of disposal facilities. The
required information and data include the following:
• Density: Density of waste, i.e., its mass per unit volume (kg/m3), is a critical factor in
the design of a SWM system, e.g., the design of sanitary landfills, storage, types of
collection and transport vehicles, etc. To explain, an efficient operation of a landfill
demands compaction of wastes to optimum density. Any normal compaction
equipment can achieve reduction in volume of wastes by 75%, which increases an
initial density of 100 kg/m3 to 400 kg/m3. In other words, a waste collection vehicle
can haul four times the weight of waste in its compacted state than when it is
uncompacted. A high initial density of waste precludes the achievement of a high
compaction ratio and the compaction ratio achieved is no greater than 1.5:1. Significant
changes in density occur spontaneously as the waste moves from source to disposal,
due to scavenging, handling, wetting and drying by the weather, vibration in the
collection vehicle and decomposition.

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Note that:
➢ the effect of increasing the moisture content of the waste is detrimental in the
sense that dry density decreases at higher moisture levels;
➢ soil-cover plays an important role in containing the waste;
➢ there is an upper limit to the density, and the conservative estimate of in-place
density for waste in a sanitary landfill is about 600 kg/m 3.
• Moisture content: Moisture content is defined as the ratio of the weight of water (wet
weight - dry weight) to the total weight of the wet waste. Moisture increases the weight
of solid wastes, and thereby, the cost of collection and transport. In addition, moisture
content is a critical determinant in the economic feasibility of waste treatment by
incineration, because wet waste consumes energy for evaporation of water and in
raising the temperature of water vapour. In the main, wastes should be insulated from
rainfall or other extraneous water. We can calculate the moisture percentage, using
the formula given below: A typical range of moisture content is 20 to 40%,
representing the extremes of wastes in an arid climate and in the wet season of a region
of high precipitation. However, values greater than 40% are not uncommon.

• Size: Measurement of size distribution of particles in waste stream is important

because of its significance in the design of mechanical separators and shredders.
Generally, the results of size distribution analysis are expressed in the manner used
for soil particle analysis. That is to say, they are expressed as a plot of particle size
(mm) against percentage, less than a given value.

• Compressibility of MSW: Degree of physical changes of the suspended solids or filter

cake when subjected to pressure.

Chemical characteristics:

Knowledge of the classification of chemical compounds and their characteristics is essential

for the proper understanding of the behaviour of waste, as it moves through the waste
management system. The products of decomposition and heating values are two examples of
chemical characteristics. If solid wastes are to be used as fuel, or are used for any other
purpose, we must know their chemical characteristics, including the following:
• Lipids: This class of compounds includes fats, oils and grease, and the principal
sources of lipids are garbage, cooking oils and fats. Lipids have high heating values,
about 38,000 kJ/kg (kilojoules per kilogram), which makes waste with high lipid

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content suitable for energy recovery. Since lipids become liquid at temperatures
slightly above ambient, they add to the liquid content during waste decomposition.
Though they are biodegradable, the rate of biodegradation is relatively slow because
lipids have a low solubility in water.
• Carbohydrates: These are found primarily in food and yard wastes, which encompass
sugar and polymer of sugars (e.g., starch, cellulose, etc.) with general formula
(CH2O)x. Carbohydrates are readily biodegraded to products such as carbon dioxide,
water and methane. Decomposing carbohydrates attract flies and rats, and therefore,
should not be left exposed for long duration.
• Proteins: These are compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen,
and consist of an organic acid with a substituted amine group (NH2). They are mainly
found in food and garden wastes. The partial decomposition of these compounds can
result in the production of amines that have unpleasant odours.
• Natural fibres: These are found in paper products, food and yard wastes and include
the natural compounds, cellulose and lignin, that are resistant to biodegradation. (Note
that paper is almost 100% cellulose, cotton over 95% and wood products over 40%.)
Because they are a highly combustible solid waste, having a high proportion of paper
and wood products, they are suitable for incineration. Calorific values of oven-dried
paper products are about half that for fuel oil, which is 44,200 kJ/kg.
• Synthetic organic material (Plastics): Accounting for 1 – 10%, plastics have become
a significant component of solid waste in recent years. They are highly resistant to
biodegradation and, therefore, are objectionable and of special concern in SWM. Hence
the increasing attention being paid to the recycling of plastics to reduce the proportion
of this waste component at disposal sites. Plastics have a high heating value, about
32,000 kJ/kg, which makes them very suitable for incineration. But, you must note that
polyvinyl chloride (PVC), when burnt, produces dioxin and acid gas. The latter
increases corrosion in the combustion system and is responsible for acid rain.
• Non-combustibles: This class includes glass, ceramics, metals, dust and ashes, and
accounts for 12 – 25% of dry solids.
• Heating value: An evaluation of the potential of waste material for use as fuel for
incineration requires a determination of its heating value, expressed as kilojoules per
kilogram (kJ/kg). The heating value is determined experimentally using the Bomb
calorimeter test, in which the heat generated, at a constant temperature of 25 C from
the combustion of a dry sample is measured. Since the test temperature is below the
boiling point of water (100 C), the combustion water remains in the liquid state.
However, during combustion, the temperature of the combustion gases reaches above
100 C, and the resultant water is in the vapour form.

