COMPUTER STUDIES EDUCATION 1A

[C1A50US]
Lecturer: Mr. Conard Ntelamo
Email: [email protected]
This Course outlines the fundamental components and functions of personal computers as
well as Operating Systems. Students will be exposed to different operating systems so that
they will be able to compare them at the end of the course. Students will also learn how to
install system and application software as well as how to maintain, troubleshoot and repair
personal computers and printers.
1. Attendance : Students expected to attend 80% of the lectures.
2. Assessment activities: 3x per semester (Assignment/Test)
3. Examination: To Qualify For Exam You Need Average CA Of
50%
4. Module materials will be shared with the class representative and on LMS
DISCUSSION WILL BE AN EXPECTED NORMAL IN THIS CLASS
 UNIT 1
INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPUTER
ORGANIZATION
 COURSE OVERVIEW & LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Explain the Historical Evolution of Computers.
2. Differentiate between Generations of Computer
Technology.
3. Describe the Von Neumann Architecture and its
significance.
4. Understand Computer Number Systems.
5. Identify and Analyze Computer Performance Measures.
 WHAT IS A COMPUTER?
 A computer is an electronic device that can accept input,
process it according to predefined instructions
(programs), produce output as results and store it.
 It consists of hardware components such as the central
processing unit (CPU), memory, storage devices, input
devices (e.g., keyboard, mouse), output devices (e.g.,
monitor, printer), and networking components.
WHAT IS A COMPUTER?
 TWO COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER
 Computer hardware and computer software are two
fundamental components of any computer system.
 They work together to perform tasks and enable the
functionality of the machine.
 Computer Hardware: Physical components of a computer
system that you can touch and interact with.
 Computer Software: A set of instructions, data, or programs
used to operate computers and perform specific tasks.
 TWO COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER
 Together, computer hardware and software form a cohesive unit that
enables the operation of computer systems.
 Hardware provides the physical infrastructure necessary for
computing processes, while software dictates how that hardware
should function and what tasks it should perform.
 Understanding the interplay between hardware and software is
essential for efficient utilization and troubleshooting of computer
systems.
 COMPUTER HARDWARE
 Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the brain of
the computer.
 It processes instructions, performs calculations,
and controls other components.
 CPU Speed: Measured in Gigahertz (GHz) – a higher
GHz means the CPU can process tasks faster.
 Cores: Modern CPUs have multiple cores (e.g., dual-
core, quad-core) to handle more tasks at the same time.
 Cache Memory: A small, high-speed memory inside the
CPU that stores frequently used data for quick access.
 COMPUTER HARDWARE
 Motherboard (The Main Circuit Board) is a type of
printed circuit board (PCB) that connects all parts of the
computer so they can communicate with each other.
 It has different slots and sockets for components, such as:
 CPU socket – Where the processor is installed.
 RAM slots – For installing memory modules.
 Expansion slots (PCI/PCIe) – For adding graphics cards,
sound cards, or network cards.
 Chipsets – Control data flow between the CPU, memory,
and storage.
 BIOS/UEFI firmware – A small built-in program that starts
the computer before the operating system loads.
 COMPUTER HARDWARE
 Random Access Memory (RAM) is
the short-term (temporary) memory of
a computer.
 It stores data and instructions of running
programs.
 More RAM helps run multiple
applications/programs smoothly.
 Measured in Gigabytes (GB); more
RAM generally means better
performance.
 RAM is faster than secondary
memory or storage but loses all data
when the computer is turned off.
 COMPUTER HARDWARE
 Read-Only Memory (ROM) is the permanent
(non-volatile) memory of a computer.
 It stores firmware and essential system instructions
needed for booting.
 Unlike RAM, ROM retains data even when the
computer is turned off.
 Used for storing the BIOS, firmware, and other
critical system software.
 Measured in Megabytes (MB) or Gigabytes (GB), but
is generally smaller than RAM.
 Cannot be easily modified; some types (EEPROM,
Flash Memory) allow limited reprogramming.
 COMPUTER HARDWARE
 Storage Drives (Secondary Memory) – Permanent
Data Storage
 Storage drives save files, programs, and the operating
system.
 There are different types:
 Hard Disk Drive (HDD) – Uses spinning disks,
provides large storage but is slower.
 Solid State Drive (SSD) – Uses flash memory, much
faster than HDDs.
 M.2 & NVMe (Non-Volatile Memory Express) SSDs –
Advanced SSDs that are even faster, used in modern
PCs.
 Optical Disks (CD/DVD/Blu-ray) – Use laser
technology to read and write data, often used for
media storage and backups.
 COMPUTER HARDWARE
 External Hard Drives & SSDs – Portable
storage devices for backups and extra
space.
 USB Flash Drives – Small, removable
storage devices for quick file transfers.
 Memory Cards [Secure Digital (SD),
microSD] – Used in cameras,
smartphones, and other portable devices.
 COMPUTER HARDWARE
 Power Supply Unit (PSU) – Provides
Electricity.
 The PSU converts power from an electrical
outlet into a form the computer can use.
 Power is measured in Watts (W) – high-
performance PCs need more power.
 Some PSUs are modular, allowing better
cable management for airflow.
 COMPUTER HARDWARE
 Graphics Processing Unit (GPU)
– Handles Graphics.
 The GPU processes images, videos,
and animations.
 Integrated GPU – Built into the CPU,
good for basic tasks (web browsing,
office work).
 Dedicated GPU – A separate graphics
card for gaming, video editing, and 3D
rendering.
 COMPUTER HARDWARE
 Cooling System – Prevents Overheating.
 Computers generate heat, so cooling is
important to keep them running smoothly.
 Air Cooling – Uses fans and heat sinks.
 Liquid Cooling – Uses liquid coolant, mainly for
high-performance PCs.
 Thermal Paste – Helps transfer heat from the
CPU to the heat sink.
 COMPUTER HARDWARE

