Lecture 3

Differentiating Vector Functions of a Single

Variable

It should be no great surprise that we often wish differentiate vector functions. For
example, suppose you were driving along a wiggly road with position r(t) at time t.
Differentiating r(t) wrt time should yield your velocity v(t), and differentiating v(t)
should yield your acceleration. Let’s see how to do this.

3.1 Differentiation of a vector

The derivative of a vector function a(p) of a single parameter p is
da a(p + δp) − a(p)
= lim . (3.1)
dp δp→0 δp
If we write a in terms of components relative to a FIXED coordinate system (ı̂,̂, k̂
constant)
a(p) = a1 (p)ı̂ + a2 (p)̂ + a3 (p)k̂ (3.2)
then
da da1 da2 da3
= ı̂ + ̂ + k̂ . (3.3)
dp dp dp dp
That is, in order to differentiate a vector function, one simply differentiates each com-
ponent separately.
For example, suppose r(t) is the position vector of an object moving w.r.t. the orgin.
r(t) = x(t)ı̂ + y (t)̂ + z(t)k̂ (3.4)
Then the instantaneous velocity is
dr dx dy dz
v(t) = = ı̂ + ̂ + k̂ (3.5)
dt dt dt dt
1
3/2 LECTURE 3. DIFFERENTIATING VECTOR FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

and the acceleration is

dv d 2r
a(t) = = 2 . (3.6)
dt dt
It also follows that all the familiar rules of differentiation apply, and they don’t get
altered by vector operations like scalar product and vector products. Thus, for example:
d da db d da db
(a × b) = ×b+a× (a · b) = ·b+a· . (3.7)
dp dp dp dp dp dp
Note that da/dp has a different direction and a different magnitude from a.
Likewise, as you might expect, the chain rule still applies. If a = a(u) and u = u(t),
say:
d da du
a= (3.8)
dt du dt
♣ Example #1
Q: The position of a vehicle is r(u) where u is the amount of fuel consumed by some
time t. Work out an expression for the acceleration.
A: The velocity is
dr dr du
v= = (3.9)
dt du dt
 2
d dr d 2 r du dr d 2 u
a= = + (3.10)
dt dt du 2 dt du dt 2
♣ Example #2
Q: A 3D vector a of constant magnitude is varying over time. What can you say about
the direction of ȧ?
A: Using intuition: if only the direction is changing, then the vector must be tracing out
points on the surface of a sphere. We would guess that the derivative ȧ is orthogonal
to a.
To prove this write
d da da da
(a · a) = a · + · a = 2a · . (3.11)
dt dt dt dt
But (a · a) = a2 which we are told is constant. So
d da
(a · a) = 0 ⇒ 2a · =0 (3.12)
dt dt
and hence a and da/dt must be perpendicular.
3.2. INTEGRATION OF A VECTOR FUNCTION 3/3

3.2 Integration of a vector function

As with scalars, integration of a vector function of a single scalar variable is the reverse
of differentiation. That is,
Z p2  
da(p)
dp = a(p2 ) − a(p1 ) (3.13)
p1 dp
Eg from dynamics
Z t2
a dt = v(t2 ) − v(t1 ) (3.14)
t1

However, other types of integral are possible, especially when the vector is a function
of more than one variable. This requires the introduction of the concepts of scalar and
vector fields. See lecture 4!

3.3 Space curves and derivatives

A “space curve” is simply a curve in 3D. We will assume that each point on the curve
has a different position vector r. Now suppose r is parameterized by p, so that by
varying p we trace out the complete curve r(p).

δr

r (p)
r (p + δ p)

Figure 3.1: δr is a secant to the curve but, in the limit as δp → 0, becomes a tangent.

Referring to Fig. 3.1, we can write

r(p + δp) = r(p) + δr . (3.15)
The small vector δr is obviously a secant to the curve, and δr/δp points in the same
direction. It must do — we are just dividing a little vector by a little scalar.
In the limit as δp tends to zero
δr dr
lim → (3.16)
δp→0 δp dp
3/4 LECTURE 3. DIFFERENTIATING VECTOR FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

a quantity which must be a tangent to the space curve. Note however that using a
general parameter p there is nothing special about the magnitude of the tangent.
Fig. 3.2 shows just three of the infinity of ways of parametrizing the curve.