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Table 2.3 shows the typical inert residue and heating values for the components of
municipal solid waste (Tchobanoglous, et al., 1977):

Note that while evaluating incineration as a means of disposal or energy recovery, we need to
consider the heating values of respective constituents (see Table 2.3).
For example:
• Organic material yields energy only when dry.
• The moisture content in the waste reduces the dry organic material per kilogram of
waste and requires a significant amount of energy for drying.
• The ash content of the waste reduces the proportion of dry organic material per
kilogram of waste and retains some heat when removed from the furnace.

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What is solid waste management?

Solid Waste Management refers to the collection, transportation, processing, recycling,
treatment, and disposal of solid waste in a way that reduces its environmental and
health impacts. The goal is to handle waste efficiently while promoting sustainability,
resource recovery, and public health.
Elements of Solid waste Management: Solid Waste Management (SWM) consists of
several key elements that ensure waste is handled efficiently from generation to
disposal. These elements include,

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Fig 2: Flowchart showing the Elements of Solid Waste Management.

1. Waste Generation

• The initial stage where waste is produced by households, industries,

businesses, hospitals, agriculture, and construction activities.
• Waste types include organic, recyclable, hazardous, and construction waste.

2. Waste Storage & Segregation

• Storage: Temporary containment of waste in bins or containers before collection.

• Segregation: Sorting waste at the source into categories such as biodegradable,
recyclable, hazardous, and non-recyclable to facilitate proper disposal and
recycling.

3. Waste Collection

• Waste is collected from households, commercial areas, and industrial sites

using collection vehicles.
• Collection methods include door-to-door collection, communal bins, and
curbside pickup.

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4. Waste Transportation
• Waste is transported to transfer stations, recycling plants, or disposal sites
using trucks, compactors, and waste transport vehicles.
• Efficient transportation reduces costs and environmental impact.

5. Waste Processing & Recovery

• Recycling: Conversion of materials like paper, glass, metal, and plastic into
new products.
• Composting: Organic waste is decomposed to produce manure for agriculture.
• Incineration: Burning waste at high temperatures to generate energy.
• Waste-to-Energy (WTE): Converting waste into electricity or biofuels.
• Anaerobic Digestion: Breaking down organic waste in oxygen-free conditions
to produce biogas.

6. Waste Disposal

• Sanitary Landfills: Properly designed waste disposal sites with protective liners
and leachate management systems.
• Open Dumping (Not Recommended): Uncontrolled waste disposal that
causes pollution.
• Hazardous Waste Disposal: Specialized treatment for toxic and biomedical waste.

INTEGRATED WASTE MANAGEMENT (IWM)

Integrated Waste Management (IWM) is a systematic approach to handling municipal
solid waste (MSW) that combines various waste management practices (reduction,
recycling, composting, energy recovery, and disposal) to achieve sustainability and
efficiency. However, several challenges and issues affect the implementation of IWM
worldwide.

Fig 3: Elements of IWM

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How IWM works?

• Waste reduction: Reduce the amount of waste you create by buying less and reusing
items
• Waste recycling: Recycle paper, plastic, and other materials
• Waste composting: Compost organic materials to improve soil quality
• Waste treatment: Use bio-gasification, thermal treatment, and other methods to treat
waste
• Waste disposal: Landfill waste as a last resort, or use waste to create energy
Benefits of IWM:
• Environmental: Reduces pollution and the amount of waste in landfills
• Economic: Reduces costs for waste disposal
• Social: Improves social acceptance of waste management

Integrated Waste Management issues:

Integrated Waste Management (IWM) include: inadequate collection infrastructure, poor
waste segregation, low recycling rates, improper disposal practices, lack of public awareness,
high implementation costs, limited treatment options, and potential environmental impacts
from waste-to-energy facilities; all of which can lead to environmental pollution, health
hazards, and inefficient resource utilization if not properly addressed.
Breakdown of the issues:

