CALCULUS FOR SCIENCE

AND ENGINEERING.
INSTITUT UNIVERSITAIRE DE
LA CÔTE

PREPARED BY
PATRICE NDAMBOMVE.
Objectives

 To understand fundamental mathematical

techniques being commonly used in
business today.

 To pay particular attention to applications of

these mathematical techniques in Science
and Engineering.

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 Requirements

Every student is required to

1. Attend all lectures and tutorials,
2. read the assigned materials (or chapter) prior to
the lecture.
3. You are greatly encouraged to ask questions,
answer questions, and make courses active.
4. You are greatly encouraged to give me feedbacks
and advices of the courses.
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 Textbook and references

 (Textbook) James Stewart, Calculus Early

Transcendentals, Sixth Edition, Thomson Brooks/Cole
2008.
 Martin Brokate, Pammy Manchanda and Abul Hasan
Siddiqi, Calculus for Scientists and Engineers, Springer
2019

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 Assessment
~ Continuous Assessment (30%)
~ Homeworks (5%)
(Six or seven sets of assignments/guided study.)
~ Midterm test (20%)
Attendance and class participation (5%)
~ Final examination (70%)

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 COURSE OUTLINE

PART 1: CALCULUS OF ONE VARIABLE

 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO
FUNCTIONS
 CHAPTER 2: GRAPH OF FUNCTIONS
 CHAPTER 3: LIMITS PROCESS AND
CONTINUITY
 CHAPTER 4: DERIVATIVES
 CHAPTER 5: INTEGRATION

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 COURSE OUTLINE

PART TWO: CALCULUS OF SEVERAL

VARIABLES
• CHAPTER SEVEN: FUNCTIONS OF
SEVERAL VARIABLES
• CHAPTER EIGHT: MULTIPLE INTEGRALS
• CHAPTER NINE: VECTOR ANALYSIS

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CHAPTER 1

Functions and Their Graphs

 Functions
 A function is a rule that assigns to each object in a
set A exactly one object in a set B.
 Set A is called the domain.
 The set of assigned objects in B is called the range.

Domain Range

f
a f(c)
A b f(a) B
c f(b)
d f(d)
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 Functions

 A function is a rule that assigns each object in

domain to one and only one object in range.

Function or not?
f

√ × ×
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Functions

Function Representation: f ( x)  x  4
2

 Domain: The set of all numbers for which f(x) is

defined.
 Range: The set of all numbers which comes out
of f(x).
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 Functions
1
Example 1: f ( x) 
1 x2
The domain of f consists of all real numbers except
-1 and 1; The range of f is the set of all real numbers
except 0.

Example 2: g ( w)  4  3w
The domain of g is the collection of all real
numbers ≤4/3. The range of g is the set of all
nonnegative numbers.

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 Functions

In general, there are two reasons why a number is not in the

domain of a function:
1) division by 0
2) Square root of a negative number

 Function is often represented by the equation

y=f(x).
 We refer y as dependent variable and
x as independent variable.

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 For a function, one to many is forbidden! An input cannot have more than
1 output! If any input maps to more than one output, then it is not a
function.

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 Definition of Function

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 Example 1a.
 Which mapping diagram does not represent a
function?
 A. B.

 C. D.

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 Function Notation
 We can name the function “f” and replace the y
with f(x).
 f(x) is read “f of x” and means “the value of f at
x.”
 Be Careful! It does not mean “f times x”
 We may also use any other letter like g , h, j,z etc

 x is called the independent variable or the input

variable and f(x) is the dependent variable or the
output variable
17

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 Evaluation of Functions
If f (x) = x2 + 3x + 5, evaluate:

a. f (2) b. f (x + 3) c. f (-x)
Solution
a. We find f (2) by substituting 2 for x in the
equation.

f (2) = 22 + 3 • 2 + 5 = 4 + 6 + 5 = 15
Thus, f (2) = 15.

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 Example 2.

If f (x) = x2 + 3x + 5, evaluate: b. f (x + 3)
Solution
b. We find f (x + 3) by substituting (x + 3) for x in
the equation.
f (x + 3) = (x + 3)2 + 3(x + 3) + 5
Equivalently,
f (x + 3) = (x + 3)2 + 3(x + 3) + 5
= x2 + 6x + 9 + 3x + 9 + 5
= x2 + 9x + 23.
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Example 2a.

If f (x) = x2 + 3x + 5, evaluate: c. f (-x)

Solution
c. We find f (-x) by substituting (-x) for x in the
equation.
f (-x) = (-x)2 + 3(-x) + 5

Equivalently,

f (-x) = (-x)2 + 3(-x) + 5

= x2 –3x + 5.
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 Example 3a.
 Which option is the range of the relation described
by y = 3x – 8 if its domain is {-1, 0, 1}

 A) {-11, 8, 5}
 B) {-5, 0 5}
 C) {-11, -8, -5}
 D) {0, 3, 5}

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 Example 3b.
 Which is the range of the relation described
by 3y = 2x2 – 36 if its domain is {3, 6, 9}?
 A) {-6, 12, 42}
 B) {6, 12, 42}
 C) {0, 6, 12}
 D) {-6, 0, 12}

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 Exercise 1
 Which is the range of the functions given by

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 Example 6a.

 Determine if the graph is a graph of a function or

just a graph of a relation.
8

2 graph
5 10 15
of a
-2
relation
-4

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 Example 6b.
 Determine if the
graph is a graph of a
function or just a
graph of a relation.

graph
of a
function

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 Example 6c.

 Determine if the
graph is a graph
of a function or
just a graph of a
relation.
graph
of a
relation

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 Example 6d.
 Determine if the 16

graph is a graph of a 14

function or just a 12

10

graph of a relation. 8

graph 2

A
15 10 5 5 10 15 20 25

of a 2

relation
4

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 Example 6e.

 Determine if the graph is a graph of a function or

just a graph of a relation.
4

1
graph
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 of a
-1
relation
-2

-3

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 Example 6f.
 Determine if the graph is a graph of a function or just a
graph of a relation.
6

2 graph
-10 -5 5 10
of a
-2 relation
-4

-6

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 Example 6g.
 Determine if the graph is a graph of a function or just a
graph of a relation.

3
graph
1

-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
of a
-1
-2 function
-3

-5

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OPERATIONS ON FUNCTIONS

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 Sum, Difference, Product, and Quotient
of Functions
Let f and g be two functions. The sum, the
difference, the product , and the quotient are
functions whose domains are the set of all real
numbers common to the domains of f and g,
defined as follows:

 Sum: (f + g)(x) = f (x)+g(x)

 Difference: (f – g)(x) = f (x) – g(x)
 Product: (f • g)(x) = f (x) • g(x)
 Quotient: (f / g)(x) = f (x)/g(x), g(x) ≠ 0
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 Example 4a.
Let f(x) = 2x+1 and g(x) = x2 - 2.
Find
a. (f + g) (x) c.(g – f) (x) e. (f / g) (x)
b. (f – g) (x) d. (f ∙ g) (x) f. 10g(x)

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 Example 4a.
Let f(x) = 2x+1 and g(x) = x2 - 2.
Find
a. (f + g) (x) c.(g – f) (x) e. (f / g) (x)
b. (f – g) (x) d. (f ∙ g) (x) f. 10g (x)
Solution:
a. (f + g) (x) = f(x) + g( x) = (2x+1 )+ (x2 – 2) = x2 + 2x - 1
b. (f – g)(x) = f(x) - g(x) = (2x+1) - (x2 - 2) = -x2 + 2x + 3
c. (g – f)(x) = g(x) - f(x) = (x2 - 2) – (2x +1) = x2 - 2x - 3
d. (f ∙ g)(x) = f(x) ∙ g(x) = (2x+1)(x2 - 2) = 2x3 + x2 - 4x - 2
e. (f/g)(x) = f(x)/g(x) = (2x+1)/(x2 - 2),
f. 10g(x) = 10(x2 – 2)=10x2-20
x 2
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TYPES OF FUNCTIONS:
Inverse, Piecewise,
Absolute value
 INVERSE FUNCTIONS
The Inverse Function “undoes” what
the function does.
Given any function f, the inverse of f is
the function f-1 such that fof-1(x)=x
CAUTION: Don’t be confused by the use of -1 to denote the inverse
function f -1. f -1 always refers to the inverse function and not the
reciprocal of f (x). That is,

1 1
1
f (x)  . f (x)  y  f (y)  x
f (x)
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Steps for finding an inverse function.

1. Change the function notation

f(x) to y.

2.Change all the x’s to y’s and

y’s to x’s.

3.Solve for y.
-1
4.Replace y with f (x).
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Consider f(x) = x2. Then y= x2.
Interchange x and y , x=y2
Make y the subject y  i.e
x f 1(x)  x

x y y x
0 0  0 0
1 1 1 1
2 4 4 2
3 9 9 3

The inverse function of f (x) is f -1(x) =

What is f of -1(x) x
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 Find the inverse of the function

f (x )  7x  5

Find the domains of the function

and its inverse function.

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 Find the inverse of the function

g (x )  14  x 3

Find the domains of the function

and its inverse function.

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 Find the inverse of the function
2x
h (x ) 
3x  1

Find the domains of the function

and its inverse.

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 Find the inverse of the function

1
h (x ) 
8x  3

Find the domains of the function

and its inverse.

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In general, you can graphically think about
inverses this way…

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Some things to note in the previous
example…
The domain of f is equal to the range of f -1
and vice versa. Also note that the functions f
and f -1 have the effect of “undoing” each
other. In other words, when you find the
composition of f and f -1 or the composition of
f -1 and f, one obtains the identity function x.

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Example: Recall that a function can be represented
by a set of ordered pairs. So, for example, f (x) = x2
from set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} to set B = {1, 4, 9, 16,
25} can be written as…
f (x) = x2: {(1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 9), (4, 16), (5, 25)}

The inverse function will be represented by flip

flopping the points!

f -1(x) = x : {(1, 1), (4, 2), (9, 3), (16, 4), (25, 5)}

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
Example: Show, via the definition of inverse
functions that f (x) = x3 + 6 and g(x) = 3 x  6 are
inverses of each other.

 3
f (g(x))  f ( x  6 ) 
3
 x  6  6  x  6  6  x
3

g( f (x))  g(x  6)  x  6  6  x  x
3 3 3 3 3

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Let’s go back to f(x) = x2 and
f 1(x)  x

 x   x   x
2
1
f ( f (x))  f
 2
1 1
f ( f (x))  f (x )  x  x 2

But, I’m missing something here…

Let’s look back at the graph…
What I need here is for x ≥ 0, otherwise it
will not pass…

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 HORIZONTAL LINE TEST
Def: A function f has an inverse function if
and only if no horizontal line intersects the
graph of f at more than one point.

Inverse DOES Exist

Inverse DOES NOT exist
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FINDING INVERSE FUNCTIONS
Find the inverse of f (x) = 4x + 5

STEPS COMPUTATIONS

Replace f (x) with y y  4x  5

Interchange the roles of x
and y x  4y  5
Solve for y x  5  4y

 x 5
4
y

Replace y with f -1(x) x 5

f 1 (x) 
4
10/5/2021
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 Find the inverse of f (x) = 2x3 - 1
STEPS COMPUTATIONS

y  2x 1 3
Replace f (x) with y

Interchange the roles of x

and y x  2y 1 3

Solve for y x  1  2y 3
x 1
 y3
 2
 y  3 x 21
Replace y with f -1(x) 1 x 1
f (x)  3

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2 51


 Find the inverse of f (x)  x 1, x 1
STEPS COMPUTATIONS

 y
y  x 1
Replace f (x) with

Interchange the roles of x

and y x  y 1
Solve for y
x    y 1
2 2

 x 2  y 1

 y  x 2 1
1
Replace y with f -1(x) f (x)  x 2 1
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
 Find the inverse of….

2x  3
f ( x)  ,x  1
5x 1 5

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10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 54
Assignment 1:Due for submission next class
(1)Which of These Relations Are Functions?

(a)

(b) { (3,4), (4,5), (6,7), (3,9) }

X 5 7 9 2 6
(c)
y 1 6 2 8 4

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(2) Which relation represents a function?
A. {(1,3), (2, 4), (3,5), (5, 1)}
B. {(1, 0), (1, -1), (0,1), }
C. {(2, 3), (3, 2), (4, 5), (3, 7)}
D. {(0, 0), (0, 2)}

(3) Given f(x) = 5x – 4, and g(x)=(1+x)/(1-x), find

(a) f(3), (b) f(-1/2), (c) f(a), (d) f(-1) (e)
f(x+2) g(2), (h) g(-2) (i) g(√2) (j) g(1-x)
(k) g(x2+2)

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(4)Describe the nature of the function graphed below according
to

(a) Increasing, decreasing or constant.

(b) Contiunuous or not continuous
(c) Can you guess the domain and the range?
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(5) Given f (x) = x – 2 and g(x) = x + 7,
find:
a. f ( g(x))
b. g( f(x))
c. f (f(x))
d. g(g(x))
(6) Let f(x) = 3x+6 and g(x) = x +2.
Find
a. (f + g) (1)
b. (f – g) (2)
c. (f ∙ g) (0)
d. (f/g) (-1)
e. (g/f) (-1)
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7 Given the functions

Find:
(a) (b) f(f-1(x)) (c) f-1(f(x)) (d) g-1(x)

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Piecewise Functions
Definition:

Piecewise Function –a function

defined by two or more functions
over a specified domain.

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What do they look like?

x2 + 1 , x  0
f(x) = x–1, x0

You can EVALUATE piecewise

functions.
You can GRAPH piecewise functions.

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Evaluating Piecewise Functions:

Evaluating piecewise functions is just

like evaluating functions that you are
already familiar with.
Let’s calculate f(2).
x2 + 1 , x  0
f(x) = x–1, x0
You are being asked to find y when
x = 2. Since 2 is  0, you will only
substitute into the second part of the
function.
10/5/2021
f(2) = 2 – 1 = 1
(c) Patrice Ndambomve 63
Let’s calculate f(-2).
x2 + 1 , x  0
f(x) = x–1, x0
You are being asked to find y when
x = -2. Since -2 is  0, you will only
substitute into the first part of the
function.
f(-2) = (-2)2 + 1 = 5

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Your turn:

2x + 1, x  0
f(x) = 2x + 2, x  0

Evaluate the following:

f(-2) = -3
? f(5) = 12
?
f(0) = 2? f(1) = 4?

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One more:

3x - 2, x  -2
f(x) = -x , -2  x  1
x2 – 7x, x  1
Evaluate the following:
f(-2) = 2? f(3) = -12
?

f(-4) = -14
? f(1) = -6?

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Absolute Value
Function
The absolute value (or modulus) |x| of a real
number x is the non-negative value of x
without regard to its sign. As a piecewise
function,

|x| = x For x positive

-x For x negative
and |0| = 0.
For example, the absolute value of 3 is 3, and
the absolute value of −3 is also 3. The
absolute value of a number may be thought of
as its distance from zero.
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Solve each equation below.

1) x  10 4) x  5
Ans x = ? or -? “no solution”

2) x  4 5)  x  14
x = ? or - ? x = ? or - ?
3
3) x  0 6) t 
4
x=0 3
t=? or - 4
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 y =|x|

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Greatest Interger Function
 Greatest Integer Function:

y  greatest integer that is  x

x y
0 0
0.5 0
0.75 0
1 1
1.5 1
2
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 Greatest Integer Function:

y  greatest integer that is  x

The greatest integer function is also called

the floor function.

The notation for the floor function is:

y   x 

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
 Least Integer Function:

y  least integer that is  x

The least integer function is also called the

ceiling function.

Don’t worry, there are not wall

The notation for the ceiling function is: functions, front door functions,
fireplace functions!

y   x 

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
Example:

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Composite Functions
 Functions
Composition of functions
 Suppose that we have two functions:

x
f(g(x))
f g(x)
g

For example:
If f(x)=sin(x), g(x)=2x+4 then

f(g(x))=f(2x+4)=sin(2x+4)
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 The Composition of Functions
The composition of the function f with g is
denoted by f o g and is defined by the equation

(f o g)(x) = f (g(x)).

The domain of the composite function f o g is

the set of all x such that x is in the domain of g
and g(x) is in the domain of f.

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 What Are They?
Composite functions are functions that are formed from
two functions f(x) and g(x) in which the output or result
of one of the functions is used as the input to the other
function.

In this case the result or output from g becomes the

input to f.