 System Case/Unit (Chassis) – The

Outer Shell. The case holds all
computer parts together and helps
with airflow.
 Mini Tower – Small, fewer upgrade
options.
 Mid Tower – Most common, balances size
and upgradability.
 Full Tower – Large, for high-performance
PCs.
 COMPUTER HARDWARE
 Input Devices – User Controls.
 Input devices help users interact with
the computer.
 Keyboard – For typing and entering
commands.
 Mouse – For selecting and navigating
on the screen.
 Other Inputs – Touchscreens, game
controllers, styluses, and microphones.
 COMPUTER HARDWARE
 Output Devices – Displaying
Results.
 Output devices show or play
information from the computer.
 Monitor – Displays images and videos
(LCD, LED, OLED types).
 Speakers/Headphones – Produce
sound output.
 Printers – Print documents on paper.
 COMPUTER HARDWARE
 Network Interface Card (NIC) – Internet &
Networking.
 The NIC allows the computer to connect to the
internet or a local network.
 Wired (Ethernet NIC) – Uses a cable for a stable
connection.
 Wireless (Wi-Fi NIC) – Connects to Wi-Fi
without cables.
 Some motherboards have built-in NICs, while
others need a separate network card.
 COMPUTER HARDWARE
 Peripheral devices are non-essential but
enhance a computer’s capabilities.They can be:
 Input Devices – Capture data (e.g., keyboard,
mouse, scanner, microphone).
 Output Devices – Display or produce results (e.g.,
printer, speaker, monitor).
 Storage Devices – Provide additional data storage
(e.g., external hard drives, flash drives).
 Networking Devices – Enable communication (e.g.,
routers, modems).
 These peripherals improve usability, storage,
communication, and overall computing efficiency.
 COMPUTER SOFTWARE: SYSTEM SOFTWARE
 System Software: software that manages and controls hardware and
provides a platform for application software.
 The Operating System (OS) is the basic software that helps the
computer run and manage everything (The Heart of Your Computer).
 Functions:
 Provides a user interface (how you interact with the computer, like
a graphical interface (GUI) or command-line interface (CLI)).
 Manages hardware like the CPU, memory, and input/output devices
(keyboard, mouse, etc.).
 Helps you store and organize files.
 Allows multitasking (running multiple programs at the same time).
 Examples:Windows, macOS, Linux, UNIX.
 COMPUTER SOFTWARE: SYSTEM SOFTWARE
 Utility Software are software tools that help manage,
maintain, and optimize a computer’s performance, security,
and usability. They ensure system stability, enhance security,
and improve efficiency.
 File Management: Organize, back up, and clean unnecessary
files (e.g., File Explorer, Disk Cleanup,Time Machine).
 Disk Management: Manage partitions, defragment disks, and
monitor storage health (e.g., Windows Disk Management,
GParted).
 Performance Monitoring: Track resource usage and
optimize performance (e.g.,Task Manager,Activity Monitor).
 Security Tools: Protect against malware, encrypt data, and
manage firewalls (e.g., Antivirus software, BitLocker, Windows
Firewall).
 COMPUTER SOFTWARE: SYSTEM SOFTWARE
 System Configuration: Adjust settings, install updates,
and execute commands via CLI (e.g., Control Panel,
Windows Update).
 Network Utilities: Configure network settings, monitor
bandwidth, and troubleshoot issues (e.g., Ping,
NetSpeedMonitor).
