Computer Networks {BCA – 201}

Unit – I
Basic Concepts: Components Of Data Communication, Distributed
Processing, Line Configuration, Topology, Transmission Mode, And
Categories Of Networks.
OSI And TCP/IP Models: Layers And Their Functions, Comparison Of
Models.
Transmission Media: Guided And Unguided, Attenuation, Distortion, Noise,
Throughput, Propagation Speed And Time, Wavelength, Shannon Capacity.
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 Book for
Computer Networks

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 Introduction to Computer Network
‘‘Computer Network’’ to mean A collection of autonomous computers
interconnected by a single technology.
Two computers are said to be interconnected if they can exchange
information.
They are usually connected together to make larger networks, with the
Internet being the most well-known example of a network of networks.

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USES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS –

Business Applications

Home Applications

Mobile Users

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Components Of Data Communication :
Data Communication is defined as exchange of data between two
devices via some form of transmission media such as a cable, wire or it
can be air or vacuum also.

For occurrence of data communication, communicating devices must

be a part of communication system made up of a combination of
hardware or software devices and programs.

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Data Communication System Components :

There are some following components of a data communication system:

1. Message

2. Sender

3. Receiver

4. Transmission Medium

5. Set of rules (Protocol)

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Components of Data Communication System
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Message: A message is a piece of information that is to be transmitted from one person to
another. It could be a text file, an audio file, a video file, etc.
Sender: It is simply a device that sends data messages. It can be a computer, mobile, telephone,
laptop, video camera, or workstation, etc.
Receiver: It is a device that receives messages. It can be a computer, telephone mobile,
workstation, etc.
Transmission Medium / Communication Channels: Communication channels are the medium
that connect two or more workstations. Workstations can be connected by either wired media
or wireless media.
Set of rules (Protocol): When someone sends the data (The sender), it should be
understandable to the receiver also otherwise it is meaningless.
For example, S sends a message to Y. If S writes in Hindi and Y cannot understand Hindi, it is a
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Distributed Processing In Computer Network
A Distributed Processing System is a collection of autonomous computer systems
that are physically separated but are connected by a centralized computer network
that is equipped with distributed system software.

Types of Distributed Systems

Client-server Systems: The most traditional and simple type of distributed system, involves a multitude of
networked computers that interact with a central server for data storage, processing, or other common
goal.
Peer-to-peer Networks: They distribute workloads among hundreds or thousands of computers all
running the same software.
Cell Phone Networks: It is an advanced distributed system, sharing workloads among handsets, switching
systems, and internet-based devices.
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Distributed Processing In Computer Network
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Line Configuration : The way two or more communication
devices attached to a link referred to as Line configuration. A
network is two or more devices connected through a link. A link
is a communication pathway that transfers data from one device
to another.

There are two possible types of Connection :

1. Point-to-Point Connection - A point-to-point connection
provides a dedicated link between two devices.

2. Multipoint Connection - It is also known as Multidrop Line

configuration. In this configuration more than three devices
share a single link.

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Created By: Abhishek Kumar Maheshwari
Created By: Abhishek Kumar Maheshwari
 Topology
Network Topology : Topology is the arrangement of the elements
of a communication network.
Network topology can be used to define or describe the arrangement
of various types of telecommunication networks.
It defines how these components are connected and interact with
each other.

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The Various Network Topologies Are:
• Point to Point Topology
• Mesh Topology
• Star Topology
• Bus Topology
• Ring Topology
• Tree Topology
• Hybrid Topology

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Point to Point Topology : - Point-to-point topology is a type of topology that
works on the functionality of the sender and receiver. It is the simplest
communication between two nodes, in which one is the sender and the other
one is the receiver.

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Mesh Topology : In a mesh topology, every device is connected to
another device via a particular channel. In Mesh Topology, the protocols
used are AHCP (Ad Hoc Configuration Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol), etc.

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Star Topology :
In Star Topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a
cable. This hub is the central node and all other nodes are connected to the
central node.

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Bus Topology : Bus Topology is a network type in which every computer and
network device is connected to a single cable. It is bi-directional. It is a multi-
point connection. In Bus Topology, various MAC (Media Access Control)
protocols are followed by LAN Ethernet connections like TDMA, Pure Aloha,
CDMA, Slotted Aloha, etc.