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 Example.
Given f (x) = 3x – 4 and g(x) = x2 + 6,
find: a. (f ○ g)(x) b. (g ○ f)(x)
Solution
a. We begin with (f o g)(x), the composition of f with g. Because (f o
g)(x) means f (g(x)), we must replace each occurrence of x in the
equation for f by g(x).
f (x) = 3x – 4
(f ○ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = 3(g(x)) – 4
= 3(x2 + 6) – 4
= 3x2 + 18 – 4
= 3x2 + 14
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Thus, (f ○ g)(x) = 3x2 + 14.

 Example 5a.
Given f (x) = 3x – 4 and g(x) = x2 + 6,
find: a. (f ○ g)(x) b. (g ○ f)(x)
Solution
b. Next, we find (g o f )(x), the composition of g with f.
Because (g o f )(x) means g(f (x)), we must replace each
occurrence of x in the equation for g by f (x).
g(x) = x2 + 6
(g ○ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = (f (x))2 + 6
= (3x – 4)2 + 6
= 9x2 – 24x + 16 + 6
= 9x2 – 24x + 22
Notice that (f ○ g)(x) is not the same as (g ○ f )(x).
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 A composite function

f g

x
g
g(x)
domain of g
f range of f
range of g f(g(x))

domain of f

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A different way to look at it…

x f  g  x 

f
g Machine
x
gFunction
Function
Machine

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 Example 1

Given f x   x 3 g x   x  2 the composite function

f  g x   f g x   f x  2  x  2  x 3  6 x 2  8 x  8
3

Replace g(x) with x+2

Replace the variable x

in the f function with
x+2
Expand

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Example 2
Given
h x   2 x  4 k  x   x 2  2 the composite function

k h  x   k  h  x   k      2   2x  4  2  2x  2
2
2x  4  2x  4

The result of
Replace the
the function h
variable x in
becomes the
k(x) with 2x  4
input to k

Simplify

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 Example 2 Con’t.
Now see what happens when we take the same two functions and reverse the
order of the composition.

h x   2 x  4 k  x   x 2  2 The composite function

   
h k  x   h  k  x   h x2  2  2 x2  2  4  2x2  4  4  2x2  2 x

Notice, the result here is not the same as the previous result. This is
usually the case with composite functions. Changing the order of the
composition (changing which function is the “inner” function and which is
the “outer” function) usually changes the result.

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Problem 1
1
For the functions f  x  g  x   3x  5 find
x
f g  x

f  g  x    f  3x  5  
1
3x  5

g f  x

1 1
g  f  x   g    3   5   5
3
 x  x x

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Breaking Composite Functions Apart
There are instances when we want to take a composite
function and break it into its component parts. In this
case we’ll be looking for an “inner” function and an
“outer” function. To help you find the inner function look
for expressions in parentheses, or under radical signs or
in denominators.

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Example 3
h  x    5  4 x  into two smaller functions
2
Break the composite function

f  x  and g  x  so that h  x   f  g  x 

h  x   5  4x 
2
g  x   5  4x
f  x   x2

Inner part Outer part

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Problem 2
Break the given function h(x) into components f(x) and g(x) such that
h(x) =f (g(x))

h  x   3 1  x2
g  x   1  x2
f  x  3 x

2
h  x 
9x  3
g  x   9x  3
2
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x
Assignment 2. To be submitted in the next class
1 Given the functions
Find:
(a) (b) (c) (d)

(e) (f)
2 Identify the inner and the outer functions for these functions:

3 Let f , g , h : R  R be defined by f ( x) = x 2 , g ( x)  x  5, h( x)  x 2  3
Find (a) g  f ( x) (b) f  g ( x) (c) h  g  f ( x)(d )f(-2)
(e) f(3x) (f) f(g(1) (g) f(g(4) ) (h) g(f(4) )
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7. Given the function

x3 + 1, x  2
f(x) = 2x -5, x  2

Evaluate the following:

(a) f(2) = -3
? (b)f(5) = 12
?
(c) f(0) = 2? (d)f(1) = 4?

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10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 95
GRAPH OF FUNCTIONS
Graph of a Function
 If f is a function, then the graph of f is the set
of all points (x,f(x)) in the Cartesian plane
 The graph of a function can be intersected by
a vertical line in at most one point.
 Vertical Line Test
 If a vertical line intersects a graph more than
once, then the graph is not the graph of a
function.

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NATURE OF FUNCTIONS:
1.Increasing, Decreasing, and Constant Functions

A function is increasing on an interval if for any x1, and x2 in the

interval, where x1 < x2, then f (x1) < f (x2).
A function is decreasing on an interval if for any x1, and x2 in the
interval, where x1 < x2, then f (x1) > f (x2).
A function is constant on an interval if for any x1, and x2 in the
interval, where x1 < x2, then f (x1) = f (x2).

(x2, f (x2)) (x1, f (x1))

(x1, f (x1))
(x2, f (x2))
(x1, f (x1))
(x2, f (x2))

Increasing Decreasing Constant

f (x1) < f (x2) f (x1) < f (x2) f (x1) < f (x2)

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 Example 8a.
Describe the increasing, decreasing, or constant behavior of each
function whose graph is shown.

a 5 b 5
4 4
. 3 . 3
2
1 1

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
-5 -5

Solutio
a
n. The function is decreasing on the interval (-∞, 0), increasing on the
interval (0, 2), and decreasing on the interval (2, ∞).

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 Example 8a.
Describe the increasing, decreasing, or constant behavior of each function
whose graph is shown.
a 5 b 5
4 4
. 3 . 3
2
1 1

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
-5 -5

Solution:
b.
• Although the function's equations are not given, the graph indicates
that the function is defined in two pieces.
• The part of the graph to the left of the y-axis shows that the
function is constant on the interval (-∞, 0).
• The part to the right of the y-axis shows that the function is
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increasing on the interval [0,∞).
(c) Patrice Ndambomve 100
 Example 8b.

Describe the
increasing,
decreasing, or
constant behavior of
each function whose
graph is shown.

Decreasing on (-∞, 0);

Increasing on (0, ∞)

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 Example 8b.

Describe the
increasing,
decreasing, or
constant behavior of
each function whose
graph is shown.

Increasing on (-∞, 2);

Constant on (2, ∞)

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 Example 8c.

Describe the
increasing,
decreasing, or
constant behavior of
each function whose
graph is shown.

Increasing on (-∞,∞)

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2.Continuous and Discontinuous Functions

A continuous function is represented by a graph

which may be drawn using a continuous line or curve,
while a discontinuous function is represented by a
graph which has some gaps, holes or breaks
(discontinuities).

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 Periodic Functions
A periodic function is a function whose values repeat
in periods or regular intervals.
y = tan(x) y = cos(x)

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A linear function is a function of the form f(x) = mx +b
where m and b are real numbers and m ≠ 0.
Domain: the set of real numbers
Range: the set of real numbers
Graph: straight line
Example: f(x) = 2 - x

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 Linear functions

e.g y=x+1
Y=-2x+1

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 Quadratic Functions
A quadratic function is a function of the form f(x) = ax2
+bx +c where a, b and c are real numbers and a ≠ 0.
Domain: the set of real numbers
Graph: parabola
Examples: parabolas parabolas
opening upward opening downward

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 Graphs of Quadratic
Functions
The graph of any quadratic function is called a parabola.
Parabolas are shaped like cups, as shown in the graph
below.
If the coefficient of x2 is positive, the parabola opens
upward; otherwise, the parabola opens downward.
The vertex (or turning point) is the minimum or maximum
point.

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 QUadratic functions

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 Cubic functions

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The graph of f(x) = 1/x

Domain =(,0)  (0, )

Range = (,0)  (0, )

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The graph of f(x) = √x

Domain =0, 

Range =0, 

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 Squareroot functions

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Vertical Shifts of Graphs:
To graph the function y = f(x) + c, shift the graph
upward by c units as shown below.

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Vertical Shifts of Graphs:
To graph the function y = f(x) - c, shift the graph
downward by c units as shown below.

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Horizontal Shifts of Graphs:
To graph the function y = f(x – c), where c > 0 shift the
graph to the right by c units as shown below.

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Horizontal Shifts of Graphs:
To graph the function y = f(x + c), where c > 0 shift the
graph to the left by c units as shown below.

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 ABSOLUTE VALUE FUNCTION
The graph of f(x) = |x|
Domain =(, )

Range = 0, 

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Example:
Sketch the graph of the function f(x) = |x| + 1. Do not plot points,
but instead apply transformations to the graph of a standard
function.
SOLUTION:
Start with the graph of |x|. To graph the function f(x) = |x| + 1
merely shift the graph upward by 1 unit.

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Example:
Sketch the graph of the function f(x) = |x - 1| . Do not plot points,
but instead apply transformations to the graph of a standard
function.
SOLUTION:
Start with the graph of |x|. To graph the function f(x) = |x -1|
merely shift the graph to the right by 1 unit.

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 y = |x+1| + 2

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 y = |2x+5| - 4

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 y = 2 |x - 3| + 1

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Reflection of Graphs:
To graph the function y = -f(x ), reflect the graph of f(x) in
the x-axis.

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Reflection of Graphs:
To graph the function y = f(- x ), reflect the graph of f(x)
in the y -axis.

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Example:
Sketch the graph of the function f(x) = - √x. Do not plot points,
but instead apply transformations to the graph of a standard
function.
SOLUTION:

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10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 129
 LOGARITHM AND EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS
For x  0 and 0  a  1,
y = loga x if and only if x = a y.
The function given by f (x) = loga x is called the
logarithmic function with base a.

Every logarithmic equation has an equivalent exponential form:

y = loga x is equivalent to x = a y

A logarithm is an exponent!

A logarithmic function is the inverse function of an exponential function.

Exponential function: y = ax

Logarithmic function: y = logax is equivalent to x = ay

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Examples: Write the equivalent exponential equatio
and solve for y.

Logarithmic Equation Equivalent Solution

Exponential Equation

y = log216 16 = 2y 16 = 24  y = 4

y = log2( )1 = 2y
1 1
= 2-1 y = –1
2 2 2
y = log416 16 = 4y 16 = 42  y = 2

y = log51 1=5y 1 = 50  y = 0

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Properties of Logarithms
1. loga 1 = 0 since a0 = 1.
2. loga a = 1 since a1 = a.
3. loga ax = x and alogax = x inverse property
4. If loga x = loga y, then x = y. one-to-one property

Examples: Solve for x: log6 6 = x

log6 6 = 1 property 2 x = 1

Simplify: log3 35
log3 35 = 5 property 3

Simplify: 7log79
7log79 = 9 property 3

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Graph f (x) = log2 x

Since the logarithm function is the inverse of the exponential function of the
same base, its graph is the reflection of the exponential function in the line y = x.

y y = 2x
x 2x y=x

–2 1 horizontal y = log2 x
4 asymptote y = 0
–1 1 x-intercept
2 x
0 1 (1, 0)

1 2
vertical asymptote
2 4 x=0
3 8
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 Example: Graph the common logarithm function f(x) = log10 x.

x 1 1 1 2 4 10
100 10
f(x) = log10 x –2 –1 0 0.301 0.602 1

y by calculator

f(x) = log10 x

x
5
(0, 1) x-intercept

x=0
vertical
asymptote –5

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 The graphs of logarithmic functions are similar for different values of a.
f(x) = loga x (a  1)

y-axis y
Graph of f (x) = loga x (a  1) y = ax y=x
vertical
1. domain (0, ) asymptote
y = log2 x
2. range (,)
3. x-intercept (1, 0)
4. vertical asymptote domain
 x
x  0 as x  0 f ( x)   x-intercept
5. increasing (1, 0)
6. continuous
7. one-to-one range
8. reflection of y = a x in y = x

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 y y = ln x
The function defined by
f(x) = loge x = ln x
x
5
(x  0, e 
2.718281)
is called the natural
logarithm function.
–5

y = ln x is equivalent to e y = x

Use a calculator to evaluate: ln 3, ln –2, ln 100

Function Value Keystrokes Display
ln 3 LN 3 ENTER 1.0986122
ln –2 LN –2 ENTER ERROR
ln 100 LN 100 ENTER 4.6051701

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 Graphing Piecewise Functions:
x2 + 1 , x  0
f(x) = x–1 , x0

Determine the shapes of the graphs.

Parabola and Line
Determine the boundaries of each graph.
 
Graph the parabola
line

greater
where x is less than   
than or equal to
zero. 
 

zero. 


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 Graphing Piecewise Functions:
3x + 2, x  -2
f(x) = -x , -2  x  1
x2 – 2, x  1
Determine the shapes of the graphs.
Line, Line, Parabola
Determine the boundaries of each graph.



  


 


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

(c) Patrice Ndambomve 138
ASSIGNMENT 3

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CHAPTER 3

LIMIT PROCESS AND

CONTINUITY
-LIMIT PROCESS
-ONE SIDED LIMITS
LIMIT THEOREMS
CONTINUITY
 The Limit Process
THE LIMIT PROCESS (AN INTUITIVE INTRODUCTION)
We could begin by saying that limits are important in calculus, but that
would be a major understatement. Without limits, calculus would not
exist. Every single notion of calculus is a limit in one sense or another.

For example:

What is the slope of a curve? It is the limit

of slopes of secant lines.

What is the length of a curve? It is the limit

of the lengths of polygonal paths inscribed
in the curve.

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 The Limit Process
What is the area of a region bounded by a curve? It is the limit of the sum
of areas of approximating rectangles.

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 142

 To say that

means that ƒ(x) can be made as close

as desired to L by making x close
enough, but not equal, to p.

In any case, whether or not f is defined

at c and, if so, how is totally irrelevant.
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The Limit Process
Example 13
Let f(x) = (sin x)/x. If we try to evaluate f at 0, we get the
meaningless ratio 0/0; f is not defined at x = 0. However, f is
defined for all x ≠ 0, and so we can consider

We select numbers that approach 0 closely from the left and

numbers that approach 0 closely from the right. Using a calculator,
we evaluate f at these numbers. The results are tabulated in Table
2.1.1.

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10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 146
 The Limit Process

Example 6
3x – 4, x ≠ 0
If f(x) = then lim f(x) = –4.
10, x ≠ 0, x→0

It does not matter that f(0) = 10. For x ≠ 0, and thus for all x near 0,
f(x) = 3x – 4 and therefore lim f(x) = lim (3x – 4) = –4.
x→0 x→0

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Indeterminate Forms

Indeterminate forms occur when substitution in the

limit results in 0/0. In such cases either factor or
rationalize the expressions.
0
x5 Notice form
Ex. lim
x 5 x 2  25 0
x5
 lim Factor and cancel
x 5  x  5  x  5 
common factors
1 1
 lim 
x 5  x  5  10
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 More Examples
 x 3  ( x  3)( x  3) 
a) lim  
 = lim  
 x 9   ( x  9)( x  3) 
x 9 x 9

 x 9   1  1
 lim    6
x 9 
 lim
x 9 ( x  9)( x  3)
   x 3

 4  x2   (2  x)(2  x) 
b) lim  2  = lim 
x 2 2 x  x 3
  x 2  x 2 (2  x) 

 2 x
= lim  
 x 
x 2 2

2  (2) 4
  1
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(2) 2
4
(c) Patrice Ndambomve 149
 3x if x  2
c) Find lim f ( x) where f ( x)  
x 2
1 if x  2

lim f ( x) = lim  3 x
x 2 x 2

 3 lim x
x 2

Note: f (-2) = 1  3(2)  6

is not involved

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3) Use your calculator to evaluate the limits

 4( x 2  4)  Answer : 16
a. lim  
x 2
 x  2 

1, if x  0 Answer : no limit

b. lim g ( x), where g ( x)  
x 0
1, if x  0
1
c. lim f ( x), where f ( x)  2 Answer : no limit
x 0 x
 1 x 1 
d. lim   Answer : 1/2
x 0 x
 

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The Limit Process
Example
Set
f  x   1  x and take c = −8.
As x approaches −8, 1 − x approaches 9 and 1  x approaches
3. We conclude that
lim f  x   3
x 8

If for that same function we try to calculate

lim f  x 
x2

we run into a problem. The function f  x   1  x is defined

only for x ≤ 1. It is therefore not defined for x near 2, and the
idea of taking the limit as x approaches 2 makes no sense at all:
lim f  x  does not exist.
x2

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The Limit Process
Example

x3  2 x  4 5
lim  .
x 3 x 1
2
2

First we work the numerator: as x approaches 3, x3 approaches

27, −2x approaches –6, and x3 – 2x + 4 approaches 27 – 6 + 4 =
25. Now for the denominator: as x approaches 3, x2 + 1
approaches 10. The quotient (it would seem) approaches 25/10 =
52.