 Diagnostics & Monitoring: Analyze system health, view
event logs, and report crashes (e.g., System Information,
Event Viewer).
 These utilities help keep computers secure, efficient, and
well-maintained, enhancing overall user experience and
productivity.
 COMPUTER SOFTWARE: SYSTEM SOFTWARE
 Device Drivers are specialized software components that
allow the operating system and applications to communicate
with hardware devices like printers, graphics cards, and
network adapters.
 They serve as intermediaries, ensuring seamless interaction
between software and hardware by translating system
commands into device-specific instructions.
 They are automatically installed by the OS or provided by
hardware manufacturers.
 They require updates for improved performance, new
features, and security fixes.
 COMPUTER SOFTWARE: SYSTEM SOFTWARE
 Examples of Device Drivers:
 Printer Drivers: Convert documents into a format a
printer understands.
 Graphics Drivers: Enable rendering of images and
video.
 Network Drivers: Manage data transmission over
networks.
 USB Drivers: Facilitate communication with external
devices like keyboards and storage drives.
 COMPUTER SOFTWARE: SYSTEM SOFTWARE
 Firmware is a specialized type of software embedded in
hardware devices to provide low-level control and functionality.
Unlike regular software, firmware is tightly integrated with
hardware and is typically stored in non-volatile memory, such as
ROM or flash memory.
 Types of Firmware:
 System Firmware: Controls essential hardware functions,
such as booting and hardware recognition.
 Example: BIOS/UEFI in PCs manages the startup process and
communication between hardware components.
 Device Firmware: Operates specific devices like printers,
cameras, and smartphones, ensuring they perform their
functions correctly.
 COMPUTER SOFTWARE: SYSTEM SOFTWARE
 Embedded Firmware: Found in dedicated hardware systems,
such as automotive controls, household appliances, and medical
devices, to support specialized operations.
 Examples of Firmware:
 BIOS (Basic Input/Output System)/UEFI (Unified Extensible
Firmware Interface): Manages system startup and provides
an interface for hardware and the operating system.
 Router Firmware: Controls networking devices, managing
data transmission and configuration settings.
 Smartphone Firmware: Provides core functionality for
mobile devices and supports the operating
 COMPUTER SOFTWARE
 Application Software are programs/software designed to perform specific tasks for users.
 Examples:
 Productivity software: Programs like Microsoft Word for typing or Microsoft Excel for
spreadsheets.
 Web browsers: Programs to help you access the internet, like Google Chrome or Mozilla
Firefox.
 Multimedia software: Tools like Adobe Photoshop for editing images or Final Cut Pro for
editing videos.
 Communication software: For sending emails or video chatting, such as Microsoft
Outlook or Zoom.
 COMPUTER SOFTWARE
 Programming (Development) software provides
tools for developers/programmers to write, test, and
debug code efficiently.
 It includes:
 Compilers & Interpreters – Convert programming code
into machine instructions (e.g., GCC (GNU Compiler
Collection), Python Interpreter).
 Integrated Development Environments (IDEs) –
Comprehensive coding workspaces with debugging
tools (e.g.,Visual Studio, Eclipse, PyCharm).
 COMPUTER SOFTWARE