0.4 2
0.6 2
1.0 3
3 10
0.8 5
0.2 4 1 4
5

p=0 p=1 s=0

Figure 3.2: Different parametrizations describe the same curve. Arc-length s is special as it measures
actual distance along the curve.

There is however one special parametrization, and that is when p measures arc-length.
Usually denoted by s, the difference in arc-length s between two points on the curve is
the actual distance travelled along the curve. But for infinitesimally small movements,
ds = |dr|, so that dr/ds must be of unit length.
We conclude that
If a curve r(s) is parametrized by the arc length s
dr/ds is everywhere a UNIT tangent to the curve.

More generally, however, p will not be arc-length. But the chain rule tells us that:
dr dr ds
= (3.17)
dp ds dp

So, the direction of the derivative is that of a tangent to the curve, and its magnitude
is |ds/dp|, the rate of change of arc length w.r.t the parameter.
An interesting case is when p is time t
dr dr ds
= (3.18)
dt ds dt
So the vector velocity along the curve is the unit tangent times the scalar speed ds/dt.
3.3. SPACE CURVES AND DERIVATIVES 3/5

δr δr

r (s) r (t)
r (s + δ s) r (t + δ t)

dr
ds
1 dr ds
SPEED
dt dt

Figure 3.3:

♣ Example
Q: Draw the curve
s s hs
r = a cos( √ )ı̂ + a sin( √ )̂ + √ k̂ (3.19)
a2 + h 2 a2 + h 2 a2 + h 2
where s is arc length and h, a are constants. Show that the tangent dr/ds to the
curve has a constant elevation angle w.r.t the xy -plane, and determine its magnitude.
A:
dr a a h
= −√ 2 sin ()ı̂ + √ cos ()̂ + √ k̂ (3.20)
ds a + h2 a2 + h 2 a2 + h 2
√
The
√ projection on the xy plane has magnitude a/ a2 + h2 and in the z direction
h/ a2 + h2 , so the elevation angle is a constant, tan−1 (h/a).

z Length
2 2
dr h/ a + h
ds

x y
2 2
Length a/ a + h

Figure 3.4:

We are expecting dr/ds = 1, and indeed

q p
2
a sin () + a cos () + h / a2 + h2 = 1.
2 2 2 2 (3.21)
3/6 LECTURE 3. DIFFERENTIATING VECTOR FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

The example used components, and it is worth stressing that the position vector r in
Cartesian coordinates is
r = xı̂ + y̂ + z k̂ or using the parameter r(p) = x(p)ı̂ + y (p)̂ + z(p)k̂ . (3.22)

It follows that
dr = dxı̂ + dy̂ + dz k̂ . (3.23)
But we have already noted that ds = |dr|, hence it follows that
ds 2 = dx 2 + dy 2 + dz 2 . (3.24)
This is akin to applying Pythagoras’ theorem to a infinitesimal section of curve.

z y δx δz

δy δs

x
Figure 3.5:

So if a curve is parameterized in terms of p

s
ds dx 2 dy 2 dz 2
= + + , (3.25)
dp dp dp dp
which will be unity if and only if p = s.
If one can work out ds/dp one can easily find the relationship between s and p by
integration. As an example, suppose in our earlier example we had parameterized the
helix as r = a cos pı̂ + a sin p̂ + hp k̂. Then
s
ds dx 2 dy 2 dz 2
= + + (3.26)
dp dp dp dp
q p
= a2 sin2 p + a2 cos2 p + h2 = a2 + h2

Integrating we see immediately that

p
p = s/ a2 + h2 . (3.27)
3.4. THE FRÉNET-SERRET RELATIONSHIPS 3/7

3.4 The Frénet-Serret relationships

We now know that we can specify points on a non-planar or space curve using distance
or arc-length s along the wire.
We are now going to introduce a local orthogonal coordinate frame for each point s
along the curve, ie one with its origin at r(s). To specify a coordinate frame we need
three mutually perpendicular directions, and these should be intrinsic to the curve, not
fixed in an external reference frame. The ideas were first suggested by two French
mathematicians, F-J. Frénet and J. A. Serret.