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One-Sided Limit
One-Sided Limits
The right-hand limit of f (x), as x
approaches a, equals L
written: lim f ( x)  L
x a

if we can make the value f (x) arbitrarily

close to L by taking x to be sufficiently
close to the right of a.
y  f ( x)
L

a
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The left-hand limit of f (x), as x approaches
a, equals M
written: lim f ( x)  M
x a

if we can make the value f (x) arbitrarily

close to L by taking x to be sufficiently
close to the left of a.
y  f ( x)

M
a
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Examples
Examples of One-Sided Limit
 x 2 if x  3
1. Given f ( x)  
2x if x  3

Find lim f ( x)
x 3

lim f ( x)  lim 2 x  6
x 3 x 3

Find lim f ( x)
x 3

lim f ( x)  lim x 2  9
x 3 x 3

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 156

 The Limit Process
Example 7
For the function f indicated in figure 2.1.8,

lim  f  x   5 and lim  f  x   5

x  2  x  2 

In this
case lim f  x   5
x 2

It does not matter that f (−2) = 3.

Examining the graph of f near x = 4, we find that

lim f  x   7 whereas lim f  x   2

x  4 x  4

Since these one-sided limits are different,

lim f  x  does not exist.

x4

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 157

 More Examples
 x  1, if x  0
2. Let f ( x)  
 x  1, if x  0. Find the limits:

a) lim f ( x)  lim ( x  1)
x 0 x 0
 0 1  1
b) lim f ( x)  lim ( x  1)  0 1  1
x 0 x 0

c) lim f ( x)  lim(
x 1

x  1)  11  2
x 1

d) lim f ( x)  lim( x  1)  11  2

x 1 
x 1
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 158
 A Theorem
lim f ( x)  L if and only if lim f ( x)  L and lim f ( x)  L.
xa x a x a

This theorem is used to show a limit does

not exist.
 x  1, if x  0
For the function f ( x)  
 x  1, if x  0.
lim f ( x) does not exist because lim f ( x)  1 and lim f ( x)  1.
x 0 x 0 x 0

But
lim f ( x)  2 because lim f ( x)  2 and lim f ( x)  2.
x 1 x 1 x 1
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 159
 Limit Theorems
If c is any number, lim f ( x)  L and lim g ( x)  M , then
x a x a

a) lim  f ( x)  g ( x)   L  M b) lim  f ( x)  g ( x)   L  M
x a x a

c) lim  f ( x)  g ( x)   L  M
xa
d)
x a 
lim f ( x)
g ( x)   L , ( M  0)
M

e) lim  c  f ( x)   c  L f) lim  f ( x)   Ln
n
x a
x a

g) lim c  c h) lim x  a
xa xa

i) lim x n  a n j) lim f ( x)  L , ( L  0)
x a x a
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 160
Examples Using Limit Rule
Ex. lim  x  1  lim x  lim1
2
x 3
2
x 3
x 3

   lim1
2
 lim x
x 3 x 3

 32  1  10

2x 1 lim  2 x  1 2lim x  lim1


Ex. lim  x 1
 x 1 x 1
x 1 3 x  5 lim  3x  5  3lim x  lim5
x 1 x 1 x 1

2 1 1
 
35 8
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 161
Limits -Computing limits (a  b)(a  b)  a 2  b2
Rationalizing denominators

lim
x
 lim
x  1 x  1 x 
x 0
1 x  1 x x 0
 1 x  1 x  1 x  1 x 

 lim
x  
1 x  1 x
 lim
x  1 x  1 x 
 1 x    1 x  1 x   1 x 
x 0 2 2 x 0

 lim

x 1 x  1 x   lim
 1 x  1 x  1
x 0 2x x 0 2
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 162
Definition of Limit

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 163

 More Examples
1. Suppose lim f ( x)  4 and lim g ( x)  2. Find
x 3 x 3

a) lim  f ( x)  g ( x)   lim
x 3
f ( x)  lim g ( x)
x 3
x 3
 4  (2)  2

b) lim  f ( x)  g ( x)   lim f ( x)  lim g ( x)

x 3
x 3 x 3

 4  (2)  6
 2 f ( x)  g ( x)  lim 2 f ( x)  lim g ( x) 2  4  (2) 5
c) lim    x 3 x 3
 
x 3
 f ( x) g ( x) 
10/5/2021 lim f ( x)  lim g ( x)
(c) Patrice Ndambomve 4  (2) 164 4
x 3 x 3
Limits at Infinity
1 1
For all n > 0, lim n  lim n  0
x  x x  x

1
provided that n is defined.
x
3x  5 x  1
2 3  5  1
 lim
x x 2 Divide
Ex. xlim 2
 2  4x 2 x  2 4 by x
x2


lim 3  lim 5
x  x 
 x   lim  1 x   3  0  0   3
x 
2

lim 2
x 
 x 2  lim 4
x 
04 4

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 165

More Examples
 2 x3 3x 2 2 
 2 x3  3x 2  2   3
 3  3 
1. lim  3
x 
 x  x 2
 100 x  1

  lim  3 x 2 x x 
x  x
  x  100 x  1 
 3 
x x 3
x 3
x 3


 3 2 
 2  x  x3 
 lim 
x  1 100 1 
 1  2  3 
 x x x 

2
 2
1
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 166
  4 x  5 x  21 
2  x2  2x  4 
2. lim  3  3. lim  
x  7 x  5 x 2  10 x  1
 
x 
 12 x  31 
 x2 2x 4 
 4 x 2 5 x 21
 3 3
    
 3   lim  x x x
 lim  3 x x x 
2
x 
 12 x  31 
x  7 x
 5 x 10 x 1   x x 
 3  3  3  3 
 x x x x 
 4 5 21   4
 x2 x 
 
 x x 2 x3 
 lim    lim 
31 
x  5 10 1
7  2  3  x 
 x x x   12  
0  x 
 2
7 
12
0
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve
 167
 4. lim
x 
 x 1  x
2


 lim 
 x2  1  x  x 1  x 
2


x 
 1 x2  1  x 
 

 x2  1  x2 
 lim  
x 
 x 1  x 
2

 1 
 lim  
x 
 x 1  x 
2

1 1
  0
 
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 168
 Infinite Limits
20

For all n > 0, 15

10

1 5

lim 
x a  x  a n -8 -6 -4 -2 2
-5

-10

-15

-20
40

30
1
lim   if n is even 20

 x  a
n
x a 10

-2 2 4 6

-10

-20
20
1
lim   if n is odd 15

 x  a
n
x a 10

-8 -6 -4 -2 2
-5
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 169
More Graphs -10

-15
amples
Find the limits
 3x 2  2 x  1   3 2  1 2  3   
1. lim   = lim 
x x   
x 0
2 x 0 
  2
 2x  
2

 2x 1 
2. lim   = lim
 2x 1 
x 3  2 x  6  x 3  2( x  3) 
 
 
40

20

-8 -6 -4 -2 2

-20

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 170

The Limit
Example 10
Process
We set 1
f(x) =
x–2

and examine the behavior of f(x) (a) as x tends to 4

and then (b) as x tends to 2.

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 171

 The Limit Process
Example 11

1 – x2, x ＜ 1
Set f(x) =
1/(x – 1), x＞ 1.

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 172

 Definition of Limit
In Figure 2.2.3, we give two choices of ε and for each we display a suitable
δ. For
a δ to be suitable, all points within δ of c (with the possible exception of c
itself) must be taken by the function f to within ε of L. In part (b) of the figure,
we began with a smaller ε and had to use a smaller δ.

The δ of Figure 2.2.4 is too large for the

given ε. In particular, the points marked x1
and x2 in the figure are not taken by f to
within ε of L.
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 173
Definition of Limit

The limit process can be described

entirely in terms of open intervals as
shown in Figure 2.2.5.

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 174

Definition of Limit
Example 1
Show that
lim (2x – 1) = 3.
x→2
(Figure 2.2.6)

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 175

Definition of Limit
Example 2
Show that
lim (2 – 3x) = 5.
x → –1
(Figure 2.2.7)

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 176

Definition of Limit
Example 3
For each number c

Example 4
For each real number c

Example 5
For each constant k

(c) Patrice Ndambomve

Definition of Limit
Example 6
Show that
lim x 2 = 9. (Figure
x→3
2.2.11)

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 178

Definition of Limit
Example 7
Show that

(Figure 2.2.12) lim x  2.

x4

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 179

Definition of Limit
There are several different ways of formulating the same limit
statement. Sometimes one formulation is more convenient, sometimes
another, In particular, it is useful to recognize that the following four
statements are equivalent:

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 180

 Definition of Limit
Example 8

For f(x) = x2, we have

lim x2 = 9
x→3

lim (x2 – 9) = 0 lim x2 – 9 = 0.

x→3 x→3

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 181

Definition of Limit

One-sided limits give us a simple way of determining

whether or not a (two-sided) limit exists:

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 182

 Definition of Limit
Example 9
For the function defined by setting

2 x  1, x  0
f  x   2
 x  x, x  0
lim f  x  does not exist.
x 0

Proof
The left- and right-hand limits at 0 are as follows:
lim f  x   lim  2 x  1  1, lim f  x   lim  x 2  x   0
x 0 x 0 x 0 x 0

Since these one-sided limits are different,

lim f  x  does not exist.
x 0

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 183

Definition
Example 10
of Limit
For the function defined by setting
1 + x2, x＜1
g(x) = 3, x=1
4 – 2x, x ＞ 1,
lim g(x) = 2.
x→1

Proof
The left- and right-hand limits at 1 are as follows:

lim g(x) = lim (1 + x2) = 2, lim g(x) = lim (4 – 2x) = 2.

x→1– x→1– x → 1+ x → 1+

Thus, lim g(x) = 2. NOTE: It does not matter that g(1) ≠ 2.

x→1

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 184

Definition of Limit

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 185

Limit Theorems

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 186

Limit Theorems

The following properties are extensions of Theorem 2.3.2.

(c) Patrice Ndambomve

Limit Theorems

Examples
lim (5x2 – 12x + 2) = 5(1)2 – 12(1) + 2 = –5,
x→1
lim (14x5 – 7x2 + 2x + 8) = 14(0)5 – 7(0)2 + 2(0) + 8 = 8
x→0

lim (2x3 + x2 – 2x – 3) = 2(–1)3 + (–1)2 – 2(–1) – 3 = –2.

x→–1

(c) Patrice Ndambomve

Limit Theorems

Examples

1 1 1 1 1 1
lim = 16, lim = , lim =
=
x→4
. x 2 x→2 x3 – 1 7 x→–3 x –3 3

(c) Patrice Ndambomve

Limit Theorems

Examples
3x  5 6  5 1
lim  
x 2 x 2  1 4 1 5

x3  3x 2 27  27
lim  0
x 3 1  x 2 1 9

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 190

Limit Theorems

Examples
From Theorem 2.3.10 you can see
that x2 3x  7 5
lim lim lim
x 1 x 1 x 2 x2  4 x 0 x

All fail to exist.

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 191

 Limit Theorems
Example 1
Evaluate the limits exist:

x2 – x – 6 (x2 – 3x – x+1
(a) lim , (b) lim 4)2 , (c)
lim x→3 x–3 . x→4 x → –1 (2x2 + 7x + 5)2
x–4

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 192

 Limit Theorems
Example 2
Justify the following assertions.

1/x – 1/2 1 x–9

(a) lim =– , (b) lim = 6.
x→2 x–2 4 x→9 √ x – 3

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 193

CONTINUITY
 A function f is continuous at the point x = a
if the following are true:
i) f (a) is defined
ii ) lim f ( x) exists
x a
iii ) lim f ( x)  f (a )
x a f(a)

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 195

Examples At which value(s) of x is the given
function discontinuous?
x 9
2

1. f ( x)  x  2 2. g ( x) 
x3
Continuous
everywhere Continuous everywhere
lim( x  2)  a  2
x a
except atx  3

and so lim f ( x)  f (a) g (3) is undefined

xa
4

6 2

4 -6 -4 -2 2 4

-2

2
-4

-6
-4 -2 2 4

-2 -8

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve -10

196
  x  2, if x  1 1, if x  0
3. h( x)   4. F ( x)  
1, if x  1 1, if x  0
and

lim h( x)  1 and lim h( x)  3

lim F ( x)
x 0
1 lim F ( x)  1
x  0

x 1 x 1
Thus F is not cont. at x  0.
Thus h is not cont. at
x=1. F is continuous everywhere else
h is continuous everywhere else

3
4

3 2

2
1

-10 -5 5 10

-2 2 4
-1
-1

-2
-2

-3 -3

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 197

Continuous Functions
If f and g are continuous at x = a, then

f  g , fg , and f
g  g (a)  0  are continuous
at x  a

A polynomial function y = P(x) is continuous

at every point x.

A rational function R( x)  p( x) q( x) is
continuous at every point x in its domain.
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 198
 Continuity
Continuity at a Point
The basic idea is as follows: We are given a function f and a number c.
lim f  x 
We calculate (if we can) both and f (c). If these two numbers
x c
are equal, we say that f is continuous at c. Here is the definition formally
stated.

If the domain of f contains an interval (c − p, c + p), then f can fail to be

continuous at c for only one of two reasons: either
lim f  x   f  c 
(i) f has a limit as x tends to c, but , or
x c
(ii) f has no limit as x tends to c.
In case (i) the number c is called a removable discontinuity. The
discontinuity can be removed by redefining f at c. If the limit is L, redefine f
at c to be L.
In10/5/2021
case (ii) the number c is called(c)an essential
Patrice Ndambomve discontinuity. You can 199

change the value of f at a billion points in any way you like. The
 Continuity
The functions shown have essential discontinuities at c.

The discontinuity in Figure 2.4.2 is, for obvious

reasons, called a jump discontinuity.

The functions of Figure 2.4.3 have infinite discontinuities.

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 200

Continuity

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 201

Continuity
Example 1
The function
x3  x
F  x  3 x  2 4
x  5x  6

is continuous at all real numbers other than 2 and 3. You can see this by
noting that

F = 3 f + g/h + k
where

f (x) = |x|, g(x) = x3 − x, h(x) = x2 − 5x + 6, k(x) = 4.

Since f, g, h, k are everywhere continuous, F is continuous except at 2 and

3, the numbers at which h takes on the value 0. (At those numbers F is not
defined.)

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 202

Continuity

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 203

 Continuity
Example 2
x2 + 1
The function F(x) = is continuous at all numbers greater than 3. To
see this, x–3

note that F = f g, where

f ( x)  x x2 + 1 .
and g(x) =
x–3

Now, take any c ＞ 3. Since g is a rational function and g is defined at c, g is

continuous at c. Also, since g(c) is positive and f is continuous at each
positive number, f is continuous at g(c). By Theorem 2.4.4, F is continuous at
c.

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 204

 Continuity
Example 3
1
The functionF ( x)  is continuous everywhere except at x = ±3,
5  x  16
2

where it is not defined. To see this, note that F = f g k h, where

1
f ( x)  , g ( x )  5  x, k ( x)  x , h( x)  x 2  16.
x

and observe that each of these functions is being evaluated only where it is
continuous. In particular, g and h are continuous everywhere, f is being
evaluated only at nonzero numbers, and k is being evaluated only at positive
numbers. .

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 205

Continuity

(c) Patrice Ndambomve

Continuity
Example 4
Determine the discontinuities, if any, of the following function:
2x + 1, x≦0
f(x) = 1, 0＜x≦1 (Figure
x2 + 1, x ＞ 1. 2.4.8)

(c) Patrice Ndambomve

Continuity

Example 5
Determine the discontinuities, if any, of the following
function:

x3 , x ≦ –1
x2 – 2, –1 ＜ x ＜ 1
6 – x, 1≦x＜4
f(x) = 6 , 4＜x＜7
7–x
5x + 2, x ≧ 7.

(c) Patrice Ndambomve

 Continuity
Continuity on Intervals
A function f is said to be continuous on an interval if it is continuous at each interior
point of the interval and one-sidedly continuous at whatever endpoints the interval may
contain.
For example:
(i) The function
f  x   1  x2
is continuous on [−1, 1] because it is continuous at each point of (−1, 1),
continuous from the right at −1, and continuous from the left at 1.
The graph of the function is the semicircle.
(ii) The function
1
f  x 
1  x2

is continuous on (−1, 1) because it is continuous at each point of (−1, 1). It is not

continuous on [−1, 1) because it is not continuous from the right at −1. It is not
continuous on (−1, 1] because it is not continuous from the left at 1.
(iii) The function graphed in Figure 2.4.8 is continuous on (−∞, 1] and continuous on
(1,∞). It is not continuous on [1,∞) because it is not continuous from the right at 1.
(iv) Polynomials, being everywhere continuous, are continuous on (−∞,∞).