 Text Editors – Lightweight code editors for

simple coding tasks (e.g., Notepad++, Sublime
Text).
 Programming Languages – Languages like
Python, Java, and C++ enable software
development.
 These tools are essential for creating new
software and programs.
 COMPUTER SOFTWARE
 Database Management Systems (DBMS) store,
organize, and manage large amounts of structured and
unstructured data, allowing users to efficiently store,
retrieve, and update information.
 Types of DBMS:
 Relational DBMS (RDBMS) – Organizes data in structured tables
with relationships (e.g., MySQL, PostgreSQL, Oracle, Microsoft
SQL Server).
 NoSQL Databases – Manage unstructured and semi-structured
data for flexibility (e.g., MongoDB, Cassandra).
 Cloud Databases – Offer scalable, remote storage and
management (e.g., Firebase,Amazon RDS).
 DBMS software is essential for handling data in modern
applications.
 COMPUTER SOFTWARE
 Middleware acts as an intermediary layer that
enables communication and data exchange between
different software applications.
 It provides essential services such as authentication,
database connectivity, and application integration.
 Key types of middleware include:
 Application Servers – Provide a framework for
running applications.
 Database Middleware – Facilitate connections
between applications and databases.
 COMPUTER SOFTWARE
 Malware (malicious software) refers to any software
intentionally designed to cause harm to a computer, server,
or computer network. It can disrupt, damage, or gain
unauthorized access to systems and data.
 Types of malware include:
 Viruses: Malicious code that attaches itself to clean files and
spreads to other files and systems when executed.
 Worms: A type of malware that replicates itself to spread to
other computers, often exploiting vulnerabilities in network
security.
 Trojan Horses: Software that misrepresents itself as a
legitimate application to trick users into installing it, allowing
unauthorized access to the system.
 COMPUTER SOFTWARE
 Ransomware: A type of malware that encrypts the
user’s files and demands a ransom payment to
unlock them.
 Spyware: Software that secretly monitors user
activities and collects personal information without
consent.
 Adware: Software that automatically delivers
advertisements, which may be annoying or intrusive,
and can sometimes come bundled with spyware.
 Malware poses serious threats to users' data integrity
and privacy, making cybersecurity a critical aspect of
managing computer software.
SHORT HISTORY OF COMPUTER EVOLUTION
 EARLY MECHANICAL COMPUTERS
 Abacus (~2400 BC): One of the first tools used for
arithmetic calculations.
 Pascaline (1642): A mechanical calculator invented by
Blaise Pascal for performing addition and subtraction.
 Zuse Z3 (1941): Created by Konrad Zuse, it was the
first programmable, fully automatic digital computer.
 Colossus (1943–1944): A British code-breaking
computer used during WWII.
 Harvard Mark I (1944): An electromechanical
computer developed by Howard Aiken and IBM, used
for military calculations.
 THE BIRTH OF ELECTRONIC COMPUTERS
 Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC) (1937): The first digital
electronic computer, though not programmable.
 ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer)
(1946): The first general-purpose electronic computer, utilizing
18,000 vacuum tubes for rapid calculations.
 EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer)
(1949): Introduced stored-program architecture, allowing
software to be stored in memory instead of requiring manual
rewiring.
 UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer) I (1951): The first
commercially available computer, used for business and
government applications.
 IBM 701 (1952): IBM’s first large-scale scientific computer.
 ADVANCEMENTS IN HARDWARE
 Transistor Computers (1950s): Replaced vacuum tubes,
making computers smaller, faster, and more reliable.
 IBM 1401 (1959): One of the first mass-produced
transistorized computers, widely used in businesses.
 Integrated Circuits (1960s): Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce
developed ICs, significantly improving computing power and
efficiency.
 IBM System/360 (1964): Introduced a family of compatible
mainframe computers.
 Microprocessors (1971): The Intel 4004 was the first
commercially available microprocessor, paving the way for
personal computers.
 THE RISE OF PERSONAL COMPUTING
 Altair 8800 (1975): The first commercially successful
microcomputer, sparking the PC revolution.
 Apple I & II (1976–1977): The Apple II became a widely used
home and business PC.
 IBM PC (1981): Standardized PC architecture, making personal
computing more accessible.
 Lisa (1983): Apple’s first personal computer with a graphical
user interface (GUI).
 Graphical User Interface (1984): The Apple Macintosh
introduced an easy-to-use interface, later influencing Microsoft
Windows.
 MODERN COMPUTING AND NETWORKING