Collection and Segregation:

➢ Insufficient collection points: Not enough bins or designated areas for proper waste
separation, leading to mixed waste streams.
➢ Inconsistent collection schedules: Unreliable collection services can cause waste
accumulation and improper disposal.
➢ Lack of public awareness on segregation: People might not understand how to
properly sort waste, resulting in contamination.
Treatment and Disposal:
➢ Overreliance on landfills: Improperly managed landfills can generate harmful
methane gas and leachate, polluting groundwater.
➢ Limited recycling capacity: Insufficient recycling facilities and processing capabilities
can hinder recycling efforts.
➢ Waste-to-energy concerns: Concerns about air pollution and potential toxic
emissions from waste incineration plants.
Economic and Social Challenges:

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➢ High implementation costs: Setting up a comprehensive IWM system requires

significant investment in infrastructure, technology, and public awareness
campaigns.
➢ Lack of political will: Insufficient government support and commitment to enforce
waste management regulations.
➢ Community resistance: Potential opposition to waste treatment facilities due to
concerns about environmental impact and aesthetics.
Environmental Impacts:
➢ Air pollution: Open burning of waste and emissions from poorly managed landfills
contribute to air pollution.
➢ Water contamination: Leachate from landfills can pollute groundwater sources.
➢ Land degradation: Improper disposal practices can lead to soil contamination and
land degradation.

Potential Solutions:
• Public awareness campaigns:
Educating citizens on waste reduction, reuse, and proper waste segregation.
• Improved collection infrastructure:
Increasing the number of waste collection bins and implementing efficient collection routes.
• Stricter regulations and enforcement:
Implementing policies to incentivize waste reduction and recycling, and penalize improper
disposal.
• Investing in recycling technology:
Enhancing recycling facilities and processing capabilities to improve recycling rates.
• Community engagement:
Involving local communities in decision-making regarding waste management
strategies.

Differences Between Solid Waste Management (SWM) and Integrated Solid

Waste Management (ISWM)

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Aspect Solid Waste Management (SWM) Integrated Solid Waste Management

(ISWM)
Definition The process of collecting, A comprehensive approach that
transporting, treating, and integrates multiple strategies (reduce,
disposing of solid waste. reuse, recycle, treatment, and disposal)
to minimize waste impact.
Focus Primarily focuses on waste Emphasizes waste prevention, resource
collection, transportation, and recovery, and sustainable waste
disposal. handling.
Hierarchy of Mostly emphasizes, Follows the waste management
Waste collection and disposal. hierarchy (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle,
Handling Energy Recovery, and
Disposal).

Environmental May lead to landfill overuse, Reduces pollution, landfill

Impact pollution, and inefficient resource dependency, and promotes eco-
use friendly solutions
Waste Relies more on landfilling and Uses a mix of recycling, composting,
Treatmet incineration. waste-to- energy, and proper disposal.
Methods

Sustainability Less sustainable as it focuses more More sustainable by promoting

on end-of-life waste management waste minimization and resource
conservation.

Examples Traditional waste disposal methods Modern systems with recycling

(dumping, landfills, incineration). programs, composting, waste-to-
energy plants, and circular
economy models

Policy & Less emphasis on community Encourages public awareness, laws,

Public participation and regulations and participation in waste reduction
Involvent and recycling efforts.

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COMPREHENSIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS:

A Comprehensive Waste Management Program is a structured system that integrates
multiple waste management strategies to minimize environmental impact, promote
sustainability, and ensure efficient waste handling. These programs involve waste
reduction, collection, recycling, treatment, and disposal while encouraging public
participation and policy enforcement.

Fig 4: Waste Management programs in a City.

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(i) Collection: Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) collection refers to the process of
gathering, transporting, and disposing of household, commercial, and institutional
waste generated within a municipality. Effective MSW collection is crucial for
maintaining public health, environmental cleanliness, and sustainability. The waste
component in MSW involves,

1. Waste Generation Sources

➢ Residential (households, apartments)

➢ Commercial (shops, restaurants, offices)
➢ Institutional (schools, hospitals, government buildings)
➢ Industrial (non-hazardous waste from manufacturing)

2. Collection Methods
➢ Door-to-Door Collection: Waste is collected directly from households or businesses.
➢ Community Bins: Residents dispose of waste in designated bins placed in strategic
locations.
➢ Curbside Collection: Residents place waste containers at the roadside for collection.
➢ Underground or Smart Bins: Advanced systems that store waste underground
and notify collection teams when full.