Continuous functions have special properties not shared by other functions.

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 209
 ASSIGNMENTS 4
(1)

Using the above graph, evaluate

( a ) f ( 4)(b) lim f ( x )(c ) lim f ( x )(d ) lim f ( x )

x4 x4 x4

(e) f (1)( f ) lim f ( x )( g ) lim f ( x )(h) lim f ( x )

x 1 x 1 x 1

( f ) f (6)(h) lim f ( x )(i ) lim f ( x )( j ) lim f ( x )

x 6 x 6 x 6
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 210
 x2 1
(2) Given f ( x)  x 2  x . Evaluate lim
x1
f ( x) and lim f ( x)
x 0

(3) Evaluate the following limits

3 4
( a ) lim (b ) lim
x4 (4  x) 3 x2 x  2

2( 3  h) 2  18 2x
(c ) lim ( d ) lim
h 0 h x 3 x  3

x2  9 x3 – 8
lim x 3 x 8
3

(e) x3 (f) lim x 2 (g) x→2

x–2
x2

(4) Given f ( x)  3 x 3  2 x 2  x  3 . Evaluate the following limits

( a ) lim f ( x )(b) lim f ( x )(c ) lim f ( x )(d ) lim f ( x)

x 1 x2 x  1 x  2

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(5) Evaluate the following limits at infinity
2x 4  x 2  8x
( a ) lim ( )
x   5x 4
 7
t 2  5t  9
(b ) lim ( )
x  2t 4
 3t 3

x2  3
(c ) lim ( )
x  x 3
 4x 2
1
 2
( d ) lim ( 3
)
x  x

(6) Examine the points of discontinuity of the following

functions ( x  1)( x 2  4)
( a ) g (t ) 
x2  9
x  10
(b ) f ( x ) 
x  10
 2x  3
c) f ( x) 
(10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 212
x2  4
7

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 213

 CHAPTER 4

DERIVATIVES

GRADIENT OF A CURVE
DIFFERENTIATION FROM THE FIRST PRINCIPLE.
BASIC RULES FOR DIFFERENTIATION
The Gradient of a Straight Line

The gradient of a straight line is given by

y 2  y1
m
x 2  x1

where ( x1 , y1 ) and ( x 2 , y 2 ) are points on the line

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 215

e.g. Find the gradient of the line joining the points
with coordinates and ( 1, 1 ) ( 3, 7 )
Solution: y 2  y1 7 1 6
m  m  3
x 2  x1 31 2

( 3, 7 ) difference in the y-
x
values
7-1=6
( 1, 1 ) 3-1=2
x

difference in the x-
values
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The gradient of a straight line is given by

the difference in the y - values

m
the difference in the x  values

We use this idea to get the gradient at a point on a curve

Gradients are important as they measure the rate of change of one

variable with another. For the graphs in this section, the gradient
measures how y changes with x

This branch of Mathematics is called

Calculus
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 217
The Gradient at a point on a Curve
Definition: The gradient of a point on a curve equals the
gradient of the tangent at that point.
e.g.

y  x2
12
(2, x
4
) 3
Tangent at (2, 4)

The gradient of the tangent at (2, 4) is m 12

3
4
So, the gradient of the curve(c) Patrice Ndambomve
10/5/2021
at (2, 4) is 4 218
The gradient changes as we move along a curve

e.g.

y  x2
m  6

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 y  x2

m  4

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 y  x2

m  2

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 y  x2

m0

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 y  x2

m2

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 y  x2

m4

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 y  x2

m6

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For the curve y  x 2 we have the following gradients:

Point on the curve Gradient

(3, 9) 6
(2, 4) 4
(1, 1) 2
At every point,
( 0, 0the
) gradient is 0twice the x-value
( 1, 1) 2
( 2, 4) 4
( 3, 9) 6

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 226

For the curve y  x 2 we have the following gradients:

Point on the curve Gradient

( 3, 9) 6
( 2 , 4) 4
(  1, 1) 2
At every point,
( 0, 0the
) gradient is 0twice the x-value
( 1, 1) 2
( 2, 4) 4
( 3 , 9) 6

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 227

 At every point on y  x 2 the gradient is twice
the x-value
dy
This rule can be written as  2x
dx
The notation comes from the idea of the gradient
of a line being
the d ifference in the y-values
the d ifference in the x - values

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 228

 At every point on  xgradient
y the 2
is twice the x-value

This rule can be written as

dy
 2x
dx
The notation comes from the idea of the gradient of a line
being

the d ifference in the y -values

the d ifference in the x - values
dy
is read as “ dy by dx ”
dx
The function giving the gradient of a curve is called the gradient
function
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 229
Other curves and their gradient functions
dy
yx  3
 3x 2
dx
The 4 functiondy
rule for the gradient of a curve of the form
yx   4x 3
dydx n 1
yx n
is  nx
dx dy  5x 4
yx  5
 “power to the front and multiply”
dx
 “subtract 1 from the power”

Although this rule won’t be proved, we can illustrate it for

by sketching the gradients at points on the curve

y  x3

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Summary of Gradient Functions:

dy
y
dx
1 0
x 1
x2 2x
x 3
3x 2
x4 4x 3
x 5
5x 4

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The Gradient Function and Gradient at a Point

y  x3
e.g.1 Find the gradient of the curve at the point (2, 12).

Solution: y  x3
dy
  3x 2
dx
dy
At x = 2, the gradient m  3( 2) 2
dx
 12

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Exercises
1. Find the gradient of the curve y  x 4 at the
point where x  1
Solution:
dy
 4x 3 At x = - 1, m =
dx
2. Find the gradient of the curve
-4 3 at the
yx
point 
1 1
,
2 8

, m  3 
Solution:
dy 1 2
 3x 2 At x  1
2 2
 3
4
dx

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 233

 The process of finding the gradient function is
called differentiation.
 The gradient function is called the derivative.

The rule for differentiating can be extended to

curves of the form
y  ax n
where a is a constant.

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 234

 More Gradient Functions
e.g. Multiplying y  x 3 by 2 multiplies the gradient by 2

y  x3

tangent at
gradient x=1
=3
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 235
e.g. Multiplying y  x 3 by 2 multiplies the gradient by 2

y  2x 3

tangent at
gradient y x x=3 1
=6
tangent at
gradient x=1
=3
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 236
 Multiplying x n by a constant, multiplies
the gradient by that constant

e.g. dy
y  2x 3   2  3x2
dx

 6x 2

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 237

The rule can also be used for sums and differences of terms.

1 3
e.g. y  x  5x2  7x  3
2
dy 1
   3x2  5  2x  7
dx 2
3 2
 x  10 x  7
2

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 238

Using Gradient Functions

e.g. Find the gradient at the point where x=1 on

the curve
y  3x3  2x2  x  4
Solution:
Differentiating to find the gradient function:
dy
 9x2  4x  1
dx
When x = 1, gradient m 9(1) 2
 4(1)  1
=  m  12
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 SUMMARY
 The gradient at a point on a curve is defined as the
gradient of the tangent at that point

 The function that gives the gradient of a curve at any

point is called the gradient function

 The process of finding the gradient function is called

differentiating

 The rule for differentiating terms of the form

dy
y  ax n is  anx n1
dx
• “power to the front and multiply”
• “subtract 1 from the power”
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 Differentiation from the First Principle
Let us look at this optimization problems in business
and economics.
 Recall that if C(x), the cost function, is the cost of
producing x units of a certain product, then the
marginal cost C’ at the point x0 is the rate of
change of C with respect to x at the point.

 x)  C ( xo ) C ( x)  C ( xo )
 More formally,C ' ( x )  Lim C ( x 0
 Lim
x x  x0
0
x 0 x  x0

 This show that the concept of limit foundational in

these economic analyses.
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 241
Again, consider this marketing problem.

 Let p(x) be the price per unit that a company

can charge if it sells x units.

 Then, p is called the demand function

(or price function).
If x units are sold and the price per unit
is p(x), then the total revenue is: R(x) = xp(x)

 This is called the revenue function.

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 242
The marginal revenue function R’ at quantity x0 is
the rate of change of revenue with respect
to the number of units sold at that quantity.
Also, If x units are sold, then the total profit
is P(x) = R(x) – C(x)
and is called the profit function.
The marginal profit function P’ is the rate of change
of profit with respect to the number of units sold at
that quantity.
R( x  x)  R( x ) R( x)  R( x )
R' ( x )  Lim 0
 Lim o o

Formally, 0
x 0 x xxx  x0 0

and
P( x0  x)  P( xo ) P( x)  P( xo )
P' ( x0 )  Lim  Lim
x 0 x x  x0 x  x0
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 243
These examples above and other examples
lead us to study these kind of limits of
functions.
Hence, for any given function f(x), if that limit
exists at a point x, we will call it f’(x).
f ( x  x)  f ( x)
Therefore f ' ( x )  Limx 0 x

Note: this just a notation. So

f ( x  h)  f ( x )
f ' ( x)  Lim
h 0 h

This limit is called the derivative of f at the

point x.
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 244
DIFFERENTIATION FORMULAS

Here’s a summary of the differentiation

formulas we will consider today!

d
dx
c  0
d n
dx
 x   nx n 1

 cf  '  cf '  f  g  '  f ' g '  f  g  '  f ' g '

'
 f  gf ' fg '
 fg  '  fg ' gf '   2
10/5/2021
 
g g
(c) Patrice Ndambomve 245
CONSTANT FUNCTION
Let’s start with the simplest,—the
constant function f(x) = c.

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 246

POWER FUNCTIONS Equation 1

If n = 1, the graph of f(x) = x is the line

y = x, which has slope 1.

So, d ( x)  1
dx
 You can also verify
Equation 1 from the
definition of a derivative.
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 247
POWER FUNCTIONS
Example: For n = 4, we find the derivative of
f(x) = x4 as follows:

f ( x  h)  f ( x ) ( x  h)  x
4 4
f '( x)  lim  lim
h 0 h h 0 h
x 4  4 x3 h  6 x 2 h 2  4 xh3  h 4  x 4
 lim
h 0 h
4 x3 h  6 x 2 h 2  4 xh3  h 4
 lim
h 0 h
 lim  4 x  6 x h  4 xh  h   4 x
3 2 2 3 3

10/5/2021
h 0 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 248
POWER RULE

If n is a positive integer,
then
d n n 1
( x )  nx
dx

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 249

POWER RULE Proof 1
The formula
n 1 n 2 n 2 n 1
x  a  ( x  a)( x
n n
x a    xa a )
can be verified simply by multiplying
out the right-hand side (or by summing
the second factor as a geometric series).

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POWER RULE Proof 1
If f(x) = xn, we can use Equation 5 in
Section 3.1 for f’(a) and the previous equation to
write:

f ( x)  f (a) xn  an
f '(a )  lim  lim
xa xa x a x  a

 lim( x n 1  x n  2 a      xa n  2  a n 1 )
xa

 a n 1  a n  2 a      aa n  2  a n 1
n 1
 na
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POWER RULE Proof 2

f ( x  h)  f ( x ) ( x  h)  x n n
f '( x)  lim  lim
h 0 h h 0 h

In finding the derivative of x4, we had to expand (x +

h)4.

 Here, we need to expand (x + h)n .

 To do so, we use the Binomial Theorem—as follows.

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POWER RULE Proof 2

 n n 1 n(n  1) n 2 2 n 1 n
 x  nx h  x h    nxh  h   x n

2
f '( x)  lim
h 0 h
n 1 n(n  1) n 2 2
nx h  x h    nxh n 1  h n
 lim 2
h 0 h
 n 1 n(n  1) n 2 n 1 
 lim  nx  x h    nxh  h   nx n 1
n2
h 0
 2 

 This is because every term except the first has h

as a factor and therefore approaches 0.
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POWER RULE Example 1
We illustrate the Power Rule using various notations
in Example 1.

a.If f(x) = x6, then f’(x) = 6x5

b.If y = x1000, then y’ = 1000x999

c.If y = t4, then

dy
 4t 3
d. = 3r2 dt
d
(r 3 )
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dr
 NEW DERIVATIVES FROM OLD
When new functions are formed from old functions
by addition, subtraction, or multiplication by a
constant, their derivatives can be calculated in terms
of derivatives of
the old functions.

 In particular, the following formula says that

the derivative of a constant times a function is
the constant times the derivative of the function.

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 255

CONSTANT MULTIPLE RULE

If c is a constant and f is a differentiable

function, then

d d
cf ( x)  c f ( x)
dx dx

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 256

CONSTANT MULTIPLE RULE Proof
Let g(x) = cf(x).
Then, g ( x  h)  g ( x )
g '( x)  lim
h 0 h
cf ( x  h)  cf ( x)
 lim
h 0 h
 f ( x  h)  f ( x ) 
 lim c  
h 0
 h 
f ( x  h)  f ( x )
 c lim (Law 3 of limits)
h 0 h
 cf '( x)
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NEW DERIVATIVES FROM OLD Example 2

d d 4
a. (3x )  3 ( x )
4

dx dx
 3(4 x )  12 x
3 3

d d
b. ( x)   (1) x 
dx dx
d
 (1) ( x)  1(1)  1
dx
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NEW DERIVATIVES FROM OLD

The next rule tells us that

the derivative of a sum of functions
is the sum of the derivatives.

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SUM RULE

If f and g are both differentiable,

then

d d d
 f ( x)  g ( x)   f ( x)  g ( x)
dx dx dx

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SUM RULE Proof

Let F(x) = f(x) + g(x). Then,

F ( x  h)  F ( x )
F '( x)  lim
h 0 h

 lim
 f ( x  h)  g ( x  h)    f ( x )  g ( x ) 
h 0 h
 f ( x  h)  f ( x ) g ( x  h)  g ( x ) 
 lim   
h 0
 h h
f ( x  h)  f ( x ) g ( x  h)  g ( x )
 lim  lim (Law 1)
h 0 h h  0 h
 f '( x)  g '( x)

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SUM RULE

The Sum Rule can be extended to

the sum of any number of functions.

 For instance, using this theorem twice,

we get:
( f  g  h) '   ( f  g )  h  '
 ( f  g ) ' h '
 f ' g ' h '

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NEW DERIVATIVES FROM OLD

By writing f - g as f + (-1)g and applying the

Sum Rule and the Constant Multiple Rule,
we get the following formula.

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DIFFERENCE RULE

If f and g are both differentiable,

then

d d d
 f ( x)  g ( x)   f ( x)  g ( x)
dx dx dx

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 264

NEW DERIVATIVES FROM OLD
The Constant Multiple Rule, the Sum Rule, and the
Difference Rule can be combined
with the Power Rule to differentiate any polynomial—
as the following examples demonstrate.

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NEW DERIVATIVES FROM OLD Example 3

d 8
( x  12 x5  4 x 4  10 x3  6 x  5)
dx
  x   12  x   4  x 
d 8 d 5 d 4
dx dx dx
 10  x   6  x    5 
d 3 d d
dx dx dx
 8 x  12  5 x   4  4 x   10  3 x   6 1  0
7 4 3 2

 8 x  60 x  16 x  30 x  6
7 4 3 2

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NEW DERIVATIVES FROM OLD Example 4

Find the points on the curve

y = x4 - 6x2 + 4
where the tangent line is horizontal.

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NEW DERIVATIVES FROM OLD Example 4

Horizontal tangents occur where

the derivative is zero.

dy d 4 d 2 d
 We have:  ( x )  6 ( x )  (4)
dx dx dx dx
 4 x  12 x  0  4 x( x  3)
3 2

 Thus, dy/dx = 0 if x = 0 or x2 – 3 = 0, that is, x = ± 3.

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 268

NEW DERIVATIVES FROM OLD Example 4

So, the given curve has horizontal tangents

when x = 0, 3 , and - 3 .

 The corresponding points are (0, 4), ( 3 , -5),

and (- 3, -5).

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 269

NEW DERIVATIVES FROM OLD Example 5

The equation of motion of a particle is

s = 2t3 - 5t2 + 3t + 4, where s is measured
in centimeters and t in seconds.

 Find the acceleration as a function of time.

 What is the acceleration after 2 seconds?

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 270

NEW DERIVATIVES FROM OLD Example 5
The velocity and acceleration are:

ds
v(t )   6t  10t  3
2

dt
dv
a(t )   12t  10
dt
The acceleration after 2s is:
a(2) = 14 cm/s2

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 271

NEW DERIVATIVES FROM OLD

By analogy with the Sum and Difference

Rules, one might be tempted to guess—as
Leibniz did three centuries ago—that the
derivative of a product is the product of the
derivatives.