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Ring Topology : In a Ring Topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with
exactly two neighboring devices. A number of repeaters are used for Ring
topology with a large number of nodes,

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Tree Topology : This topology is the variation of the Star topology. This
topology has a hierarchical flow of data. In Tree Topology, protocols like DHCP
and SAC (Standard Automatic Configuration ) are used.

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Hybrid Topology : This topological technology is the combination of all the
various types of topologies. Hybrid Topology is used when the nodes are free
to take any form.

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 Home Work →
Write Short Notes on the following with the help of diagram:
Categories of Network-
• PAN (Personal Area Network)
• LAN (Local Area Network)
• WAN (Wide Area Network)
• MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

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Transmission Modes in Computer Networks : Transmission mode
means transferring data between two devices. It is also known as a
communication mode. Transmission modes are methods of transferring
data between devices on buses and networks designed to facilitate
communication. They are classified into three types –

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Simplex Mode : In Simplex mode, the communication is
unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of the two
devices on a link can transmit, the other can only receive. The
simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send
data in one direction.
Example: Keyboard and traditional monitors. The keyboard can
only introduce input, the monitor can only give the output.

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Half-Duplex Mode: In Half-Duplex Mode, each station can both transmit and
receive, but not at the same time. When one device is sending, the other can
only receive, and vice versa. The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there
is no need for communication in both directions at the same time.
Example: Walkie-talkie in which message is sent one at a time and messages
are sent in both directions.

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Full-Duplex Mode : In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive
simultaneously, this sharing can occur in two ways:
•Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission paths, one for sending and the
other for receiving.
•The capacity is divided between signals traveling in both directions.
Full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required all the time.
The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between the two directions.
Example: Telephone Network in which there is communication between two persons by a telephone
line, through which both can talk and listen at the same time.

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REFERENCE MODELS : There are two important network architectures –
• The OSI Reference Model and
• The TCP/IP Reference Model

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The OSI Reference Model

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The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model has seven layers. The principles that
were applied to arrive at the seven layers can be briefly summarized as follows:
1. A layer should be created where a different abstraction is needed.
2. Each layer should perform a well-defined function.
3. The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining
internationally standardized protocols.
4. The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across the
interfaces.
5. The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions need not be
thrown together in the same layer out of necessity and small enough that the
architecture does not become unwieldy.
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Layer : A layer in a computer network is a level in network model that handles
the routing and sending of data between different networks.

1. The Physical Layer : The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw
bits over a communication channel.
Raw bits are the smallest unit of digital information, represented as either 0 or 1.
They are used in digital communication and computing to store, transmit, and
manipulate data.

2. The Data Link Layer : The main task of the data link layer is to transform a
raw transmission facility into a line that appears free of undetected transmission
errors.

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3. The Network Layer : The network layer controls the operation of the
subnet. A key design issue is determining how packets are routed from source to
destination.

4. The Transport Layer : The basic function of the transport layer is to accept
data from above it, split it up into smaller units if need be, pass these to the network
layer, and ensure that the pieces all arrive correctly at the other end.

5. The Session Layer : The session layer allows users on different machines to
establish sessions between them.

6. The Presentation Layer : The presentation layer is concerned with the

syntax and semantics of the information transmitted.
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7. The Application Layer : The application layer contains a variety of protocols
that are commonly needed by users. One widely used application protocol is HTTP
(Hyper-Text Transfer Protocol), which is the basis for the World Wide Web.

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The TCP/IP Reference Model

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TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) : TCP/IP
was designed and developed by the Department of Defense (DoD) in the 1960s
and is based on standard protocols. The TCP/IP model is a concise version of the
OSI model. It contains four layers, unlike the seven layers in the OSI model.
TCP/IP model was developed alongside the creation of the ARPANET, which later
became the foundation of the modern internet.
The main work of TCP/IP is to transfer the data of a computer from one device to
another. The main condition of this process is to make data reliable and accurate
so that the receiver will receive the same information which is sent by the sender.
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1. THE LINK LAYER or NETWORK ACCESS LAYER : The link layer describes
what links such as serial lines and classic Ethernet must do to meet the needs of this
connectionless internet layer.

2. INTERNET OR NETWORK LAYER : This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s

Network layer. It defines the protocols which are responsible for the logical transmission
of data over the entire network.