t dt
ds
O r (s) s increasing
Figure 3.6:

1. Tangent t̂
There is an obvious choice for the first direction at the point r(s), namely the unit
tangent t̂. We already know that
dr(s)
t̂ = (3.28)
ds
2. Principal Normal n̂
Recall that earlier we proved that if a was a vector of constant magnitude that
varies in direction over time then da/dt was perpendicular to it. Because t̂ has
constant magnitude but varies over s, d t̂/ds must be perpendicular to t̂.
Hence the principal normal n̂ is
d t̂
= κn̂ : where κ ≥ 0 . (3.29)
ds
κ is the curvature, and κ = 0 for a straight line. The plane containing t̂ and n̂ is
called the osculating plane.
3/8 LECTURE 3. DIFFERENTIATING VECTOR FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

3. The Binormal b̂
The local coordinate frame is completed by defining the binormal
b̂(s) = t̂(s) × n̂(s) . (3.30)

Since b̂ · t̂ = 0,
d b̂ d t̂ d b̂
· t̂ + b̂ · = · t̂ + b̂ · κn̂ = 0 (3.31)
ds ds ds
from which
d b̂
· t̂ = 0. (3.32)
ds
But this means that d b̂/ds is along the direction of n̂, or
d b̂
= −τ (s)n̂(s) (3.33)
ds
where τ is the torsion, and the negative sign is a matter of convention.
Differentiating n̂ · t̂ = 0 and n̂ · b̂ = 0, we find
d n̂
= −κ(s)t̂(s) + τ (s)b̂(s). (3.34)
ds
We now have all three of
The Frénet-Serret relationships:
d t̂/ds = κn̂ (3.35)
d n̂/ds = −κ(s)t̂(s) + τ (s)b̂(s) (3.36)
d b̂/ds = −τ (s)n̂(s) (3.37)

♣ Example
Q Derive κ(s) and τ (s) for the helix
     
s s s p
r(s) = a cos ı̂ + a sin ̂ + h k̂; β = a2 + h2 (3.38)
β β β
and comment on their values.
A We found the unit tangent earlier as
     
dr a s a s h
t̂ = = − sin , cos , . (3.39)
ds β β β β β
3.5. DERIVATIVE (EG VELOCITY) COMPONENTS IN PLANE POLARS 3/9

Differentiation gives
     
d t̂ a s a s
κn̂ = = − 2 cos , − 2 sin , 0 (3.40)
ds β β β β
Curvature is always positive, so
     
a s s
κ= 2 n̂ = − cos , − sin , 0 . (3.41)
β β β
So the curvature is constant, and the normal is parallel to the xy -plane.
Now use
ı̂ ̂ k̂      
h s h s a
b̂ = t̂ × n̂ = (−a/β)S (a/β)C (h/β) = sin , − cos ,
β β β β β
−C −S 0
(3.42)
and differentiate b̂ to find an expression for the torsion
     
d b̂ h s h s −h
= cos , sin , 0 = n̂ (3.43)
ds β2 β β2 β β2
so the torsion is
h
τ= 2 (3.44)
β
again a constant.

3.5 Derivative (eg velocity) components in plane polars

In plane polar coordinates, the radius vector of any
point P is given by
r = r cos θı̂ + r sin θ̂ (3.45)
θ̂
= rr̂ (3.46)
r̂
where we have introduced the unit radial vector
P
r̂ = cos θı̂ + sin θ̂ . (3.47) ̂ r
θ
The other “natural” (we’ll see why in a later lecture)
unit vector in plane polars is orthogonal to r̂ and is ı̂
θ̂ = − sin θı̂ + cos θ̂ (3.48)

so that r̂ · r̂ = θ̂ · θ̂ = 1 and r̂ · θ̂ = 0.
3/10 LECTURE 3. DIFFERENTIATING VECTOR FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