Fig 5: Waste Collection

3. Types of Waste Collected

➢ Biodegradable Waste: Organic matter such as food scraps and garden waste.
➢ Recyclables: Paper, plastic, glass, and metals.

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➢ Non-Recyclables: Items that cannot be processed for reuse.

➢ Hazardous Waste: Batteries, electronic waste (e-waste), and medical waste.

4. Collection Vehicles & Equipment

➢ Compactor trucks
➢ Open dump trucks
➢ Recycling trucks
➢ Biodegradable waste collection trucks
➢ Special vehicles for hazardous waste

Fig 6: Collection Vehicles

5. Waste Segregation & Management

➢ Encouraging separation at the source (organic, recyclable, and hazardous
waste).
➢ Implementing policies like pay-as-you-throw (PAYT) to promote responsible
disposal.

6. Challenges in MSW Collection

➢ Inefficient route planning and high operational costs.
➢ Lack of public awareness and participation in waste segregation.
➢ Limited infrastructure and improper disposal leading to pollution.
➢ Inadequate workforce and outdated equipment.

7. Innovative Solutions & Trends

➢ Use of GPS and IoT for real-time tracking of waste collection.
➢ Implementation of waste-to-energy projects.
➢ Adoption of automated and robotic waste sorting technologies.
➢ Promotion of circular economy practices to minimize landfill waste.

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Fig 7: Smart Waste Management

(ii) Recovery: It refers to processes that extract useful materials or energy from
waste, reducing landfill dependency and promoting sustainability. Waste
recovery is a key element in modern solid waste management strategies,
supporting a circular economy. The types of recovery are as follows,

1. Material Recovery (Recycling)

➢ Paper & Cardboard: Repulping for new paper products.

➢ Plastics: Reprocessing into new plastic products or alternative fuels.
➢ Metals: Melting and reusing in manufacturing.
➢ Glass: Crushing and remelting for new glass products.

2. Biological Recovery (Composting & Anaerobic Digestion)

➢ Composting: Organic waste (food, garden waste) decomposes into
nutrient-rich soil additives.
➢ Anaerobic Digestion: Microorganisms break down organic waste in the
absence of oxygen, producing biogas (used for electricity, heating, or
vehicle fuel) and digestate (used as fertilizer).

3. Energy Recovery (Waste-to-Energy - WtE)

➢ Incineration: Burning waste to generate heat or electricity.

➢ Gasification & Pyrolysis: Converting waste into synthetic gas, fuels, or
chemicals.

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➢ Landfill Gas Recovery: Capturing methane from decomposing waste to

generate energy.

Fig 8: Waste to Energy Recovery

4. Chemical & Mechanical Recovery

➢ Mechanical Sorting: Separating valuable materials for reuse.

➢ Chemical Recycling: Breaking down materials (e.g., plastics) into
their original chemical components for reuse.

(iii) Reuse: At source reduction and reuse: The most preferred option for waste
management in the ISWM hierarchy is to prevent the generation of waste at
various stages including in the design, production, packaging, use, and reuse of
products. Waste prevention helps to reduce handling, treatment, and disposal
costs and various environmental impacts such as leachate, air emissions, and
generation of greenhouse gases (GHG). Minimization of waste generation at
source and reuse of products are the most preferred waste prevention
strategies.

(iv) Recycling: Recycling is the process of converting waste materials into new
minimizing environmental impact. It is a key component of sustainable waste
management and the circular economy.

Fig 9: Circular Economy with Recycling

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The next preferred option for waste management in the ISWM hierarchy is recycling of
waste to recover material resources through segregation, collection, and re-
processing to create new products. In the waste management hierarchy, composting is
considered as an organic material recovery process and is often considered at the same
hierarchical level as inorganic waste recycling.
Recycling Process:
• Collection & Sorting
• Cleaning & Processing
• Manufacturing New Products
• Distribution & Use
Types of recyclable materials are,

1. Paper & Cardboard

2. Plastics
3. Glass
4. Metals
5. Electronics (E-Waste)
6. Organic Waste

Fig 10: Composition of Recyclable materials

(v) Energy-from-waste: Where material recovery from waste is not possible,

energy recovery from waste through production of heat, electricity, or fuel is
preferred. Bio-methanation, waste incineration, production of refuse derived
fuel (RDF), co-processing of combustible no biodegradable dry fraction from
MSW in cement kilns and pyrolysis or gasification are some waste-to-energy
technologies. Energy-from-Waste (EfW) is the process of converting non-
recyclable waste materials into usable energy, such as electricity, heat, or fuel. It
helps reduce landfill waste while generating renewable energy, making it a key
component of sustainable waste management. The Methods of Energy
Recovery from Waste are as follows,

(i) Incineration (Combustion)

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Integrated Waste Management for a Smart City – BCV654C CIVIL DEPARTMENT

➢ Controlled burning of waste at high temperatures (850–1100°C).