3. TRANSPORT LAYER : The TCP/IP transport layer protocols exchange data

receipt acknowledgments and retransmit missing packets to ensure that packets arrive
in order and without error.

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4. APPLICATION LAYER : Application layer is analogous to the transport layer
of the OSI model. It is responsible for end-to-end communication and error-free
delivery of data. It shields the upper-layer applications from the complexities of data.

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 Difference Between TCP and IP
TCP (Transmission Control
Feature IP (Internet Protocol)
Protocol)
Ensures reliable, ordered, and error-
Provides addressing and routing of
Purpose checked delivery of data between
packets across networks.
applications.
Routes packets of data from the
Manages data transmission between
Function source to the destination based on IP
devices, ensuring data integrity and order.
addresses.
No, IP itself does not handle errors;
Yes, includes error checking and recovery
Error Handling relies on upper-layer protocols like
mechanisms.
TCP.
Flow Control Yes, includes flow control mechanisms. No
Breaks data into smaller packets and Breaks data into packets but does not
Data Segmentation
reassembles them at the destination. handle reassembly.
Does not guarantee delivery,
Reliability Provides reliable data transfer
reliability, or order.
Transmission
Yes, acknowledges receipt of data packets. No
Acknowledgment
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 Difference between TCP/IP and OSI Model

TCP/IP OSI
TCP refers to Transmission Control Protocol. OSI refers to Open Systems Interconnection.

TCP/IP uses both the session and presentation layer in

OSI uses different session and presentation layers.
the application layer itself.

The Transport layer in TCP/IP does not provide In the OSI model, the transport layer provides assurance
assurance delivery of packets. delivery of packets.

While in the OSI model, Protocols are better covered

Protocols cannot be replaced easily in TCP/IP model.
and are easy to replace with the technology change.

TCP/IP model network layer only provides

Connectionless and connection-oriented services are
connectionless (IP) services. The transport layer (TCP)
provided by the network layer in the OSI model.
provides connections.

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Transmission Media : Transmission media refer to the physical pathways through
which data is transmitted from one device to another within a network. These
pathways can be wired or wireless.

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Guided Media : Guided Media is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission
media. Signals being transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by
using physical links.

Guided Media Features:

• High Speed
• Secure
• Used for comparatively shorter distances

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Unguided Media : It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded Transmission
Media. No physical medium is required for the transmission of electromagnetic
signals.
Features of Unguided Media –
• The signal is broadcasted through air
• Less Secure
• Used for larger distances

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 HOME WORK
Write the short notes on the following with advantages , disadvantages and with
diagram -
• Twisted Pair Cable
• Coaxial Cable
• Optical Fiber Cable
• Stripline
• MicroStripline
• Radiowaves
• Microwaves
• Infrared

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Attenuation – It means loss of energy. The strength of signal decreases
with increasing distance which causes loss of energy in overcoming
resistance of medium. This is also known as attenuated signal.

Distortion – It means changes in the form or shape of the signal. This is

generally seen in composite signals made up with different frequencies.
Each frequency component has its own propagation speed travelling
through a medium.

Noise – The random or unwanted signal that mixes up with the original
signal is called noise. There are several types of noise such as induced
noise, crosstalk noise, thermal noise and impulse noise which may corrupt
the signal.
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Throughput: Throughput is the actual amount of data that can be transmitted
over a network in a given time period.

Propagation Speed and Time: Propagation speed is the rate at which a

signal travels through a medium. It depends on the properties of the medium,
such as its composition and physical characteristics.
Propagation time is the time it takes for a signal to travel from the sender to the
receiver.

Wavelength: Wavelength is the distance between consecutive peaks (or

troughs) of a waveform, such as an electromagnetic signal.

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Shannon Capacity: Shannon Capacity, is the theoretical maximum data rate
that a communication channel can reliably transmit without errors, given the
available bandwidth and signal-to-noise ratio.
The formula is given by:
C = B log₂(1+S/N)

Where:
C is the Shannon Capacity (maximum data rate in bits per second)
B is the bandwidth of the channel in Hertz (Hz)
S is the signal power (average power of the transmitted signal)
N is the noise power (average power of the noise present in the
channel)

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Question: If an optical fiber has a bandwidth of 2 Gigahertz, if the average signal power is
405 units and the average noise power is 27 units, what is the maximum channel capacity
according to Shannon?
Solution:
C = B log₂(1+S/N)

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