Chapter 1 Rocks and minerals and their exploitation

Formation of rocks 1.1

Igneous rocks: Formed when magma from the crust and upper mantle cool. Magma is lava
when it reaches the surface.
A reduction of heat and pressure leads to the formation of crystals.
EX: Granite

Sedimentary rocks: Formed from material derived from the weathering of other rocks or the
accumulation of dead plants and animals.
Clay
Silts
Sands
EX: Limestone

Metamorphic rocks: Formed from existing rocks changed chemically or physically by heat /
pressure.
Usually harder than sedimentary rocks.
EX: Marble

Rock cycle: Changes between the three types of rocks and the processes causing them.

Extraction of rocks and minerals from the Earth 1.2

Searching for minerals:

Prospecting looking carefully at the surface rocks.
Remote sensing methods information about the earth’s surface is gathered from
above.
Geomechanical analysis chemicals in the samples can be identified.
Geophysics series of vibrations (seismic waves) are sent to the surface creating
shock waves that record different patterns depending on what minerals are present.

Methods of extraction
Surface mining: Open-pit / Open-cast / Open-cut / Strip mining
Used when the targeted deposit is exposed / near the surface or overlain by a thick layer of
worthless material. (overburden) This layer is removed and stored nearby for the later mine
restoration.

Dug in sections called benches, their walls are kept at an angle to reduce rock fall
risks.
Building materials are extracted, sand, gravel and stone.

Reasons why they eventually stop being worked:

●​ As much deposit as possible has been removed.
●​ Amount of overburden has increased so that the mine is no longer profitable.

Strip mining is mainly used to mine coal near the surface, their machines can move
thousands of tons of materials every hour.

Subsurface mining: Tunnels are dug into the ground to reach mineral deposits that are too
deep to remove by surface mining. Sometimes horizontal tunnels are dug directly to the coal
seam (drift mine entered by an adit).

More expensive and challenging.

Water and air has to be provided for the workers in the mine.
Dangers of collapsing tunnels, risk of poisonous gas, explosion and underground fire.

Factors affecting the viability of extraction of minerals:

Costs of exploration and extraction
Geology
Climate
Accesibility
Environmental impact
Supply and demand

Impact of rock and mineral exploitation 1.3

Environmental impacts:

●​ Habitat destruction. Due to vegetation getting cleared, this leads to loss of food and
shelter for some animals.

●​ Pollution
Noise: Large machines moving the overburden, the noise may disturb the animals in
the area and cause health effects on people.

Water: Drinking water supplies may be affected by drainage from the mines. Water
and exposed rocks and mine waste can make the water become acidic.
Biomagnification (death of top consumers)

Visual: Damage on the landscape (can be restored quickly)

 Dust: Impact on human lungs and also on plant photosynthesis due to it covering
them without letting sunlight penetrate the leaves. Harmful substances can also be
skin absorbed.

Environmental impact assessment: Measures the environmental risks and effects, also,
accordate matters to do the least damage possible.

Economical impacts:

Mineral activity benefits the local area by providing employment, in extraction, transport and
equipment suppliers.

Managing the impact of rock and mineral extraction 1.4

Safe disposal of mining waste: Must prevent the possibility of water pollution.

Land restoration and bioremediation:

●​ Mine waste can be reshaped to blend in with surrounding landforms.
●​ Waste can be covered by a soil layer.
●​ Contaminated waste can be treated by bioremediation (living things remove the toxic
chemicals).
●​ Area turned into a natural reserve.
●​ Form a water reservoir in the holes.

Sustainable use of rocks and minerals 1.5

Efficiency of extraction:
Mine wastes were processed for a second time.
Chemical / Biological treatment of the waste extracts valuable minerals within waste.
Improvements on the performance of machines. (better use of data analysis)

Efficiency of use and recycling:

Recycle electronic waste.
Making more durable products.

Chapter 2 Energy and the environment

Fossil fuels 2.1
Coal
Oil
Natural gas
●​ Produced from the decay of plants and animals covered in layers of sediment, buried
deep underground subjected to heat and pressure.

Energy resources 2.2

Reasons why demand for energy increases:
●​ Increasing population
●​ Industrialisation / urbanisation
●​ Living standards being higher

Types of energy resources:

Non-renewable: Limited amount.
Renewable: Never runs out.
Non - renewable sources Renewable sources

Coal Hydroelectric power

Oil Wave power

Natural gas Tidal power

Nuclear power Solar power

Wind power

Geothermal power

Biofuels

Advantages and disadvantages of different fuel types:

Fuel Type Advantages Disadvantages

Fossil fuels (oil, coal, natural ●​ Plentiful supply. ●​ Carbon dioxide and
gas) ●​ Extraction provides toxic gasses when
jobs. burnt (climate
●​ Available for most change).
countries. ●​ Extraction causes
damage to the local
area.
●​ Limited supply.

Nuclear power ●​ Does not produce ●​ Radiation leakage

carbon dioxide. may happen.
●​ Large amounts of ●​ Waste cannot be
energy with little fuel. recycled.
●​ Employment in ●​ Limited supply.
power plants.
 Fuel type Advantages Disadvantages

Biofuels ●​ Renewable source. ●​ Carbon dioxide and

toxic gasses when
burnt.
●​ Lots of land is
needed.
●​ Potential removal of
natural ecosystems
to grow fuel crops.

Geothermal power ●​ Does not produce ●​ Expensive to install.

carbon dioxide. ●​ Only applicable in
certain areas.