Now suppose P is moving so that r is a function of time t. Its velocity is

d dr dr̂
ṙ = (rr̂) = r̂ + r (3.49)
dt dt dt
dr dθ
= r̂ + r (− sin θı̂ + cos θ̂)
dt dt
dr dθ
= r̂ + r θ̂
dt dt
= radial + tangential

The radial and tangential components of velocity of P are therefore dr /dt and r dθ/dt,
respectively.
Differentiating a second time gives the acceleration of P

d 2r dr dθ dr dθ d 2θ dθ dθ
r̈ = 2
r̂ + θ̂ + θ̂ + r 2 θ̂ − r r̂ (3.50)
dt
" dt dt dt dt dt dt dt
 2 #
d 2r d 2θ
 
dθ dr dθ
= −r r̂ + 2 + r 2 θ̂
dt 2 dt dt dt dt

Three obvious cases are:

d 2r
θ const: r̈ = r̂ (3.51)
dt 2
 2
dθ d 2θ
r const: r̈ = −r r̂ + r 2 θ̂
dt dt
 2
dθ
r and dθ/dt const: r̈ = −r r̂ (3.52)
dt
3.6. ROTATING SYSTEMS 3/11

3.6 Rotating systems

Consider a body which is rotating with constant angular velocity ω about some axis
passing through the origin. Assume the origin is fixed, and that we are sitting in a fixed
coordinate system Oxy z.
If ρ is a vector of constant magnitude and constant direction in the rotating system,
then it must be a function of t in the fixed system.
At any instant as observed in the fixed system
ω
dρ
= ω × ρ(t). (3.53)
dt
Note that: dρ/dt
– will have fixed magnitude,
ρ
– will always be perpendicular to the axis of rotation
– will vary in direction within those constraints.
The point ρ(t) will move in a plane in the fixed system.

3.6.1 Rotation: Part 2

Now consider a set of mutually orthogonal unit vectors l̂, m̂, n̂ attached to the rotating
system. In the fixed frame, each of l̂, m̂, and n̂ has a time dependence:

d l̂ d m̂ d n̂
= ω × l̂ = ω × m̂ = ω × n̂ (3.54)
dt dt dt

Note (1) that the angular velocity vector ω points in the same direction as the axis of
rotation, and is fixed both with respect to the rotating frame and the fixed frame.
Note (2) that since each of d l̂/dt, d m̂/dt, d n̂/dt is perpendicular to ω they must be
coplanar.
Let ρ = ρ1 l̂ + ρ2 m̂ + ρ3 n̂ be a constant vector in the rotating frame, so that ρ1,2,3 are
constant. Its rate of change in fixed frame is
ω
n
dρ
= ω×ρ (3.55)
dt
= ρ1 (ω × l̂) + ρ2 (ω × m̂) + ρ3 (ω × n̂) m l
d l̂ d m̂ d n̂
= ρ1 + ρ2 + ρ3
dt dt dt
3/12 LECTURE 3. DIFFERENTIATING VECTOR FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

So, as expected, its time dependence derives from the time dependence of l̂(t),m̂(t),
n̂(t), and not from its coefficients with respect to this basis set, which were constants.

3.6.2 Rotation: Part 3

Now suppose ρ is the position vector of a point P which moves in the rotating frame.
It will have two contributions to motion with respect to the fixed frame, one due to it
motion within the rotating frame, and one due to the rotation itself.
Let ρ be defined in a rotating coordinate frame which is, instantaneously, aligned with
the fixed coord system. So at time t, and only at time t, r = ρ.
Over a period δt, at time t, the compo-
nent of the motion in the fixed frame due
to rotation is
P at t+ δ t
(ω × ρ)δt = (ω × r)δt . (3.56)
δρ δr
If the component of “independent” motion ω
P at t
in the rotating frame is δρ, then the overall
movement in time δt is (ω r) δt

δr = δρ + (ω × r)δt . (3.57) r= ρ at t
k,n
So the instantaneous velocity in the fixed j,m
frame is i,l

dr Dρ
= + ω×r (3.58)
dt Dt
NB! The capital D’s are used to indicate differentiation in the rotating frame.

