Cells
Practical
Precaution
1. Wear eye protection
2. Take care while using a scalpel
3. Take care using iodine solution or methylene blue as they stain skin
and clothes
How to prepare an onion epidermis?
1. An onion is cut into quarters
2. One of the fleshy scale leaves are removed
3. This is snapped backwards to expose the epidermis
4. A thin inner layer of epidermis is peeled off using a pair of foreceps
5. It is placed on a glass microscopic slide
6. Using a scalpel, cut out 1 cm square of tissue and position it on the
centre of the slide. Throw away the rest.
7. It is covered with 2-3 drops of distilled water. A cover slip is placed on
top
8. A stain(iodine solution, methylene blue) is put at the end of the slide
and is drawn over the specimen using a small piece of filter paper
9. Place it on the stage of a microscope to examine
Bacteria
1. Small organisms not more than 0.1mm in length
2. Unicellular/ prokaryotic
3. Cell wall is made of murein/ peptidoglycan; not cellulose or chitin. It is
freely permeable
4. Its cytoplam contains granules of glycogen, lipids adnd other food
reserves
5. They reproduce by binary fission(a form of asexual reproduction)
6. Also has plasmids, which contain genetic material and are used in the
process of genetic modification, as it is easy to insert genetic material
into them
7. Large number of ribosomes, which are smaller than that of plant and
animal cells
8. Does not have a nuclear membrane; contains chromosome(single
DNA strand coiled up)
9. Some may contain flagellum and/or capsule
10. Shape: spherical, spiral or rod-shaped
11. Some are pathogenic e.g., pneumococcus, which is a spherical
bacterium causing pneumonia. Others are not e.g., lactobacillus, rod-
shaped bacterium used to make yoghurt from milk
12. Purposes: decay, fermentation, nitrogen fixation, nutrient recycling
13. No internal membrane, so no nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplast,
vacuole
Specialised cells
The cells in our body need to divide to help the body grow and repair
itself. Afterwards, the cell changes from one type to a differentiated
one. This is called a specialised cell
Differentiation: process through which cells develop the structures
and characteristics needed to carry out their function
Specialised: a structure which has developed to do one special job.
They develop a distinct shape. Special kinds of chemical changes take
place in their cytoplasm. Also known as ‘division of labour’
These differences are controlled by genes in the nucleus
How does its structure help with its function?
Red blood cells
Function: bind to and transport oxygen around the body in blood
Structures:
Biconcave disk shape which increases surface area, increasing the
rate of diffusion of oxygen
Contain a protein called haemoglobin which binds to oxygen to
transport it
They have no nucleus to increase amount of space for haemoglobin
inside the cell
Their cell membranes are flexible, allowing them to squeeze through
narrow capillaries
Ciliated cells form the lining of nose, trachea and bronchi
Function: removing mucus, with its trapped dust and bacteria, from the
airways and preventing it from reaching the lungs
Structure: has tiny cytoplasmic hair-like extensions called cilia which are in
a continuous flicking motion to beat the mucus and trapped particles up
to the throat
Nerve cells
Function: conduct nerve impulses to and from the brain and spinal cord
Structures:
They are long, which allows them to run to and from different parts of
the body e.g., end of a leg, to the CNS e.g., base of the spinal cord
They have branched ends, allowing it to communicate with other
nerve cells, muscles and glands
The axon is covered with a fatty layer, the mylein sheath, which
insulates the nerve cell and speeds up impulse transmission
Sperm and egg cells
Function: fuse together in fertilisation, combining the genetic material of
the two parents
Sperm cell
Structures:
Head contains the genetic material for fertilisation in a haploid
nucleus(containing half the number of chromosomes)
The acrosome in the head contains digestive enzymes so that the
sperm can penetrate the egg by digesting its outer layer
The mid-piece is packed with mitochondria to release energy needed
to swim and fertilise the egg
It has a tail which moves with a whip-like action, enabling the sperm to
swim
Egg cell/ Ovum
Haploid nucleus contains genetic information
A lot of cytoplasm which contains yolk droplets made of protein and
fat to fertilise the early embryo
Cell membrane hardens after fertilisation so that no more sperm can
enter
Palisade mesophyll cell
Function: photosynthesis
Structures:
Column-shaped, which allows them to maximise absorption of
sunlight and fit as many in a layer under the upper epidermis of the
leaf as possible
Contains many chloroplasts for maximum absorption of light energy
Root hair cell
Function: absorb water and mineral. ions
Structures:
Root hair penetrates soil particles and increases surface area for
absorption
Thin walls increases rate of absorption
Cell membrance can control which substances enter and leave the cell
No chloroplasts makes space for other cell contents
Mitochondria to release energy for active transport
Xylem vessel
Function: conduction of water through the plant + support the plant
Structures:
No top and bottom walls between xylem vessels so there is a
continuous column of water running through them
Cells are dead, with no organelles or cytoplasm to allow free passage
of water
Walls are thickened with lignin to help it support the plant
Levels of organisation
1. Cells: basic structural, functional and biological unit of all known
organisms that can replicate independently
2. Tissues: group of cells with similar structures, working together to
perform a shared function e.g., muscle tissue contracts to cause
movement, xylem carries water in a plant. Skin tissue, nerve tissue.
3. Organs: group of tissues working together to perform a specific
function e.g., stomach is made of epithelial cells, gland cells and
muscle cells
4. Organ system: a group of organs with related functions working
together to perform a body function e.g., stem, leaves and buds form
the shoot; heart and blood vessels make the circulatory system
5. Organism: organs and systems working together to produce a
healthy, living individual e.g., plant or animal
Examples:
Organ systems: organs
1. Shoot system: stem, leaves, flower and fruit
2. Root system: root and tuber
3. Digestive system: oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine
4. Immune system: thymus, spleen
5. Respiratory system: trachea, bronchi, lungs
6. Excretory system: liver, kidney, uterus, lungs, skin
7. Nervous system: brain, spinal cord
Tissues:
1. Epidermis: dermal tissue
2. Xylem and phloem: vascular tissue
3. Palisade and spongy mesophyll cells OR cortex and pith: ground tisse
4. Humans: muscle, connective, epithelial, nerve
Actual size= Image size/ Magnification
Magnified x100 to see cells clearly