 World Wide Web (1991): Invented by Tim Berners-Lee, making the

internet accessible to the public.
 Dot-com Boom (1990s): The rapid growth of online businesses like
Amazon, eBay, and Google.
 Windows 95 (1995): Made GUI-based operating systems dominant,
introducing the Start menu and multitasking features.
 Mobile Revolution (2007): Apple’s iPhone introduced touchscreen
interfaces and mobile apps, transforming computing.
 Cloud Computing & AI (2010s–Present): Services like Google Cloud
and AI-driven applications revolutionized data storage and processing.
 Quantum & Edge Computing (2020s): Emerging technologies pushing
computing power beyond traditional limits.
GENERATION OF COMPUTER
TECHNOLOGY
 FIRST GENERATION (1940S-1950S)
 Technology:Vacuum tubes for computation.
 Memory: Magnetic drums & tapes.
 I/O Devices: Punched cards, paper tape.
 Programming: Machine language.
 Characteristics: Large, expensive, unreliable, high
power consumption, generated excessive heat.
 Uses: Scientific research (atomic energy, weather
forecasting), military applications (code-breaking,
ballistic calculations), business record keeping.
 Examples: ENIAC, UNIVAC I, IBM 650, IBM 701.
 SECOND GENERATION (1950S-1960S)
 Technology: Transistors replaced vacuum tubes,
making computers smaller & reliable.
 Memory: Magnetic core, tape/disk.
 I/O Devices: Punched cards, magnetic tape.
 Programming:Assembly language.
 Characteristics: Faster, energy-efficient, compact,
lower heat generation, improved reliability.
 Uses: Business data processing (payroll, inventory),
scientific simulations, banking transactions, airline
reservation systems.
 Examples: IBM 1401, UNIVAC 1108, CDC 1604,
PDP-1.
 THIRD GENERATION (1960S-1970S)
 Technology: Integrated circuits miniaturized components.
 Memory: Large magnetic core, tape/disk.
 I/O Devices: Magnetic tape, keyboard, monitor, printer.
 Programming: High-level languages (FORTRAN, BASIC,
Pascal, COBOL, C).
 Characteristics: More powerful, reliable, cost-effective,
reduced power consumption, improved processing
speed.
 Uses: Time-sharing systems, database management, airline
ticketing systems, banking applications.
 Examples: IBM System/360, DEC PDP-8, UNIVAC 9000,
Honeywell 6000.
 FOURTH GENERATION (1970S-1980S)
 Technology: Microprocessors,VLSI (Very Large-Scale Integration).
 Memory: RAM, ROM, HDD, Bubble Memory, floppy disks.
 I/O Devices: Keyboard, mouse, optical scanners, monitor, printer.
 Programming: High-level languages (Python, C#, C++, Java,
JavaScript, Rust, Kotlin).
 Characteristics: Smaller, faster, affordable for personal & business
use, increased storage capacity, networking capabilities.
 Uses: PCs for productivity, gaming, networking, embedded
systems, real-time applications, word processing, spreadsheets.
 Examples: IBM PC, Apple II, Apple Macintosh, STAR 1000,
Commodore 64.
 FIFTH GENERATION (1980S-PRESENT AND BEYOND)
 Technology: AI-based systems, ULSI (Ultra Large-Scale Integration),
parallel processing, quantum & biocomputing, nanotechnology.
 Memory: DRAM, SRAM, Quantum Memory, Distributed Memory,
Non-Volatile Memory, cloud storage.
 I/O Devices: Keyboard, touchscreen, pen, speech recognition,
scanners, printers, gesture recognition, biometric sensors.
 Characteristics: AI, machine learning, edge computing, emerging
technologies, improved human-computer interaction, automation.
 Uses: AI-driven automation, quantum computing (cryptography,
optimization), IoT for smart homes, cities, industries, autonomous
vehicles, robotics, virtual reality.
 Examples: Cloud computing, IoT, quantum computers,
supercomputers, IBM Watson, Google DeepMind.
 GENERATION OF COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY
Generation Period Technology Memory Key Examples