 However, we can see that this guess is wrong

by looking at a particular example.

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 272

NEW DERIVATIVES FROM OLD

Let f(x) = x and g(x) = x2.

 Then, the Power Rule gives f’(x) = 1 and g’(x) = 2x.

 However, (fg)(x) = x3.

 So, (fg)’(x) =3x2.

 Thus, (fg)’ ≠ f’g’.

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 273

THE PRODUCT RULE

The correct formula was discovered by

Leibniz (soon after his false start) and
is called the Product Rule.

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 274

THE PRODUCT RULE

If f and g are both differentiable, then:

d d d
 f ( x) g ( x)   f ( x)  g ( x)   g ( x)  f ( x) 
dx dx dx

In words, the Product Rule says:

 The derivative of a product of two functions
is the first function times the derivative of the second
function plus the second function times the derivative
of the first function.

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 275

THE PRODUCT RULE Proof

Let F(x) = f(x)g(x).

Then,

F ( x  h)  F ( x )
F '( x)  lim
h 0 h
f ( x  h) g ( x  h)  f ( x ) g ( x )
 lim
h 0 h
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 276
THE PRODUCT RULE Proof

In order to evaluate this limit, we would

like to separate the functions f and g as
in the proof of the Sum Rule.

 We can achieve this separation by subtracting

and adding the term f(x + h)g(x) in the numerator,
as follows.

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 277

THE PRODUCT RULE Proof
F '( x)
f ( x  h) g ( x  h)  f ( x  h) g ( x )  f ( x  h) g ( x )  f ( x ) g ( x )
 lim
h 0 h

 g ( x  h)  g ( x ) f ( x  h)  f ( x ) 
 lim  f ( x  h)  g ( x) 
h 0
 h h

g ( x  h)  g ( x ) f ( x  h)  f ( x )
 lim f ( x  h)  lim  lim g ( x)  lim
h 0 h 0 h h 0 h 0 h

 f ( x) g '( x)  g ( x) f '( x)
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 278
THE PRODUCT RULE Proof
Note that lim g ( x)  g ( x) because g(x) is
h 0
a constant with respect to the variable h.

Also, since f is differentiable at x, it is continuous at x

and so .
lim f ( x  h)  f ( x)
h 0

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 279

THE PRODUCT RULE Example 6

Find F’(x) if F(x) = (6x3)(7x4).

 By the Product Rule, we have:

d 4 d
F '( x)  (6 x ) (7 x )  (7 x ) (6 x 3 )
3 4

dx dx
 (6 x3 )(28 x3 )  (7 x 4 )(18 x 2 )
 168 x  126 x
6 6

 294 x 6
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 280
THE PRODUCT RULE
Notice that we could verify the answer
to Example 6 directly by first multiplying
the factors:

F ( x)  (6 x3 )(7 x4 )  42 x7  F '( x)  42(7 x6 )  294 x6

 Later, though, we will meet functions, such as
y = x2 sinx, for which the Product Rule is the only
possible method.

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 281

THE PRODUCT RULE Example 7

If h(x) = xg(x) and it is known that

g(3) = 5 and g’(3) = 2, find h’(3).

 Applying the Product Rule, we get:

d d d
h '( x)  [ xg ( x)]  x [ g ( x)]  g ( x) [ x]
dx dx dx
 xg '( x)  g ( x)
 Therefore,
h '(3)  3g '(3)  g (3)  3  2  5  11
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 282
 The Quotient Rule

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 283

The following are examples of quotients of functions:

x ex
(a) y (b) y
sin x 1 x
1  x2 sin x
(c) y 2
(d) y
x cos x
(c) can be divided out to form a simple function as there is a single polynomial
term in the denominator.

1  x2 1 x2
y 2
 y 2

x x x2
2 dy 3
 y  x 1   2 x
dx
For the others we use the quotient rule.
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 284
The quotient rule gives us a way of differentiating functions which are
divided.

The rule is similar to the product rule.

du dv
v  u
u dy
y   dx 2 dx
v dx v
where u and v are functions of x.

This rule can be derived from the product rule but it is complicated. If
you want to go straight to the examples, click on the box below.

Examples

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 285

 We can develop the quotient rule by using the product rule!

u 1 1
y  yu  yuv
v v
The problem now is that this v is not the same as the v of the
product rule. That v is replaced by . v 1
1
dy
So,  v
du dv becomes dy 1 du d ( v )
u v u
dx dx dx dx dx dx
1
Simplifying dy 1 du d ( v )
  u
dx v dx dx
1
Part of the 2nd term,
d ( v,
) is the derivative of1
v
dx
but with respect to x not v.
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 286
 1
d ( v ) d (v 1 ) dv
We use the chain rule:  
dx dv dx
1
So, d ( v ) 1 dv
  2 
dx v dx
1
dy 1 du d ( v ) dy 1 du u dv
Then,  u    2
dx v dx dx dx v dx v dx
Make the denominators the same by multiplying the numerator and
denominator of the 1st term by v.
dy v du u dv
 2  2 du dv
dx v dx v dx v  u
dy
Write with a common denominator:   dx 2 dx
dx v
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 287
 2
e.g. 1 Differentiate y 
x to find . dy
x 1 dx
u
Solution: y  u  x2 and v  x 1
v dv
du 1
 2x
dx dx
du dv
v  u
u dy
y   dx 2 dx
v dx v
dy 2 x ( x  1)  x 2
 
dx ( x  1) 2
We now need to simplify.
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 288
 dy 2 x ( x  1)  x 2

dx ( x  1) 2
We could simplify the numerator by taking out the common factor x,
but it’s easier to multiply out the brackets. We don’t touch the
denominator.

dy 2x2  2x  x2
Multiplying out numerator: 
dx ( x  1) 2
dy x2  2x
Now collect like terms: 
dx ( x  1) 2
dy x ( x  2)
and factorise: 
dx ( x  1) 2
We leave the brackets in the denominator as the factorised form is
simpler.
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 289
Quotients can always be turned into products.

e.g. ex
2 can be written as e x (1  x 2 ) 1
1 x
However, differentiation is usually more awkward if we do this.

In the quotient above,u  e x and v  1 x 2

( both simple functions )

In the product , u  e x and v  (1  x 2 ) 1

( v needs the chain rule )

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 290

SUMMARY

To differentiate a quotient:

 Check if it is possible to divide out. If so, do it and differentiate each

term.

 Otherwise use the quotient rule:

u
If y , where u and v are both functions of x
v
du dv
v  u
dy
 dx 2 dx
dx v

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 291

Exercise

Use the quotient rule, where appropriate, to differentiate the following.

Try to simplify your answers:

x3 cos x
1. y x
2. y
e x4
x2 2 x
3. y 4. y
2 x x 2

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 292

 x3
1. y du dv
e x
v  u
u dy
Solution: y   dx 2 dx
v dx v
u
y  u x 3
and ve x
v du dv
 3x 2  ex
dx dx
dy 3 x 2 e x  x 3 e x
 
dx e  
x 2

dy x 2 e x ( 3  x ) dy x 2 ( 3  x )
   
10/5/2021
dx e x
 
2
dx e x
(c) Patrice Ndambomve 293
 cos x
2. y
x4 du dv
v  u
u dy
Solution: y   dx 2 dx
v dx v
u
y   u  cos x and v  x 4
v dv
du  3
  sin x 4x
dx dx
dy  x 4 sin x  4 x 3 cos x
 
dx x  
4 2

dy  x 3 ( x sin x  4 cos x )  ( x sin x  4 cos x )

  8
 5
dx x 5 x
10/5/2021
x (c) Patrice Ndambomve 294
 x2
3. y
2 x du dv
v  u
u dy
Solution: y   dx 2 dx
v dx v
u
y  u  x 2 and v  2  x
v dv
du  1
 2x
dx dx
dy 2 x ( 2  x )  x 2 ( 1)
 
dx (2  x ) 2
dy 4 x  2 x 2  x 2 4x  x2 x(4  x )
   
dx (2  x ) 2
(2  x ) 2
(2  x ) 2

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 295

 2 x
4. y 2
x
Solution: Divide out:

2 x 2 1x
y 2
 y 2

x x x2
 y  2 x 2  x 1
dy 3 2
  4 x  x
dx
4 1
 3  2
x x

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 296

We can now differentiate the trig function y  tan x
by writing
sin x
y  tan x 
cos x
u
y  u  sin x v  cos x
v dv
du   sin x
 cos x
dx dx
dy (cos x )(cos x )  (sin x )(  sin x )
 
dx (cos x )(cos x )
cos 2 x  sin 2 x

cos 2 x

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 297

 y  tan x  dy cos 2 x  sin 2 x
So, 
dx cos 2 x
This answer can be simplified:

dy 1
cos x  sin x  1 
2 2

dx cos 2 x
Also,
1
is defined as sec x
cos x
dy
So, y  tan x   sec 2 x
dx

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 298

Exercise

Use the quotient rule ( or, for (a) and (b), the chain rule ) to find the
derivatives with respect to x of
(a) y  cosec x (b) y  sec x (c) y  cot x

Before you check the solutions, look in your formula books to see the
forms used for the answers. Try to get your answers into these forms.

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 299

(a) Solution:
1
y  cosec x 
sin x
dy sin x(0)  1(cos x )

dx (sin x ) 2
cos x

sin x sin x
cos x 1
 
sin x sin x
  cot x cosec x (   cosec x cot x )
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 300
(b) Solution:
1
y  sec x 
cos x
dy cos x(0)  1(  sin x )

dx (cos x ) 2
sin x

cos x cos x
sin x 1
 
cos x cos x
 tan x sec x (  sec x tan x )

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 301

(c) Solution:
cos x
y  cot x 
sin x
dy sin x(  sin x )  cos x cos x

dx (sin x ) 2
 (sin 2 x  cos 2 x )

sin 2 x
1
 2
sin x
  cosec2 x
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 302
THE QUOTIENT RULE Further Practice Examples

Let

x  x2
2
y
x 6
3

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 303

THE QUOTIENT RULE Example 8
Then,
 x  6  dx  x  x  2    x  x  2  dx  x  6 
3 d 2 2 d 3
y' 
 x  6
3 2


 
x 3
 6  2 x  1   x 2
 x  2  
3 x 2

x  6
3 2


 2x 4
 x  12 x  6    3 x  3 x  6 x
3 4 3 2

x  6
3 2

 x 4  2 x 3  6 x 2  12 x  6

x  6
3 2
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 304
NOTE

Don’t use the Quotient Rule every

time you see a quotient.

 Sometimes, it’s easier to rewrite a quotient first

to put it in a form that is simpler for the purpose
of differentiation.

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 305

NOTE

For instance:

 It is possible to differentiate the function

3x 2  2 x
F ( x) 
using the Quotient Rule. x
 However, it is much easier to perform the division
first and write the function as
1 2
F ( x)  3x  2 x
before differentiating.
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 306
GENERAL POWER FUNCTIONS

The Quotient Rule can be used to

extend the Power Rule to the case
where the exponent is a negative integer.

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 307

GENERAL POWER FUNCTIONS

If n is a positive integer,
then
d n  n 1
( x )  nx
dx

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 308

GENERAL POWER FUNCTIONS Proof

d d n
x (1)  1 ( x )
n
d n d  1  dx dx
(x )   n  
dx dx  x  n 2
(x )
n 1
x  0  1 nx
n
 2n
x
n 1
nx n 1 2 n
 2 n  nx
x
 n 1
 nx
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 309
GENERAL POWER FUNCTIONS

a. If y = 1/x, then

dy d 1 2 1
 (x )  x   2
dx dx x
b. d 6 d 3 4
 3   6 (t )  6( 3)t
dt  t  dt
18
 4
10/5/2021
t
(c) Patrice Ndambomve 310
POWER RULE

So far, we know that the Power Rule

holds if the exponent n is a positive or
negative integer.

 If n = 0, then x0 = 1, which we know has

a derivative of 0.

 Thus, the Power Rule holds for any integer n.

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 311

FRACTIONS

What if the exponent is a fraction?

 In Example 3 in Section 3.2,

we found that: d 1
x
dx 2 x

d 1 2 1 1 2
 This can be written as: x 2x
dx
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 312
FRACTIONS

This shows that the Power Rule is true

even when n = ½.

In fact, it also holds for any real number n,

as we will prove later.

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 313

POWER RULE—GENERAL VERSION

If n is any real number,

then
d n n 1
( x )  nx
dx

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 314

POWER RULE Example 10

a. If f(x) = xπ, then f ’(x) = πxπ-1.

1
b. Let y
3 2
x
dy d 2 / 3
Then  (x )
dx dx
2  (2 / 3) 1
3x
5/ 3
 x 2
3
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 315
PRODUCT RULE Example 11

Differentiate the function

f (t )  t (a  bt )

 Here, a and b are constants.

 It is customary in mathematics to use letters near
the beginning of the alphabet to represent constants
and letters near the end of the alphabet to represent
variables.

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 316

PRODUCT RULE E. g. 11—Solution 1

Using the Product Rule, we have:

f '(t )  t
d
dt
(a  bt )  (a  bt )
d
dt
 t
1 1 2
 t  b  (a  bt )  2 t
(a  bt ) (a  3bt )
b t  
2 t 2 t

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 317

LAWS OF EXPONENTS E. g. 11—Solution 2
If we first use the laws of exponents to rewrite f(t),
then we can proceed directly without using the
Product Rule.

f (t )  a t  bt t  at 12
 bt 32

1 2
f '(t )  at
1
2  bt 3
2
12

 This is equivalent to the answer in Solution 1.

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 318

Students to do
1 Do the following:

a.If f(x) = x6, then f’(x) =

b.If y = x1000, then y’ =

c.If y = t4, then y’=

d. If g(r) = 3r2, then g’(r) =

2 Use the quotient rule, where appropriate, to differentiate the
following. Try to simplify your answers:
3
x 1
1. y 2. y 4
ex x
x2 2 x
3. y 4. y
2 x
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 319

x2
Parametric and Implicit
Differentiation, Rates of
Change.
If  x, y  is a point and this point depends ontime t ,
then both, x and y are a function of t.
let x  t 2 and y  2t , at time t  3
x   3  9
2

y  2  3  6
 the coordinates of the point at t  3 are  9, 6 
An equation for x and y in terms of t is known as
a parametric equation, with t being the parameter

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 321

 xt and y t
dx dy
x'  and y' 
dt dt
dy
dt  dy  dt  dy
dx dt dx dx
dt

x  t2 y  2t
dx dy
 2t 2
dt dt
dy
dy dt 2 1
  
dx dx 2t t
10/5/2021
dt (c) Patrice Ndambomve 322
A curve is defined by the parametric equations
1 1
xt  2 ,
2
y  t  2 t  0
2

t t
dy
Find an expression for in terms of t , simplify your answer
dx
1 dx 2
x  t 2  2  t 2  t 2  2t  2t 3  2t  3
t dt t
1 2 dy 3 2
y  t  2  t t
2 2
 2t  2t  2t  3
t dt t

dy 2
2t  3 t 4  1
dy dt t 
 
dx dx 2t  2 t  1
4

10/5/2021
dt t3 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 323
A curve is defined by the parametric equations
x    sin  , y  1  cos   0    2 
dy
Find an expression for in terms of 
dx
dx
x    sin   1  cos 
d
dy
y  1  cos   sin 
d

dy
dy d sin 
 
dx dx 1  cos 
d
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 324
A curve is defined by the parametric equations
t 1 t
x , y t  0
1 t 1 t
dy
Find an expression for in terms of t , simplify your answer
dx
t dx 1  t   t 1 1
x  
1 t 1  t  1  t 
2 2
dt
1 t dy 11  t   1  t  1 1  t  1  t 2
y   
1 t 1  t  1  t  1  t 
2 2 2
dt

dy 2
        
2 2 2
 1 t 
2
dy dt 1 t 2 1 t 1 t
     2  2  
 
1 (c)t Patrice 1 t    325
2 2
dx dx 1 1 1 t
dt 1  t 2
10/5/2021 Ndambomve
 d 2 y d  dy 
  
dx 2
dx  dx 

note: that we can only differentiate

with respect to t

d  dy  d  dy  dt
    
dx  dx  dt  dx  dx dt 1
note: 
dx dx
dt
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 326
d y d  dy  dt 
2
   
dx 2
dt  dx  dx 

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 327

 x  t2 y  2t
dx dy
 2t 2
dt dt
dy
dy dt 2 1
  
dx dx 2t t
dt
d 2 y d  1  dt
   dt

d 1
t   t 2
 
1
t2
dt

1
dx dx 2t

1
dx 2
dt  t  dx
dt
d2y 1 1 1
    
dx 2 t 2 2t 2t 3
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 328
 Equation of tangents
A curve is defined by the parametric equations
x  t2 1 y  t  t 2  1
Find the equation of the tangent to the curve
at the point with parameter t  2
x  t2 1 y  t  t 2  1  t 3  t
dx dy
 2t  3t 2  1
dt dt
x '  2t y '  3t 2  1
dy y ' 3t 2  1
 
dx x '
10/5/2021 2t (c) Patrice Ndambomve 329
 when t  2 x   2   1  5
2

when t  2 y   2    2   10
3

 tangent at  5,10 
at t  2,
dy 3  2   1 13
2

 
dx 2  2 4
13
mtangent 
4
y  b  m x  a
13
y  10   x  5 
4
4 y  40  13 x  65
13x  4 y  25  0
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 330
 Stationary Points
A curve is defined by the parametric equations
x  t y  t 3  3t
Find the coordinate and nature of the stationary points on the curve.
xt y  t 3  3t
dx dy
1  3t 2  3
dt dt
dy y ' 3t 2  3
   3t 2  3
dx x ' 1
dy y ' 3t 2  3
   3t 2  3
dx x ' 1
dy
 0  3t 2  3  0
dx
 t 2 1  0
10/5/2021  t  1 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 331
t 1 t  1
x  1  1 x   1  1
y  1  3 1  2 y   1  3  1  2
3 3

SP at 1, 2  SP at  1, 2 

dy
 3t 2  3
dx
d2y d
  3t  3   6t 1  6t
2 dt
2
dx dt dx
d2y
2
at t  1 6 1  0  1, 2  min
dx
d2y
2
at t  1 6  -1  0   1, 2  max
dx
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 332
Implicit differentiation
When the equation of a curve is given in the form y = f(x) then the variable y is said
to be given explicitly in terms of the variable x.

