Digital

Systems and
Architecture
Course Code-USCS101
Chapter-1
Fundamentals of
Digital Logic
Introduction to logic gates
To solve logical statements we need different algebra that
algebra is Boolean Algebra.
Boolean algebra is useful in design and analysis of digital
systems.
It is used to write or simplify the logical expressions.
And to solve the logical expressions we need to use logical
operators.
Logical Operator
3 types:
1.NOT Operator:
This operation changes one logic level to the opposite logic level.
It is denoted by (-) bar over the variable.
A = NOT A ......logical inversion
2.AND Operator:
The AND operation produces a high(1) output only if all the inputs of a
logic circuit are high(1).
It is denoted by (.) dot between 2 variables.
A.B .......logical multiplication
3.OR Operator:
The OR operation produces a high(1) output when anyone or all the
inputs of a logic circuit are high(1).
It is denoted by (+) between 2 variables.
A+B .......logical addition
Classification of
logic gates
NOT Gate
Basic Gates AND Gate
OR Gate

NOR Gate
Universal Gates NAND Gate

EX-OR Gate
Derived Gates
EX-NOR Gate
 Basic Gates
1. NOT Gate or Inverter
It is a logic gate having one input (A) and one
output (Y) .
Symbol:

Input A Output Y

Boolean equation: Y = A
Truth Table
INPUT A OUTPUT Y
0 1
1 0
 Basic Gates
2.AND Gate
The output is high (Y=1) if and only if all the
inputs to the AND gate are high(1).
Symbol:

Boolean equation: Y = A . B
 Basic Gates
3.OR Gate
The output will be high (1) if any one or both the
inputs are high(1).
Symbol:

Boolean equation: Y = A + B
 Universal Gates
1. NAND Gate
NAND operation can be implemented with the
combination of an AND and a NOT gate.
The output is low(0) if and only if both the
inputs are high(1) . and for all other input the
output will be (1).

Boolean equation: Y = A . B
 Universal Gates
2.NOR Gate
NOR operation can be implemented with the
combination of an OR and a NOT gate.
The output of a two input NOR gates is low(0) if
any one or all the inputs are at high (1)

Boolean equation: Y = A + B
 Derived Gates
1.EX-OR Gate
When both the inputs are at a identical logic
levels (A=B)then output is low(0) and the
output is high(1) when A and B is not same.

Boolean equation: Y = A + B
=AB + AB
 Derived Gates
1.EX-NOR Gate
When both the inputs are at a identical logic
levels (A=B)then output is high(1) and the
output is low(0) when A and B is not same.
IC Number of
Gates
NAME OF GATES IC NUMBER
NOT 7404
AND 7408
OR 7432
NAND 7400
NOR 7402
EX-OR 7486
EX-NOR 74266
Basic Theorems-Duality
According to the duality theorem the following conversions are possible
in a given boolean expression.
Change each AND operation to an OR operation.
Change each OR operation to an AND operation.
Complement any 1 or 0 appearing in the expression .
for eg= A+1=1
= A.0=0
Boolean Laws
1. Commutative Law
It states that we can change the sequence of the variables (inputs) without having any effect on the output of a logic circuit.
A.B=B.A
A+B=B+A
2.Associative Law
It states that the order in which the logic operations are performed is not at all important ultimate outcome is the same.
(A . B) . C = A. (B . C)
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
3.Distributive Law
It states that A . (B + C) = AB + AC
4.AND Law
1. A . 1 = A
That means if one input of an AND operation is HIGH(1) permanently then the output is always equal to the other variable .
eg = if A = 0 , then Y = 0 . 1 = 0 SO Y = A
if A = 1 , then Y = 1 . 1 = 1 SO Y = A

2. A . 0 = 0
That means if one input of an AND operation is LOW(0) permanently then the output is zero.
3. A . A = A
That means if both the inputs in an AND operation have the same value either 0 or 1 then the output will also have the same
value of the input.
4. A . A = 0
This law states that the result of an AND operation on a variable(A) and its complement (A) is always low(0).
Boolean Laws
5. OR Laws
1. A + 0 = A
That means if one variable of an OR operation is low(0) permanently then the output is always
equal to the other variable.
2. A + 1 = 1
That means if one variable of an OR operation is high(1) permanently then the output is high(1).
3. A + A = A
This law states that if both the variables of an OR operation have the same value either 0 or 1 then
the output also will be equal to the input i.e 0 or 1 .
4.A + A =1
This law states that the result of an OR operation on a variable and its complement is always high.
6. INVERSION law
This law uses the NOT operation. It states that if a variable is subjected to a double inversion then it
will result in the original variable itself.
A=A
Boolean Laws
7. Other important laws
A + BC = (A + B)(A + C)
A + AB = A
A + AB = A + B
A + AB = A + B
A + AB = A + B
De Morgan's
Theorems
1. AB = A + B : NAND = BUBBLED OR
2. A + B = A . B : NOR = BUBBLED AND
 Boolean
Expression& Function
A Boolean function is described by an algebraic expression called
Boolean expression .
eg= F(A,B,C,D) = A + BC + ADC

Boolean Boolean
function expression
Truth Table formation
from a given Boolean
equation
eg : Y = A+ BC
 Writing Boolean
Equation from a logic
diagram & vice versa
Universal gate
NAND & NOR
 Logic circuits

Sequential Combinational
output depends on the circuits circuits output depends only
order or sequence of on the values of
inputs and the Flip-flops Adders
inputs at that instant.
previous input.
Decoders

Counters Comparators

Shift registers Multiplexers

Demultiplexers
 Standard
Representations for
logical functions
Any logic expression can be expressed in the foll 2 standard forms:
Sum of Products form(SOP) Sum
eg = AB + AC + BC
Product terms
Product of Sums form(POS) Product
eg = (A + B) . (B + C) . (A + C)
Sum terms
 Conversion from
non-STD SOP to STD SOP
STEPS:
Find the missing literal for each term.
AND each term with(missing literal + its complement).
Simplify the expression to get the standard SOP.
 Conversion from
non-STD POS to STD POS
STEPS:
Find the missing literal for each term.
OR each term with(missing literal . its complement).
Simplify the expression to get the standard POS.
 Concept of
Minterm & Maxterm
1. Minterm:
Each individual term in the standard SOP form is called as
minterm.
They are the products of input such that value of the product is '1'.
2. Maxterm:
Each individual term in the standard POS form is called as
maxterm.
They are the sum of input such that total value of sum is '0'.
Writing SOP & POS
Forms for a Given T.T
To write S.SOP expression for T.T
1. Consider only those combinations of inputs which
produce an output Y=1 .
2. OR all these product terms to get the standard SOP
form.
To write S.POS expression for T.T
1. Consider only those combinations of inputs which
produce an output Y=0 .
2. AND all these maxterms terms to get the standard
POS form.
Methods to simplify the
Boolean Functions.
1. Algebraic Simplification.
2. Karnaugh-Map Simplification(Map Method).
k-map structure.
way to label .
Represent equation in k-map.
Adders
Addition of two binary digits.
They are of 2 types:
1. Half Adder:
It is a combinational logic circuit with 2 inputs and 2 outputs.
2 outputs namely sum and carry.
Adders
2. Full Adder
It is a 3 input 2 output combinational logic circuit.
Multiplexer
it is a combinational circuit with n data inputs one output and m select
inputs which selects one of the n data inputs and connects it to the output..
The selection of one of the n inputs is done with the help of the select inputs.
E is called strobe or enable input .
types:
1. 2:1 multiplexer
2. 4:1multiplexer
3. 8:1 multiplexer
4. 16:1 multiplexer
5. 32:1 multiplexer