1st 1940s-50s Vacuum tubes Magnetic drums ENIAC, UNIVAC

2nd 1950s-60s Transistors Magnetic core IBM 1401, PDP-1

3rd 1960s-70s Integrated Circuits Magnetic core, tape IBM System/360

4th 1970s-80s Microprocessors RAM, ROM, HDD IBM PC, Apple II

5th 1980s-Present AI, Quantum Computing Cloud, DRAM IBM Watson, IoT
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION &
ARCHITECTURE
 COMPUTER ORGANIZATION
 Computer organization explains how a computer's hardware components work together to process data
and run programs.
 It focuses on the physical structure and internal connections of the system.
 Key Aspects:
 Physical Parts – Includes the CPU (processor), memory (RAM), buses (data highways), and input/output devices
(keyboard, mouse, screen, etc.).
 Control Unit – Acts like a traffic officer, directing how data moves and ensuring smooth communication between parts.
 Data Flow – Defines how data moves inside the CPU, using elements like the ALU (performs calculations), registers
(temporary storage), and memory.
 Buses (Data Highways):
 Data Bus – Carries actual data (like a delivery truck).
 Address Bus – Identifies memory locations (like a GPS address).
 Control Bus – Sends signals to control operations (like traffic lights).
 COMPUTER ORGANIZATION
 Types of Processor Architectures:
 CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computing) – Uses fewer but complex
instructions (like a Swiss Army knife).
 RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing) – Uses simpler but more
frequent instructions (like using separate tools for each task).
 Why Cache Memory Matters:
 Cache memory is fast and stores frequently used data, reducing delays
in accessing information from main memory.
 This improves speed and performance.
 COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE
 Computer architecture focuses on how a computer is designed and how it operates at a logical level.
 It defines the rules and structure that allow software and hardware to work together efficiently.
 It defines how a system is built and how it operates from a programmer’s perspective.
 Key Aspects:
 Instruction Set Architecture (ISA) – The language a CPU understands to execute tasks. Examples include
x86 (used in PCs),ARM (used in smartphones), and RISC-V (used in modern processors).
 Data Formats – Defines how data is stored, such as whole numbers (integers) or decimal numbers
(floating-point).
 Memory Organization – Explains how memory is structured and accessed, including fast cache memory,
RAM, and long-term storage (hard drives or SSDs).
 System Design – Shows how the CPU, memory, and input/output devices communicate to process tasks.
 Performance Factors – Includes speed, power efficiency, and response time, which impact how fast a
computer completes tasks.
Feature Computer Organization Computer Architecture