For example:

e x +1
y = 2 x3 +1, y = 2sin x , and y= x are explicit functions.
e 1
When neither x nor y is given explicitly in terms of the other then the curve is said to
be defined implicitly.

For example:
2 3 and 1 1 are implicit functions
y + x = 5 , x sin y = 1, 2
+ 2 = xy
x y
It is not always easy, or even possible, to rearrange an implicit function into an
explicit form.

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 333

Implicit differentiation
For this reason we need to develop a technique to differentiate such
functions in implicit form.

Differentiate y 2 + x 3 = 5 with respect to x.

Differentiating every term in the equation with respect to x gives:

d 2 d 3 d
( y ) + ( x ) = (5)
dx dx dx
where d is taken as an operator meaning ‘differentiate with respect to x’.
dx

The term in x and the constant can be differentiated directly to give:

d 2
( y ) + 3 x2 = 0
dx
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 334
Implicit differentiation
To differentiate the term in y with respect to x we have to use the chain rule.

d 2 d dy dy
( y ) = ( y 2 )× = 2y
dx dy dx dx
This would normally be done in a single step so:

d 2 d 3 d
( y ) + ( x ) = (5)
dx dx dx
dy
becomes 2 y + 3 x2 = 0
dx
We can now divide through by 2y and rearrange to find :
dy
dx
dy 3 x2
=
10/5/2021
dx 2y
(c) Patrice Ndambomve 335
Implicit differentiation
Differentiate x3  2 y 2 + 7 y with
 5 xrespect
= 8 to x.

Differentiating term by term with respect to x gives:

dydx dy
3x2  4y +=72(3t+52)(6)
=0
dxdt dx
Now rearrange to collect the terms in together: dy
dx
dy dy
7  4y = 5  3 x2
dx dx
dy
(7  4 y ) = 5  3 x 2
dx
dy 5  3 x 2
=
10/5/2021 dx 7  4 y
(c) Patrice Ndambomve 336
Implicit differentiation
In some cases, we might also need to use the product rule. For example:

Differentiate x 2 y = sinwith
x +respect
3 y to x.
Differentiating term by term with respect to x:

d 2 d d
x y = sin x + 3 y
dx dx dx
The first term is treated as a product to give:

d d dy
x2 y + y x 2 = cos x + 3
dx dx dx
d dv du
Using (uv ) = u + v
dx dx dx
2dy dy
+ 2Ndambomve
x (c) Patrice xy = cos x + 3
10/5/2021
dx dx 337
Implicit differentiation
Rearrange to collect the terms in together:dy
dx
dy dy
x2
 3 = cos x  2 xy
dx dx
dy 2
( x  3) = cos x  2 xy
dx
dy cos x  2 xy
=
dx x2  3
Once we have differentiated a curve that has been defined implicitly, we can find t
equation of the tangent or the normal to the curve at a given point.

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 338

Implicit differentiation
Find the equation of the tangent to the curve x2 + y2 – xy = 7 at the point (2, –1).

Differentiating with respect to x gives:

dy dy
2x + 2 y  x  y = 0
dx dx
Rearranging to collect the terms in together:dy
dx
dy dy
2 y  x = y  2x
dx dx
dy
(2 y  x ) = y  2 x
dx
dy y  2 x
=
10/5/2021
dx 2 y  x
(c) Patrice Ndambomve 339
Implicit differentiation
At the point (2, –1), x = 2 and y = –1:

dy 1  4
=
dx 2  2
5 5
= =
4 4
The gradient of the tangent at (2, –1) is therefore . 5
4

We can find the equation of the tangent using the coordinates:

5 ( x  2) Using y – y1 = m(x – x1)

y +1= 4

4 y + 4 = 5( x  2)

10/5/2021
4 y  5 x +14 =0
(c) Patrice Ndambomve 340
Implicit differentiation
Find the equation of the normal to the curve 2x2 – (y + 3)2 = 1 at the point (5, 4).

Differentiating with respect to x gives:

dy
4 x  2( y + 3) = 0
dx
dy
2( y + 3) = 4 x
dx
dy
( y + 3) = 2x
dx
dy 2x
=
dx y + 3
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 341
Implicit differentiation
We need the gradient at the point (5, 4):

dy 2(5)
=
dx 4 + 3
10
=
7
The gradient of the normal at (5, 4) is therefore . 77
10 10

The equation of the normal is given by:

Using y – y1 = m(x – x1)
y  4 = 10
7 ( x  5)

10 y  40 = 7 x  35

10/5/2021
10 y  7 x (c)5Patrice
=0 Ndambomve 342
Find the equations of the lines tangent and normal to the curve
at .
x2  xy  y 2  7 (1, 2)

We need the slope. Since we can’t solve for y, we use implicit differentiation to
solve for . dy
dx
x2  xy  y 2  7 Note product rule. dy y  2 x

 dy  dy dx 2 y  x
2x   x  y  2 y 0
 dx  dx
dy
2x  x  y  2 y
dy
0 2  2  1 2  2 4
m  
dx dx 2  2   1 4  1 5
dy
 2 y  x  y  2x
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 343
dx 
Find the equations of the lines tangent and normal to the curve
at .
x2  xy  y 2  7 (1, 2)

4
m tangent: normal:
5
4
y  2   x  1
5
y  2    x  1
5 4

4 4 5 5
y2 x y2   x
5 5 4 4

4 14 5 3
y  x y  x
5 5 4 4
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 344

Parametric differentiation
Suppose we want to find dy that has been defined parametrically.
for a curve
dx

For example: x = 2t + 5 y = 3t 2

We can differentiate both of these equations with respect to the parameter t to give:

dx dy
=2 and = 6t
dt dt
dy can be found using the chain rule:
dx
dy dy dt dy dx
= × =
dx dt dx dt dt
6t
=
2
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 345
= 3t
Parametric differentiation
In general, then, to differentiate a pair of parametric equations we can use the chain
rule in the form:

dy dy dx
=
dx dt dt
dy
Find , in terms of t, for the curve defined by the parametric
dx
equations x = cos 2t and y = sin t.

Differentiating each equation with respect to t gives:

dx
= 2sin2t
dt
dy
= cos t
10/5/2021
dt (c) Patrice Ndambomve 346
Parametric differentiation
dy dy dx
=
dx dt dt
cos t
=
2sin2t
This can be simplified further using the double angle formula for sin 2t:

dy cos t
=
dx 2(2sin t cos t )
1
= =  41cosec t
4 sint

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 347

Parametric differentiation
A curve is defined by the parametric equations x = (3t + 2)2 and y = 2t3 + 9.

Find dy i n terms of t and hence find the coordinates of the points

Differentiating
dx with respect to x gives
where the gradient of the curve is –1.
dx
= 2(3t + 2)(3) = 6(3t + 2)
dt
dy
= 6t 2
dt
dy dy dx 6t 2
= =
dx dt dt 6(3t + 2)
t2
=
10/5/2021
3t + 2 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 348
Parametric differentiation
The gradient of the curve is –1 when:

t2
= 1
3t + 2
t 2 = 3t  2
t 2 + 3t + 2 = 0
(t +1)(t + 2) = 0
So the gradient of the curve is –1 when t = –1 and when t = –2.

When t = –1: x = (–3 + 2)2 =1 and y = 2(–1)3 + 9 =7

When t = –2: x = (–6 + 2)2 = 16 and y = 2(–2)3 + 9 = –7

 The gradient of the curve is –1 at (1, 7) and (16, –7).

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 349

Differentiating exponential functions
Suppose we want to differentiate a general exponential function of the form

y = ax
where a is a constant.

Take the natural log of both sides:

ln y = ln( a x )
ln y = x ln a
Now differentiating with respect to x gives:

1 dy
= ln a
y dx
dy
= y ln a
10/5/2021 dx (c) Patrice Ndambomve 350
Differentiating exponential functions
Since y = ax we can substitute ax for y. So in general:

x dy
If y = a then = a x ln a
dx
For example:

d x
(3 ) = 3 x ln3  1.0986(3 x )
dx
d x
(8 ) = 8 x ln8  2.0794(8 x )
dx


d 1 x
dx

( 6 ) = ( 61 ) x ln 61  1.7918 ( 61 )x  
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 351
Exponential growth
Exponential growth occurs when a quantity increases at a rate that is proportional
to its size.

In other words, when a quantity grows exponentially, the larger it becomes, the
quicker it grows.

Examples of quantities that grow exponentially include:

the number of micro-organisms in a culture dish,

investments with a fixed compound interest rate,

population growth.

For example, a bacteria colony starts with 100 bacteria and doubles every minute.

The number of bacteria can be shown in a table.

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 352

Exponential growth
Time (mins) 0 1 2 3 … t
Number of
100 200 400 800 … 100 × 2t
bacteria

So if N is the number of bacteria after time t we have:

N = 100 × 2t

More generally, if b is the number of bacteria when t = 0,

N = b2t

In practice it is more usual to express exponential growth in terms of the constant e

We can write the number 2 in terms of e as eln 2, and so the formula becomes

10/5/2021 N = bet ln 2 or
(c) Patrice Ndambomve N = be 0.693t 353
Exponential growth
In general, exponential growth can be modelled by the function

f(t) = Aekt

where t is time,
A is the original quantity (the quantity when t = 0),
f(t) is the quantity after time t and
k is a positive constant (the growth rate)

An exponential growth curve has

the following basic shape: f(t) y = Aekt

0 t
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 354
Exponential decay
Exponential decay occurs when a quantity decreases at a rate that is proportional
to its size.

In other words, when a quantity decays exponentially, the smaller it becomes, the
more slowly it decays.

Examples of quantities that decay exponentially include:

the number of atoms in a radioactive isotope,

the value of a car as it depreciates,

the rate at which an object cools (when the external temperature is constant).

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 355

Exponential decay
In general, exponential decay can be modelled by the function

f(t) = Ae–kt

where t is time,
A is the original quantity (the quantity when t = 0),
f(t) is the quantity after time t, and
k is a positive constant (the decay rate).

An exponential decay curve has the

following basic shape. f(t)

A
y = Ae–kt

0 t
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 356
Exponential decay
Forensic scientists can predict a recently murdered victim’s time of death from the
temperature of the body.

They do this by applying Newton’s law of cooling:

d = ae–kt

where d is the temperature difference (between the body and its surroundings), a
and k are constants and t is the time that has passed since the body started to cool.
For example,

A body is discovered at 8.30 pm. The body’s temperature is recorded as 30°C and
room temperature as 20°C. One hour later, the temperature of the body is 29°C.
Assuming that the room temperature remains constant throughout, estimate the
time of death.

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 357

Exponential decay
Let t = 0 at 8.30 pm.

d = 30 – 20 = 10

And using d = ae–kt:

10 = ae–k(0) = ae0 = a

When t = 1, one hour later:

d = 29 – 20 = 9

Using d = ae–kt:

9 = ae–k(1) = ae–k

But a = 10 so,

9 = 10e–k

e–k = 0.9

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 358

Exponential decay
We can solve e–k = 0.9 by taking natural logs on both sides:

ln (e–k ) = ln 0.9

–k = ln 0.9

–k = –0.105 (to 3 s.f.)

k = 0.105

Substitute these values of k and a into d = ae–kt:

d = 10e–0.105t

If we assume that the murder victim had a normal body temperature of 36.9 °C
when she died and that the room temperature was 20°C, then at the time of death:

d = 36.9 – 20 = 16.9

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 359

Exponential decay
Substituting d = 16.9 into d = 10e–0.105t gives

16.9 = 10e–0.105t

Solving this equation for t will give the time since the victim died.

e–0.105t = 1.69

–0.105t = ln 1.69

t=
ln 1.69
0.105
t = –5.00 (to 3 s.f.)

t = 0 at 8.30 pm, so t = –5 at 3.30 pm.

 The victim died at about 3.30 pm.

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 360
Rates of change
When we talk about rates of change we are usually talking about the rate at which
a variable changes with respect to time.

Suppose, for example, that a spherical balloon is slowly being inflated.

There are several changes we could measure, such as:

The rate at which the radius r changes,

dr
dt
The rate at which the surface area A changes,
dA
dt
The rate at which the volume V changes,
dV
dt
We can connect these rates of change using the chain rule.
For example, the rate of change of the surface area is connected to the rate of
change of the radius by

dA dA dr
10/5/2021
= ×
(c) Patrice Ndambomve 361
dt dr dt
Rates of change
We can find
dA by differentiating the formula for the surface
dr
area of a sphere with respect to the radius.

dA
A = 4πr2 so = 8 r
dr
So, the rate of change of the surface area is connected to the rate of change of the
radius by

dA dr
= 8 r ×
dt dt
If the surface area of the balloon is increasing at a rate of 15 cm2 s–1, find the
rate at which the radius of the balloon is increasing at the moment when the
radius is 4 cm.

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 362

Connected rates of change
dA dr
We are given that = 15 and we want to find when r = 4.
dt dt

dA dr
Using = 8 r × we have:
dt dt
dr
15 = 32 ×
dt
dr 15
=
dt 32
= 0.149

So, the radius is increasing at a rate of 0.149 cm s–1 (to 3 s.f.) at the
moment when the radius of the balloon is 4 cm.

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 363

Connected rates of change
If the air in the fully-inflated balloon is released at a rate of 30 cm3 s–1, find the
rate at which the surface area is decreasing at the moment when the radius is
5 cm.

We are given that

dV = –30 and we want to find when r = 5.
dA
dt dt
Using the chain rule, the rate of change of the volume is connected to the rate of
change of the radius by:

dV dV dr
= ×
dt dr dt
4  r3 dV
V= 3  = 4 r 2
dr
So

dV dr
= 4 r 2 ×
10/5/2021 dt (c) Patrice Ndambomve
dt 364
Connected rates of change
Here
dV
= –30 and r = 5:
dt
dr
30 = 100 ×
dt
dr 30 3
= =
dt 100 10
dA dA drwith r = 5:
We can now find using = 8 r ×
dt dt dt
dA 4 3
= 40 ×
dt 10
= –12

So, the surface area is decreasing at a rate of 12 cm2 s–1 at the moment when the
radius of the balloon is 5 cm.

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 365

Examination-style question 1
The diagram shows the curve defined by the parametric equations x = 2t2 and y =
t2 + 2t.

Q x
O
a) Find the gradient of the curve at the point P where t = 1.
b) Find the equation of the normal at the point P.
c) The normal to the curve at the point P cuts the curve again at the point Q. Find
the coordinates of the point Q.