3.6.3 Rotation 4: Instantaneous acceleration

Our previous result is a general one relating the time derivatives of any vector in
rotating and non-rotating frames. Because the frames are instantaneously aligned at
t, any vector in the fixed frame has the same value in the rotating frame — just as
r = ρ.
So, using operator notation,
    
D D Dρ
r̈ = + ω× ṙ = + ω× +ω×r (3.59)
Dt Dt Dt
3.6. ROTATING SYSTEMS 3/13

The instantaneous acceleration is therefore

D2ρ Dρ
r̈ = + 2ω × + ω × (ω × r) (3.60)
Dt 2 Dt

• The first term is the acceleration of the point P in the rotating frame measured
in the rotating frame.

• The last term is the centripetal acceleration to due to the rotation. (Yes! Its
magnitude is ω 2 r and its direction is that of −r. Check it out.)
• The middle term is an extra term which arises because of the velocity of P in the
rotating frame. It is known as the Coriolis acceleration, named after the French
engineer who first identified it.

Because of the rotation of the earth, the Coriolis acceleration is of great importance
in meteorology and accounts for the occurrence of high pressure anti-cyclones and
low pressure cyclones in the northern hemisphere, in which the Coriolis acceleration
is produced by a pressure gradient. It is also a very important component of the
acceleration (hence the force exerted) by a rapidly moving robot arm, whose links whirl
rapidly about rotary joints.

♣ Example
Q: Find the instantaneous acceleration of a projectile fired along a line of longitude
(with angular velocity of γ constant relative to the sphere) if the sphere is rotating
with angular velocity ω.

A: In the rotating frame

Dρ D2ρ Dρ
=γ×ρ and = γ × = γ × (γ × ρ) (3.61)
Dt Dt 2 Dt
So the in the fixed reference frame

r̈ = γ × (γ × r) + 2ω × (γ × r) + ω × (ω × r) . (3.62)

The first term is the centripetal acceleration due to the projectile moving around the
sphere — which it does because of the gravitational force. The last term is the cen-
tripetal acceleration resulting from the rotation of the sphere. The middle term is the
Coriolis acceleration.
3/14 LECTURE 3. DIFFERENTIATING VECTOR FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

Figure 3.7: Coriolis example.

Using Fig. 3.7, at some instant t let

r = ρ(t) = R cos(γt)m̂ + R sin(γt)n̂ (3.63)

Then

γ × (γ × r) = (γ · r)γ − γ 2 r = −γ 2 r , (3.64)

as γ = γ l̂. Check the direction — the negative sign means it points towards the centre
of the sphere, which is as expected. Likewise the last term can be obtained as

ω × (ω × r) = −ω 2 R sin(γt)n̂ (3.65)

Note that it is perpendicular to the axis of rotation m̂, and because of the minus sign,
directed towards the axis)
The Coriolis term is derived as:
     
0 γ 0
Dρ
2ω × = 2 ω  ×  0  × R cos γt  (3.66)
Dt
0 0 R sin γt
= 2ωγR cos γt l̂ (3.67)

Now consider a rocket on rails which stretch north from the equator. As the rocket
travels north it experiences the Coriolis force (exerted by the rails):
3.6. ROTATING SYSTEMS 3/15

2 γ ω R cos γt l̂
+ve -ve +ve +ve
Hence the coriolis force is in the direction opposed to l̂ (i.e. in the opposite direction to
the earth’s rotation). In the absence of the rails (or atmosphere) the rocket’s tangetial
speed (relative to the surface of the earth) is greater than the speed of the surface of
the earth underneath it (since the radius of successive lines of latitude decreases) so it
would (to an observer on the earth) appear to deflect to the east. The rails provide a
coriolis force keeping it on the same meridian.
Rocket’s velocity in direction of meridian
Tangential velocity of earth’s surface

Tangential component of velocity

(NB instantaneously common to earth’s surface and rocket)

Figure 3.8: Rocket example

Revised December 1, 2015