Deals with the physical components and their

Defines the functional behaviour, structure, and
Definition interconnections that make up a computer
design principles of a computer system.
system.
How hardware components (CPU, memory, I/O The logical design, instruction set, and system
Focus
devices) are implemented and interact. performance considerations.
Higher-level concepts like instruction set
Level of Lower-level details like circuit design, control
architecture (ISA), addressing modes, and system
Abstraction signals, and data paths.
efficiency.
Design Concerned with how hardware is built, including Focuses on optimizing the instruction execution,
Considerations registers, buses, and memory hierarchy. parallelism, and computing power.

Performance Affects execution speed through elements like Influences performance by determining how
Impact pipelining, memory hierarchy, and cache design. efficiently instructions are executed.

Computer organization is influenced by the Computer architecture defines the foundation for
Dependency
chosen architecture. organization choices.
RISC vs. CISC architectures, x86 vs. ARM,
Cache memory organization, bus design, ALU
Examples instruction formats, and memory addressing
operations, and pipeline implementation.
techniques.
VON NEUMANN
ARCHITECTURE
 HARVARD ARCHITECTURE
 Harvard architecture is a computer design where program instructions and data are stored in separate
memory units.
 This allows the CPU to fetch instructions and access data at the same time, making the system faster and
more efficient.
 Key Features:
 Separate Memory for Instructions and Data – The CPU can read instructions and data simultaneously,
reducing delays.
 Fixed Instruction Length – Simplifies processing and speeds up execution.
 Parallel Processing – Instructions and data can be accessed at the same time, improving speed.
 Optimized Memory Usage – Memory for instructions and data is designed separately for better
performance.
 Used in Embedded Systems – Common in devices like microcontrollers, digital signal processors, and
real-time systems where speed is important.
 HOW IT WORKS
 Memory & Buses
 Harvard architecture uses separate buses for
better efficiency:
 Data Bus – Transfers data between memory
and CPU.
 Instruction Bus – Transfers program
instructions.
 Data Address Bus – Locates data in memory.
 Instruction Address Bus – Locates instructions
in memory.
 HOW IT WORKS
 CPU Components:
 Program Counter (PC): Holds the address of
the next instruction.
 Memory Address Register (MAR): Stores
memory locations.
 Memory Data Register (MDR): Holds the data
being transferred.
 Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): Performs
calculations and logical operations.
 Control Unit (CU): Directs the flow of
instructions and data
 HOW IT WORKS

 Input/Output System:
 Input Devices: Provide data (e.g.,
keyboard, sensors).
 Output Devices: Display results (e.g.,
screen, printer).
 I/O Controllers: Manage
communication between CPU and
devices.
Advantages Disadvantages

Faster Performance – Can access instructions and More Complex Design – Requires separate
data at the same time. memory and buses, increasing cost.

Efficient Processing – Fixed instruction size makes Less Flexibility – Changing program instructions at
execution easier. runtime is difficult.

Better Security – Separate memory reduces Higher Memory Requirements – Needs more
memory-related attacks. memory compared to Von Neumann architecture.

Great for Real-Time Applications – Used in

Code Size Limitations – Fixed instruction length
microcontrollers and signal processing where speed is
may limit program size.
critical.
 VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE
 Von Neumann architecture is a computer design
 Advantages:
where both data and instructions are stored in
the same memory unit. Simple Design – A single memory makes the
system easier to build.
 The CPU fetches instructions, executes them, and
stores the results back in memory. Flexible – Can run different programs
dynamically, making it suitable for various tasks.
 Real-World Example: A personal computer (PC)
follows this design.  Disadvantages:
 In a PC, RAM stores both program instructions and Memory Bottleneck – Since data and
data. The CPU retrieves instructions, processes
instructions share memory, complex programs
them, and updates memory, allowing smooth
operation. may slow down.