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 366

Examination-style question 1
a) dx
= 4t
dt
dy
= 2t + 2
dt
dy dy dx
Using = gives:
dx dt dt
dy 2t + 2 t +1
= =
dx 4t 2t

dy 2
when t = 1: = =1
dx 2

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 367

Examination-style question 1
b) The gradient of the normal to the curve at the point P is –1.

Also when t = 1, x=2

y=3

If the gradient of the normal is –1 and it passes through the point (2, 3) then its
equation is given by:

y  3 = ( x  2)
y+ x5=0
c) Substituting x = 2t2 and y = t2 + 2t into the equation for the normal gives:

t 2 + 2t + 2t 2  5 = 0
3t 2 + 2t  5 = 0
10/5/2021 (t  1)(3t + 5)(c)=Patrice
0 Ndambomve 368
Examination-style question 1
The normal therefore cuts the curve when t = 1 and when t = . 5
3

When t = : 5 x = 2( 35 )2
3

= 5 59

y = ( 35 )2 + 2( 35 )

=  59
The coordinates of the point Q are therefore . (5 59 ,  59 )

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 369

Examination-style question 2
The mass, m grams, of a sample of radioactive iodine decays according to the
formula 0.083 t
m = 15e
where t is the number of days after it is first observed.

a) What is the initial mass of the sample?

b) Sketch the graph of m against t.
c) What is the mass of the sample after 2 days?
d) Calculate the time it takes for the sample to halve its original mass.
e) Find the rate at which the sample is decaying when t = 5.

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 370

Examination-style question 2
a) When t = 0, m = 15e0

= 15

So, the initial mass of the sample is 15 g.

b) The graph of m = 15e–0.083t will be an m

exponential decay curve passing
15
through the point (0, 15).

t
c) When t = 2, m = 15e–0.083 × 2

= 12.71 (to 2 d.p.)

So, the mass of the sample after 2 days is 12.71 g (to 2 d.p.).

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 371

Examination-style question 2
d) The initial mass is 15 g, so we need to find the time it takes for the sample to
reach 7.5 g.

That is, when 7.5 = 15e–0.083t

0.5 = e–0.083t

Take logs: ln 0.5 = ln e–0.083t

ln 0.5 = –0.083t

ln5
t=
0.083
= 8.35 (to 2 d.p.)

The sample takes 8.35 days (to 2 d.p.) to halve its mass.

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 372

Examination-style question 2
d) The rate at which the sample is decaying is given by .
dm
dt
m = 15e 0.083 t
dm
= 0.083 ×15e 0.083 t
dt
= 1.245e 0.083t
dm
When t = 5 = 1.245e 0.083×5
dt
= 0.82 (to 2 d.p.)
Therefore, when t = 5, the sample is decaying at a rate of 0.82 grams per day (to 2
d.p.).

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 373

Examination-style question 3
The height of a conical container is twice its radius, r cm, as shown in the
diagram.

Liquid is poured into the container at a rate of

r 5 litres per minute.

If x cm is the depth of the liquid at time t

minutes, write an expression for the rate at
which the depth is increasing when x = 2 cm.
2r

(The volume of a cone of radius r and height h

is given by ). 1  r 2h
3
The volume of the liquid in the container at time t is given by
1 2
v = r x
10/5/2021
3
(c) Patrice Ndambomve 374
Examination-style question 3
Since the radius of the container is half its depth this can be written in term of x as

2
1 x
v=   x
3 2
 x3
 v=
12
dv  x 2
 =
dx 4
The liquid enters the container at a rate of 5 litres per minute so

dv
=5
dt
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 375
Examination-style question 3
Using the chain rule

dv dv dx
= ×
dt dx dt
So

 x2
dx
5= ×
4 dt
dx 20
 = 2
dt  x
At the instant when x = 2 cm the rate at which the liquid is entering the container is

dx 20 5
= = cm/min
10/5/2021

dt 4(c)Patrice Ndambomve 376
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 377
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 378
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 379
 CHAPTER 6

INTEGRATION
 INTEGRATION
Recall that these rules are applicable to differenciation

y dy What goes
here?
dx
xn
nx n1
ex ex
1
ln x
x
sin x cos x
cos x  sin x
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 381
We also need to know that multiplying constants just “tag along”

dy
e.g. y  3x 7
  3(7 x 6 )  21x 6
dx
and terms like the above can be differentiated independently when they
appear in sums and differences.

e.g. y  2e x  4 x 2
dy
  2e x  8 x
dx

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 382

Indefinite integration is just the reverse of differentiation, so, reading
the differentiation table from right to left, we get:
n 1

 
x
nx n1 dx  x n  C  x n dx  C
n1

  C
x x
e dx e

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 383

 
SUMMARY
y y dx

x n 1
n  1
n
x  C,
n1
ex ex  C
1
ln x  C
x
cos x sin x  C
sin x  cos x  C
Which function is “missing” from the l.h.s. and why?

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 384

 e.g. 1. Evaluate the following integrals:


2
(a) e x dx
0

Solutions:

(a)
 0
2
e dx  e
x
  x 2
0

 e   e 
2 0

Be careful here . . .
Substituting x = 0 does not give 0.

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 385

e.g. 1. Evaluate the following integrals:


2
(a) e x dx
0

Solutions:

(a)
 0
2
e dx  e
x
  x 2
0 ye x

 e   e 
2 0

 e2  1

The integral gives the shaded area.

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 386
 DEFINITE INTEGRAL

Example:
1
1.
 1
x 3 dx  ?

yx 3

The areas above and below

the axis are equal, but the
integral for the area below
is negative.

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 387

 1
e.g.1

2
3 x 2  2 dx is a definite integral

The numbers on the integral sign are called the limits of

integration

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 388

Evaluating the Definite Integral

The definite integration results in a value.

1 1
3x 3
e.g.1

2
3 x 2  2 dx 
31
 2x

 Find the indefinite integral but omit C

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 389

Evaluating the Definite Integral

The definite integration results in a value.

1 1
 
 3x   2x 
3
e.g.1 2
 2 dx  x
2
 2

 Draw square brackets and hang the limits on the

end

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 390

Evaluating the Definite Integral

The definite integration results in a value.

1 1
 
 3x   2x 
3
e.g.1 2
 2 dx  x
2
 2

  1  2 
 (  2 ) 3
 2( 2) 
   
 Replace x with • the top limit
• the bottom limit

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 391

Evaluating the Definite Integral

The definite integration results in a value.

1 1
 
 3x   2x 
3
e.g.1 2
 2 dx  x
2
 2
  
  1 2   (  2 ) 3
 2( 2) 
   

 Subtract and evaluate

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 392

Evaluating the Definite Integral

The definite integration results in a value.

1 1
 
 3x   2x 
3
e.g.1 2
 2 dx  x
2
 2
  
  1 2   (  2 ) 3
 2( 2) 
   
 3   84 
 15
1


2
So, 3 x  2 dx  15
10/5/2021 2 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 393
 Evaluating the Definite Integral

1
e.g. 2 Find

1
x 2  7 x  12 dx
1
x 
1 3 2
7x
 x  7 x  12 dx     12 x 
2
Solution:
1  3 2  1

Indefinite integral but no C

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 394

 Evaluating the Definite Integral

1
e.g. 2 Find

1
x 2  7 x  12 dx
1
x 
1 3 2
7x
 x  7 x  12 dx     12 x 
2
Solution:
1  3 2  1

 1 7   ( 1) 3 7( 1) 2 
 Substitute
  for
12 x:     12( 1) 
 3limit2 minus bottom
top
 limit
3 2 
1 7   1 7 
    12      12
3 2 
Simplify  3 2 

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 395

Exercises
2
1. Find

1
3 x 2  4 x  1 dx

2
2. Find

2
6 x 2  2 x  3 dx

10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 396

Method of Substitution
• Evaluating indefinite integrals
• Evaluating Definite Integrals:
• Method 1: Use x limits of integration
• Method 2: Use u limits of integration
(substituted variable)
• Applications

397
Substitution for indefinite integrals
• For indefinite integrals, method of
substitution:

 f ( g ( x)) g ' ( x) dx
Substitute u  g ( x), du  g ' ( x)dx
Integral becomes

 f ( g ( x)) g ' ( x) dx   f (u ) du
398
 Examples
• Evaluate ∫ (2x + 3) exp(x2+3x) dx
• Evaluate the following
1
 xln x 2 dx ln x
 x dx  8x x  2 dx
2

x2
 tan x dx
x 2 x 1 dx  x 2  4 x dx

 tan x sec 
2 1  x
 x e dx
2
x dx tan xsec x dx
399
Method 1 for Definite Integrals
• Do not modify the limits of integration.
• First evaluate the indefinite integral and then
use


a
b
f ( g ( x)) g ' ( x)dx    f ( g ( x)) g ' ( x)dx 
b

400
Method 2
• Substitute u=g(x) directly into definite integral
• Use formula u=g(x) to replace x-limits x=a,
x=b by corresponding u-limits, u=g(a), u=g(b),
respectively.

b g (b )

a
f ( g ( x)) g ' ( x) dx  
g (a)
f (u )du

401
Examples
• Use the two methods to compute the
following integrals
 /4  /8
0
cos(  x)dx 
0
cos5 2 x sin 2 x dx

1

2
x( x  2) dx  (4 x  2)3 dx
2 2
0 1

1/ 2 dx  /4
 0 x2
dx  0
tan x sec 2 x dx

402
Integration Problem
• Suppose that at time t=0 there are 750
bacteria and that the bacteria y(t) population
grows at the rate of
y(t)=802.137 e1.528 t bacteria per hour
• How many bacteria will there be in 12 hours?
• Answer: Approximately
48,233,500,000

403
Review: Examples involving indefinite integrals
1
 x  4 dx    3x  2 dx
2
( 4 x 3) 2 x

ln x 2 dx
 xe
 x2
 x
dx

dx
 ( x  1) ln(x  1) x x  5 dx

404
Integration by parts
• Just the product rule in integral form

• Integration by parts formula

• u, v-form of rule

• Various model examples

405
Integration by parts = product rule in reverse
Product Rule : (uv)'  u ' v  uv'

Rearranging : uv'  (uv)'u ' v

Integratin g :  uv' dx   (uv)' dx   u' vdx

Conclude :  uv' dx  uv   u' vdx

406
Integration by Parts Formulae
If u ( x) and v( x) are differentiable, then

 u( x)v' ( x)dx  u( x)v( x)   u' ( x)v( x)dx

More succinctly,

 udv  uv   vdu

Remark : u will be the function you want to differentiate,

and v the function you can integrate.

407
Examples
 x cos x dx
 2 xe
x
dx

 x ln x dx

408
Definite Integrals and I.B.P.

2

x
xe dx
1

 /4

0
x sin x dx

409
Multiplying by 1


1
tan x dx

4
 ln
1
x dx

410
Repeated Integration by Parts

1

0
x 2e x dx

 cos x dx
x
e

411
More integration techniques: Partial Fractions

• Review techniques developed so far

(substitution, integration by parts)
• Integrating partial fractions
• Contributions of linear factors
• Contributions of repeated irreducible
quadratic factors

412
Review: Practicing integration

2 cot x
cot x csc xe dx

2 1
0 4 x 2
dx

 x 2
ln x 
2 x
e dx 
1
 tan x dx

413
Partial Fractions
• Consider a rational function f(x) = P(x)/Q(x)
• If degree(P) < degree(Q) can use algebra to
write f(x) as a sum of terms of the form
• A/(ax+b)n or (Bx+C)/(ax2+bx+c)n
• Where A, B, C, a, and b are constants, and
the quadratic polynomials ax2+bx+c cannot
be factored (no real roots)

414
Long Division before integration
x
 x  7 dx

3x 3  7 x 2  17 x  3
 x 2  2 x  5 dx

415
Distinct Linear Factors
1
 x( x  2) dx

Main Step : Find A and B so that

1 A B
 
x( x  2) x x  2

416
Repeated Linear Factors
dx
 x 2 ( x  1)

Main Step : Find constants A, B, C so that

1 A B C
  2
x ( x  1) x x
2
x 1

417
Distinct Irreducible Quadratics
2 x3  x 2  2 x  2
 ( x 2  2)( x 2  1) dx
Main Step : Find constants A, B, C , D so that
2x 3  x 2  2 x  2 Ax  B Cx  D
 2  2
( x  2)( x  1)
2 2
x 2 x 1

After algebra find : A  2, B  0, C  0, D  1

418
Repeated Irreducible Quadratics
x2  x 1
 ( x 2  1) 2 dx
Main Step : Find constants A, B, C , D so that
x 2  x  1 Ax  B Cx  D
 2  2
( x  1)
2 2
x  1 ( x  1) 2

After algebra, get : A  0, B  1, C  1, D  0

419
Improper integrals & numerical integration

• Improper integrals:
• Case 1: Unbounded limits of integration
• Case 2: Integrand blows up (becomes
infinite)
• Evaluate improper integrals by taking
limits of “proper” integrals
• Basics of numerical integration
420
Case 1: Unbounded integrals
Infinite upper limit :
  1
 
- 2x
e dx 4
dx
0 1 x
Infinite lower limit :
0 1
 ( x  2)2 dx
Assuming that f is continuous and that the limits converge
 z
a
f ( x)dx  lim  f ( x)dx
z  a
a a

f ( x)dx  lim 
z   z
f ( x)dx

421
Case 1, continued: integrals over
whole line
 1
Compute  dx
 1  x 2

  0
Say 

f ( x)dx exists if both  f ( x)dx and  f ( x)dx
0 
  0
exist, in which case  f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx
 0 

 x
Consider  1  x 2 dx

422
Case 2: Integrand blows up
dx
1
Example : 0 3 x
If f is continuous on (a, b] and lim f ( x) does not exist
x a 
b b

a
f ( x)dx  lim 
c a  c
f ( x)dx

If f is continuous on [a, b) and lim f ( x) does not exist

x b 
b c
 a
f ( x)dx  lim 
c b  a
f ( x)dx

1 dx
Example : 0
1 x

423
 More Examples
1
 ln xdx
0

1 1
1 x 2 dx
2 2x
2 ( x 2  1)1/ 3 dx
1
Determine whether  2 dx is convergent
 x  1

424
 Comparison principle
• Can often show convergence or
divergence of a complicated integral by
comparing it to a simpler one
General idea : Suppose that 0  f ( x)  g ( x) on [a, ). Then
 
0   f ( x)dx   g ( x)dx
a a

Conclusion 1 : Given complicated f ( x) if one can find g ( x) as

above with convergent integral, conclude that integral of f converges

Conclusion 2 : Given complicated g ( x) if one can find f ( x) as

above with divergent integral, conclude that integral of g diverges

425
 Model examples


 x2
e dx
0

 1

1
x  ln x
dx

426
 Numerical Integration
• Some integrals are impossible to
integrate exactly
• Instead find approximate values using
various numerical integration
techniques
• Example:
3
e
 x2
dx
0

427
 Midpoint Rule
• Divide [a,b] into n subintervals of equal
length, x0 , x1 , …., xn
• Then
ba n

b
Approximate  f ( x)dx by M n  f (ck ),
a n k 1
x x
where ck  k 1 k is the midpoint of the
2
k - th interval [ xk 1, xk ]

428
Visualization of midpoint rule
2
Use the midpoint rule to approximat e  1  x 2 dx
0

429
 Trapezoidal Rule
• Partition [a,b] into n intervals of equal
length, with endpoints x0 , …,xn

b
Approximat e  f ( x)dx by
a

b  a  f ( x0 ) f ( xn ) 
Tn   f ( x )    f ( x ) 
n  2 2 
1 n 1

430
Visualization of the trapezoid rule
3
Approximations of 
0
sin( x 2 )dx using trapezoidal rule

431
 Another Method

• Simpson’s rule: Sn = (Tn + 2Mn)/3

• Click here to see various rules in action

432
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 433
Chapter 7 Functions of Several Variables
7.1 Functions of Several Variables
7.2 Limits and Continuity
7.3 Partial Derivatives
7.4 Tangent Planes and Linear Approximations
7.5 The Chain Rule
*7.6 Directional Derivatives and the Gradient Vector
7.7 Maximum and Minimum Values
7.8 Lagrange Multipliers
So far we have dealt with the calculus of
functions of a single variable. But, in the
real world, physical quantities often
depend
on two or more variables, so in this
chapter we turn our attention to functions
of several variables and extend the basic
ideas of differential calculus to such
functions.
7.1 Functions of Several Variables

In this section we study functions of two or

more variables from four points of view:
 Verbally (by a description in words)
 Numerically (by a table of values)
 Algebraically (by an explicit formula)
 Visually (by a graph or level curves)
Functions of Two Variables
Definition A function of two variables is a rule that assigns to each
ordered pair of real numbers (x,y) in a set D a unique real number
denoted by f(x,y). The set D is the domain of f and its range is the set of
values that f takes on, that is , {f(x,y)| (x,y) D}.
We often write z= f(x,y) to make explicit the value taken on by f at the
general point (x,y) . The variables x and y are independent variables
and z is the dependent variable.
y
f
x z
f(x,y)
（x,y）
Example 1 Find the domains of the following functions
and evaluate f(3,2).
x  y 1
(a) f ( x, y )  (b) f ( x, y)  x ln( y 2  x)
x 1

Solution
(a) 3  2 1 6
f (3,2)  
3 1 2
D  x, y  x  y  1  0, x  1

(b)
f (3,2)  3 ln(2 2  3)  0

D   x, y  x  y 2 
Graphs Another way of visualizing the behavior of a
function of two variables is to consider its graph.
Definition If f is a function of two variables with domain D,
then the graph of f is the set of all points (x,y,z) in R3 such
that z=f(x,y) and (x,y) is in D.