➢ Produces heat, which is used to generate steam for electricity or district
heating.
➢ Modern plants use filters and scrubbers to reduce air pollution.

(ii) Gasification
➢ Waste is heated in a low-oxygen environment to produce syngas
(synthetic gas).
➢ Syngas is used to generate electricity or refined into fuels like hydrogen.

(iii) Pyrolysis
➢ Similar to gasification but at higher temperatures and without oxygen.
➢ Produces bio-oil, syngas, and biochar, which can be used for energy and
soil improvement.

(iv) Anaerobic Digestion

➢ Organic waste (food scraps, manure, sewage sludge) is broken down by

microorganisms in an oxygen-free environment.
➢ Produces biogas (methane + CO2), which can be used for electricity,
heating, or as a vehicle fuel.

(v) Landfill Gas Recovery

➢ Landfills produce methane as waste decomposes.
➢ Gas is captured and converted into electricity or used as a fuel source.

(vi) Landfilling: It is the process of disposing of municipal solid waste (MSW) by

burying it in designated sites. While landfills are the most common method of
waste disposal, modern landfills are engineered to minimize environmental
and health impacts. Residual inert wastes at the end of the hierarchy are to be
disposed in sanitary lined landfills, which are constructed in accordance with
stipulations prescribed in SWM Rules, 2016. All over the world, landfills which
integrate the capture and use of methane are preferred over landfills which do
not capture the landfill gas. As per the hierarchy, the least preferred option is
the disposal of waste in open dumpsites. However, Indian laws and rules do
not permit disposal of organic matter into sanitary landfills and mandate that
only inert rejects (residual waste) from the processing facilities, inert street
sweepings, etc. can be landfilled. In cases where old dumps are to be closed,
there is a possibility of capturing methane gas for further use. However, repeated
burning of waste significantly decreases the potential of capturing methane.

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Fig 11: Landfill Waste

The types of landfill are as follows,

1. Sanitary Landfills
➢ Designed with protective liners (clay or synthetic) to prevent
groundwater contamination.
➢ Waste is compacted and covered daily with soil or other materials.
➢ Includes gas collection and leachate treatment systems.
2.Controlled Landfills
➢ Less advanced than sanitary landfills but have some waste management
controls.
➢ May have basic lining and leachate management.

3.Open Dumps (Uncontrolled Landfills)

➢ Unregulated waste disposal sites.
➢ High risk of pollution, fires, disease spread, and environmental hazards.
➢ Being phased out in many countries.

4. Bioreactor Landfills
➢ Actively managed to accelerate waste decomposition by adding
moisture and aeration.
➢ Generates more landfill gas, which can be captured for energy use

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Fig 12: Process in Landfilling

Landfilling Process:

Step 1: Site Selection & Preparation

• Location chosen away from water bodies, residential areas, and flood-
prone zones.
• Liners installed (clay or synthetic) to prevent groundwater contamination.

Step 2: Waste Deposition

• Waste is brought in trucks and compacted to reduce volume.
• Daily covering with soil, plastic, or other materials to prevent odor and
pests.

Step 3: Leachate Collection & Treatment

• Leachate (liquid waste) is collected using pipes and treated in treatment
plants.
• Prevents groundwater and soil contamination.

Step 4: Gas Collection & Utilization

• Decomposing waste generates methane (CH₄) and carbon dioxide (CO₂).
• Modern landfills capture landfill gas for energy production (waste-to-energy
systems).

Step 5: Final Closure & Land Rehabilitation

• Once full, the landfill is sealed with clay, soil, and vegetation.
• Land can be repurposed into parks, solar farms, or green spaces.

Environmental & Health Impacts of Landfills:

(i) Environmental Impacts

➢ Leachate pollution – Can contaminate groundwater and soil.

➢ Methane emissions – A potent greenhouse gas contributing to climate change.
➢ Odor and air pollution – Decomposing waste produces hydrogen sulfide
(H₂S) and other gases.
➢ Land degradation – Permanent loss of usable land.
➢ Wildlife & pest attraction – Birds, rodents, and insects gather around open
dumps.

(ii) Health Impacts

➢ Respiratory issues from toxic landfill gases.

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➢ Waterborne diseases from contaminated groundwater.

➢ Cancer risks from long-term exposure to hazardous waste.
➢ Skin and eye infections for workers and nearby residents.

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