 Key Feature: Shared Memory – Instructions and Limited Speed – The CPU can’t fetch
data use the same memory space, and the CPU instructions and data at the same time, reducing
processes them one at a time. efficiency.
 VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE COMPONENTS
 Input/Output (I/O) Devices
 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
 Input Devices: (e.g., Keyboard, mouse, scanner) –
 Control Unit (CU): Manages the execution of
instructions. Send data into the system.

 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Performs calculations  Output Devices: (e.g., Monitor, printer, speaker) –
and logical operations. Display results.
 Registers: Store temporary data for fast access.  I/O Controllers: Manage communication between
CPU and external devices.
 Memory Unit
 Primary Memory (RAM): Holds data and  System Bus
instructions during execution.  Data Bus: Transfers data between CPU, memory, and
 Memory Address Register (MAR): Stores memory devices.
addresses.
 Address Bus: Identifies memory locations.
 Memory Data Register (MDR): Holds data being
read/written.  Control Bus: Sends control signals to coordinate
operations.
VON NEUMANN COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE
DIAGRAM
Feature Harvard Architecture Von Neumann Architecture

Definition A computer architecture with separate memory for A computer architecture that uses a single memory
instructions and data. for both instructions and data.

Memory Unit Separate memory for instructions and data. Shared memory for both instructions and data.

Access Parallel access to instructions and data via separate buses. Instructions and data share the same bus, leading to
Mechanism sequential access.

Performance Faster, as the CPU can fetch instructions and data Slower due to the "Von Neumann bottleneck," where
simultaneously. fetching instructions and data occurs sequentially.

Complexity More complex due to separate memory and buses, Simpler design, making it easier to implement and
increasing design and cost. cheaper to manufacture.

Flexibility Limited, as modifying instructions at runtime is difficult. More flexible, allowing self-modifying code and
dynamic data handling.

Typical Use Used in embedded systems, DSPs, and real-time applications Common in general-purpose computers, PCs, and
Cases requiring high-speed processing. servers due to ease of use and programming
flexibility.
 FETCH-DECODE-EXECUTE CYCLE
 The Fetch-Decode-Execute cycle is how the CPU processes and executes instructions
in a program.
 It consists of three main steps:
1. Fetch:
 Getting the Instruction.
 The CPU fetches the next instruction from memory.
 The Program Counter (PC) keeps track of the instruction's memory location.
 The fetched instruction is stored in the Instruction Register (IR).
 The PC is updated to point to the next instruction.
 Example: Imagine a calculator app. The CPU fetches an instruction to add two numbers
from memory.
 FETCH-DECODE-EXECUTE CYCLE

2. Decode:
 The CPU interprets the fetched instruction.
 It identifies what operation to perform (e.g., addition, subtraction,
comparison).
 It checks if additional data (operands) are needed, like numbers stored in
memory or registers.
 Example:The CPU deciphers that the instruction means “Add 5 + 3”.
 FETCH-DECODE-EXECUTE CYCLE

3. Execute:
 The CPU carries out the instruction using the Arithmetic Logic Unit
(ALU).
 The result is stored in a register or memory.
 If needed, the program counter updates based on the instruction (e.g.,
jumping to a new location in case of a loop).
 Example: The CPU performs 5 + 3, stores 8, and moves to the next
instruction.
 IMPORTANCE OF THE FETCH-DECODE-EXECUTE (FDE)
CYCLE
 Step-by-Step Execution – Ensures the computer processes instructions in the
correct order.
 Controls Programs – Manages how instructions and data move within the
computer.
 Efficient CPU Use – Helps the CPU handle tasks smoothly by allocating
resources properly.
 Breaks Down Tasks – Simplifies complex operations into smaller, manageable
steps.
 Faster Processing – Uses techniques like pipelining to speed up execution.
 Essential for Computers – Forms the core of modern computing, based on the
Von Neumann