( x, y, f ( x, y))
S

D ( x, y,0)
y
x
Functions of Three or More Variables
A function of three variables, f, is a rule that assigns to
each ordered triple (x,y,z) in a domain D  R3 a unique real
number denoted by f(x,y,z).

A function of n variables, f, is a rule that assigns a

number z  f ( x1, x2 , , xn ) to an n-tuple ( x1, x2 , , xn ) of real
n
number. We denoted by R the set of all such n-tuples.
7.2 Limits and Continuity
Definition Let f be a function of two variables whose
domain D includes points arbitrarily close to (a,b).
Then we say that the limit of f(x,y) as (x,y)
approaches (a,b) is L and we write
lim f ( x, y )  L
( x , y )  ( a ,b )

if for every number   0 there is a corresponding

number   0 such that f ( x, y )  L   whenever
( x, y)  D and 0  ( x  a ) 2  ( y  b) 2  
If f ( x, y )  L1as ( x, y)  (a, balong
) a path and
C1 f ( x, y)  L2

as ( x, y)  (a, b)along a path C, 2where L1  ,L2

then lim f ( x, ydoes
) not exist.
( x , y )  ( a ,b )

Example x 2  y 2does not exist.

lim
( x , y ) (0,0) x 2  y 2
Solution
as along the x-axis
f ( x, y)  1 ( x, y)  (0,0)
as along the y-axis
f ( x, y)  1 ( x, y)  (0,0)
Continuity
Definition A function f of two variables is called
continuous at (a,b) if
lim f ( x, y )  f ( a , b )
( x , y ) ( a ,b )
We say f is continuous on D if f is continuous at
every point (a,b) in D.
Example

lim ( x y  x y  3x  2 y )  1 2  1 2  3 1  2  2  11
2 3 3 2 2 3 3 2
( x , y ) (1,2)
 7.3 Partial Derivatives
If f is a function of two variables , its partial derivatives
are the functions f x and f y defined by
f ( x  h, y )  f ( x, y )
f x ( x, y)  lim
h 0 h
f ( x, y  h )  f ( x , y )
f y ( x, y )  lim
h 0 h
Notations for partial derivatives If z  f ( x, y) , we write
f  z
f x ( x, y )  f x   f ( x, y)   f1  D1 f  Dx f
x x x
f  z
f y ( x, y )  f y   f ( x, y )   f 2  D2 f  Dy f
y y y
Rule for finding partial derivatives of z  f ( x, y)
1.To find f x regard y as a constant and differentiate f ( x, y) with respect to x
2.To find f y regard x as a constant and differentiate f ( x, y) with respect to y

Example If f ( x, y)  x3  x2 y3  2 y 2 , find f x (2,1) and f y (2,1) .

Solution

f x ( x, y )  3x 2  2 xy 3
f x (2,1)  3  22  2  3 13  16
f y ( x, y )  3 x 2 y 2  4 y
f y (2,1)  3  22 12  4 1  8
 Interpretations of partial derivatives
z
f d
x  x0  f ( x, y 0 ) M0
x y y0 dx x  x0
Tx Ty

Stand for differentiate of tangent M oTx through M 0

 z  f ( x, y ) y0
of curve  yy o y
 0 x0

f d x
x  x0  f ( x0 , y)
y y y0 dy y  y0

Stand for differentiate of tangent M oTy through M 0 of curve

机动 目录 上页 下页 返回 结束
Higher derivatives
If z  f ( x, y) then
  f   2 f 2 z
( f x ) x  f xx  f11     2
x  x  x 2
x
  f   2 f 2 z
( f x ) y  f xy  f12    
y  x  yx yx
  f   2 f 2 z
( f y ) x  f yx  f 21    
x  y  xy xy
  f   2 f 2 z
( f y ) y  f yy  f 22     2
y  y  y 2
y
Example f ( x, y)  x3  x2 y3  2 y 2
f x ( x, y )  3x  2 xy
2 3 f y ( x, y )  3 x 2 y 2  4 y


f xx ( x, y)   3x 2  2 xy 3   6 x  2 y 3 f yx ( x, y)   3x 2 y 2  4 y   6 xy 2
x x


f xy ( x, y)   3x 2  2 xy 3   6 xy 2 f yy ( x, y )   3x 2 y 2  4 y   6 x 2 y  4
y y

Clairaut’s Theorem Suppose f is defined on a disk

D that contains the point (a,b). If the functions f xy
and f yx are both continuous on D, then
f xy (a, b)  f yx (a, b)
7.4 Tangent Planes and Linear Approximations
Definition If z  f ( x, y,) then f is differentiable at
(a,b) if z can be expressed in the form
z  f x (a, b)x  f y (a, b)y  1x   2 y
where  1 and  2  0 as (x, y)  (0,0) .

Theorem If the partial derivatives f x and f y exist

near (a,b) and are continuous at (a,b), then f is
differentiable at (a,b).
Differentials
For a differentiable function of two variables,
z  f ( x, y), we define the differentials dx and dy
to be independent variables; that is, they can
be given any values. Then the differential dz ,
also called the total differential , is defined by

z z
dz  f x ( x, y )dx  f y ( x, y )dy  dx  dy
x y
 14.5 The Chain Rule
The Chain Rule (Case 1) Suppose that z  f ( x, y)
is a differentiable function of x and y , where x  g (t )
and y  h(t ) are both differentiable functions of t .
Then z is a differentiable function of t and

dz f dx f dy
 
dt x dt y dt

or dz  z dx  z dy
dt x dt y dt
 dz
Example Let z = excosy, x = sint and y = t 2. Find .
dt
Solution We find that
dz z dx z dy
   
dt x dt y dt
 e x cos y (cos t )  (e x sin y )(2t )
 esin t (cos t cos t 2  2t sin t 2 ).

The Chain Rule (Case 2) Suppose that z  f ( x, y) is

a differentiable function of x and y , where x  g (s, t )
and y  h(s, t ) are differentiable functions of s and t .Then
z z x z y z z x z y
   
s x s y s t x t y t
Example Let z = xy, x = 3u2 + v2, and y = 4u +2v.
z z
Find and .
u v
Solution

z z x z y
   
u x u y u
 yx y 1 (6u )  4( x y ln x)
 6u (4u  2v)(3u 2  v 2 ) 4u  2 v 1  4(3u 2  v 2 ) 4 u  2 v ln(3u 2  v 2 ),
z z x z y
   
v x v y v
 yx y 1 (2v)  2( x y ln x)
 2v(4u  2v)(3u 2  v 2 ) 4u  2 v 1  2(3u 2  v 2 ) 4 u  2 v ln(3u 2  v 2 ).
 Implicit Differentiation
We suppose that an equation of the form F ( x, y)  0
defines yimplicitly as a differentiable function of , x
that is,y  f ( x), where F ( x, f ( x))  0 for all x in the
domain of f. If F is differentiable. Then

F dx F dy
 0
x dx y dx
F
dy
 x 
Fx
dx  F Fy
y
We suppose that an equation of the form F ( x, y, z)  0
defines z implicitly as a differentiable function of x
and y , that is, z  f ( x, y,) where F ( x, y, f ( x, y))  0for all ( x, y)
in the domain of f. If F is differentiable. Then

 F
 z x Fx
 F x F z     
 0 x F Fz
 
 x x z x  z
 F y F z  F
  0 
 y
 y z y  z y Fy
 y    
F Fz

 z
Example 1 Find y if x3  y3  6xy
Solution Let F ( x, y)  x3  y3  6xy  0
then dy Fx x2  2 y
y    .
dx Fy y  2x
2

z z
Example 2 Find and if x3  y3  z 3  6 xyz  1
x y
Solution Let
F ( x, y, z)  x  y  z  6xyz 1
3 3 3

 z Fx x 2  2 yz
then  x   F   z 2  2 xy
 z
 .
 z   Fy   y  2 xz
2


 y Fz z 2
 2 xy
 7.7 Maximum and Minimum Values
Definition A function of two variables has a local
maximum at (a,b) if f ( x, y)  f (a, b) when (x,y) is near
(a,b). [ This means that f ( x, y)  f (a, b) for all points (x,y)
in some disk with center (a,b).] The number f(a,b)
is called a local maximum value. If f ( x, y)  f (a, b)
when (x,y) is near (a,b), then f(a,b) is called a local
minimum value. If the inequalities hold for all points
(x,y) in the domain of f, then f has an absolute maxi-
mum (or absolute minimum) at (a,b).
Theorem If f has a local maximum or minimum
at (a,b) and the first-order partial derivatives of f
exist there, then f x (a, b)  0 and f y (a, b)  0 .

A point (a,b) is called a critical point (or stationary

point ) of f if f x (a, b)  0 and f y (a, b)  0 , or one of partial
Derivatives does not exist.

Theorm says that if f has a local maximum or mini-

mum at (a,b), then (a,b) is a critical point of f .
However, not all critical points give rise to maximum
or minimum.
Second derivatives test Suppose the second
partial derivatives of f are continuous on a disk with
center (a,b), and suppose that f x (a, b)  0 and f y (a, b)  0
[that is, (a,b) is a critical point of f ]. Let
2
D  D(a, b)  f xx (a, b) f yy (a, b)   f xy (a, b) 
(a) If D  0 and f xx (a, b)  0 , then f(a,b) is a local
minimum.
(b) If D  0and f xx (a, b)  0 , then f(a,b) is a local
maximum.
(c) If D  0 ,then f(a,b) is not a local minimum or local
maximum.
Note 1 In case (c) the point (a,b) is called a saddle
point of f and the graph of f crosses its tangent
plane at (a,b).
Note 2 If D=0, the test gives no information: f could
have a local minimum or local maximum at (a,b), or
(a,b) could be a saddle point of f .
Note 3 We often use the following symbols:
A  f xx ( x, y ), B  f xy ( x, y ), C  f yy ( x, y ),
D  AC  B . 2
Example Let f(x, y) = x2 – y2. Show that the origin
is the only critical point but that f has no extreme
value at the origin.
Solution The partial derivatives of f exist at every
point in the domain of f, and we have that
f’x(x, y) = 2x, f’y(x, y) = -2y,
so that (0, 0) is the only critical point of f.
However, f(0, 0) = 0 is no a extreme value of f,
because f(x, 0) = x2 > 0 for all x≠0 and
f(0, y) = -y2 < 0 for all y ≠0.
Example Given f(x, y) = x3 +y3 –3xy, find the extreme
values of function f.
Solution f has continuous second partial derivatives so
the critical points of f are those at which f’x and f’y are 0.
Since
f’x(x, y) = 3x2 –3y and f’y(x, y) = 3y2 –3x,
Solving for x, y from 3x2 –3y = 0,
3y2 –3x = 0,
we obtain the critical points of f, which are (1, 1) and (0, 0).
For (1, 1) we have A = 6, B = -3, C = 6, and D=27> 0.
Since A>0, we know that f(1, 1) = -1 is a local minimum.
For (0, 0) we have A = 0, B = -3, C = 0, and D= -9< 0,
hence f has no extreme value at (0, 0).
Absolute Maximum and Minimum Values
Extreme value theorem for functions of two variables
If f is continuous on a closed, bounded set D in R2, then f
attains an absolute maximum value f ( x1, y1 ) and an absolute
minimum value f ( x2 , y2 ) at some points( x1 , y1 ) and ( x2 , y2 ) in D.
To find the absolute maximum and minimum values of a
continuous function of f on a closed, bounded set D :
1. Find the values of f at the critical points of f in D.
2. Find the extreme values of f on the boundary of D.
3. The largest of the values from steps 1 and 2 is the absolute
maximum value; the smallest of these values is the absolute
minimum value.
Example Find the absolute maximum and minimum values
of the function f ( x, y)  x2  2xy  2 y on D   x, y  0  x  3, 0  y  2.
Solution First find the critical points. These occur when
f x  2 x  2 y  0, f y  2 x  2  0
So the only critical point is (1,1), and the value is f(1,1)=1.
In step 2 we look at the values of f on the boundary of D, which
consists of the four line segments of D. We attain that f(0,0)=0
and f(3,2)=1 are minimum values of f on the boundary of D ,
we also attain that f(3,0)=9 and f(0,2)=4 are maximum values
of f on the boundary of D .
In step 3 we compare these values and conclude that the
absolute maximum value of f on D is f(3,0)=9 and the absolute
minimum value is f(0,0)=0.
 7.8 Lagrange Multipliers
Conditional extreme values and Lagrange multipliers
In previous discussion on extreme values of functions of two
variables x and y, the variables x and y are independent to
each other, i.e., they are not constrained by any side
condition on the values of x and y. However, we may
encounter problems of finding the extreme values of function
f(x, y) subject to a side condition, also called a constraint,
of the form g(x, y) = 0. Such extreme values are called
conditional extreme values.
We will describe a general method of finding the extreme
values of a function subject to a constraint, which is called
the Lagrange multipliers method, and the number  is
called a Lagrange multiplier.
The method of determining extreme values of function
f(x, y) subject to constraint g(x, y) = 0 by means of
Lagrange multipliers proceed as follows.
1. Form a function F by multiplying g(x, y) with the Lagrange
multiplier  and then adding to f(x, y), that is,
F ( x, y)  f ( x, y)  g( x, y).
2. Find the partial derivatives of F, F’x and F’y , and then
solve the equations  F  ( x, y )  0,
 x
 F y ( x, y )  0,

 g( x, y )  0.
3. Calculate the value of f at each point (x, y) that is obtained
in step 2.
Then, subject to the constraint g(x, y) = 0, if f(x, y) has a
(conditional) maximum value, it will be the largest of the
values computed; if f(x, y) has a (conditional) minimum
value, it will be the smallest of the values computed.

Example 1 Find the extreme values of f(x, y) = x2 + 4y3

subject to the constraint x2 + 2y2 =1.
Solution Let F ( x , y )  x 2
 4 y 3
  ( x 2
 2 y 2
 1).
Then x F   2 x  2 x , F 
y  12 y 2
 4y.
2 x  2x  0,
Solving 12 y  4y  0,
2

 x 2  2 y 2  1  0,
   7
 x  0, x   3 ,
 2  x  1,  1
we obtain  y   ,  y  0, and y  ,
 2   1, 3
   1,
   3 2 , 
 2 

as the solutions.
Thus the only possible extreme values of f occur at points
in the xy plane:

2 2 7 1 7 1
(0, ), (0, ), (1,0), (1,0), ( , ) and ( , ).
2 2 3 3 3 3
Since
2 2
f (0, )  2, f (1,0)  f (1,0)  1, f (0, )   2,
2 2
7 1 7 1 25
f ( , )  f ( , ) ,
3 3 3 3 27

we conclude that the maximum value of f(x, y) on the

ellipse is 2 , which occurs at point (0, 2 2 ) , and the
minimum value of f(x,y) on the ellipse is  2 , which
occurs at point (0, 2 ) .
2
Example 2 A rectangular box without a lid is to be
made from 12 m2 of cardboard. Find the maximum
volume of such a box.
Solution Let x, y, and z be the length, width, and
height, respectively, of the box in meters. We wish to
maximize V= xyz subject to the constraint
g(x,y,z)=2xz+2yz+xy-12=0
Let F ( x, y, z)  xyz   (2 xz  2 yz  xy 12).

Solving the equations

  Fx  yz   (2 z  y )  0
 F   xz   (2 z  x)  0
 y

 Fz  xy   (2 x  2 y )  0
2 xz  2 yz  xy  12  0


we have x=y=2 and z=1.

Then V=xyz=4, so the maximum volume of the box
is 4 m3.
10/5/2021 (c) Patrice Ndambomve 473