Hydroelectric power ●​ Does not produce ●​ Dams impact the

carbon dioxide. natural water flow.
●​ Water can be ●​ Villages /
reused. ecosystems being
destroyed by the
dams.

Tidal power ●​ Does not produce ●​ Impacts tourism and

carbon dioxide. fishing areas.
●​ Does not depend on
weather conditions.

Wave power ●​ Does not produce ●​ Not very efficient

carbon dioxide. (large amounts of
●​ Renewable. resources needed).

Solar power ●​ Renewable. ●​ Depends on weather

●​ No carbon dioxide. conditions.
●​ Expensive to install
and much space
needed.

Wind power ●​ Renewable. ●​ Large area.

●​ No carbon dioxide. ●​ Only at high wind
speeds.

The demand for energy 2.3

Industrial demand: Manufacturing requires large amounts of energy and increase in

demand of manufactured products leads to a greater production of them.

Domestic demand: Efficient manufacturing has made products more accessible and so it
has increased demand. (new necessities and higher living standards).

Transport demand

Economic factors: Demand for domestic energy depends on the income (a lower income
country will result on less demand for energy).
Climate: Extreme weather conditions result in more usage of heating and cooling systems.

Conservation and management of energy resources 2.4

Strategies for effective energy use:

●​ Insulation: Heat from the house is prevented from escaping by an insulation layer
between the two walls (less energy is used for replacing the heat).
In windows, double glazed with a gap in the middle filled with a clear material.

●​ Electrical devices getting turned off when not in use.

●​ More energy efficient devices (such as LED light bulbs).

Energy from waste: Reusing existing materials to extract energy from them before being
thrown away. (Rubbish can be burnt to produce heat, which can be used to generate
electricity).

Education: Conscientize about the proper use of energy.

The use of renewable energy.

Transport policies:
Improving the quality of public transport systems and encouraging their use.
Regulations regarding the quality of exhaust gasses from vehicles.
Increasing tax prices for cars.

Development of new resources:

●​ Fracking: A vertical hole is drilled to reach rich-fuel rocks, water, chemicals and sand
are pumped into the rock layer under pressure. This causes rocks to fracture
releasing oil and natural gas.

PROS CONS

Supply jobs locally. The mixture of chemicals used is toxic.

Allows access to more oil and gas, Noise pollution.

which are in limited supply.

Gas and oil produce less pollution than Natural areas will be destroyed with the
burning coal. drills.

Impact of oil pollution 2.5

The world is very reliant on oil. Why??

 ●​ Easy to store and transport.
●​ Easier to extract than solid materials.
●​ Less pollution than coal when burnt.

Oil spills
Causes:
●​ Offshore extraction with leakages from the rigs.
●​ Pipelines with leaks.
●​ Shipping / transporting oil, with the risk of damage of tankers.

How does an oil spill damage the marine ecosystem?

The absence of affected animals has a potential impact on the food chain of marine species
resulting in food shortages.

The extinction of a species.

Impact on the local economy of the affected coastal areas (reduction of touristic activities
and shortages of fish for consumption and fishers).

Chapter 3 Agriculture and the environment

Soil 3.1
Soil is a habitat for plants and animals that grow within it
Made of:
Mineral particles
Organic content (combination of living organisms and their dead remains).
Air
Water

These components come from weathering and erosion (Rocks broken down into smaller
particles / The movement of rock and soil).

Size of particles in soil divides it into three types:

Type Texture Characteristics

Sand Gritty Large pore sizes / Large air

spaces.
Drains well.

Silt Silky / Soapy Less friction than sand.

Particles are slippery.

Clay Sticky Particles held tightly.

Poor drainage.
Soils for plant growth 3.2

Factors required to grow plants properly:

 ●​ Availability of nutrients and minerals.
●​ Water supply
●​ Oxygen around the roots for cell respiration.

Three major nutrients needed by plants:

Nitrogen
Phosphorus
K Potassium

Soil PH. Why is it important??

The PH measures the availability of nutrients in the soil by determining if it's alkaline or
acidic.

Acidic: Lower than 7

Neutral: 7
Alkaline: Higher than 7

Mineral deficiency effects on plants:

Nutrient Symptoms of deficiency

Nitrogen Slow growth and yellowish leaves.

Phosphorus Leaves with a blueish color and early fall of

them.

Potassium Poor quality fruits and seeds and leaves

with brown edges.

Soil organic content:

●​ Increase water holding capacity.
●​ Increase air spaces in the soil.
●​ Increase the number of decomposer organisms.
●​ Prevent loss of mineral nutrients.

The ideal soil is a mixture of sand, silt and clay: Loam,

High quantity of organic matter and neutral pH.

Agriculture 3.3

Depends on:
Climate
Culture
Tech
Economics

Types of agriculture

Subsistance / Commercial:
 ●​ Subsistence: Cultivation and production of food with the aim of meeting the needs of
the farmers and their families (no selling).
●​ Commercial: Cultivation of products with the purpose of selling them for cash.

Arable / Pastoral:

●​ Arable farming: Production of crops from the cultivation of the land.

●​ Pastoral farming: Production that involves breeding and rearing livestock (animal
related products).
●​ Mixed: Practices both.

Extensive / Intensive:

●​ Extensive: Small production on a large area of land.

●​ Intensive: Large amounts of production within a small area of land. Tending to have
high inputs (Lots of labor, fertilizers and machinery). Although yields are high, costs
of production are as well.

Increasing agricultural yields 3.4

Global population increases and so does the demand for food. This generates pressure on
food production:

●​ Increasing settlement sizes (less farmland due to urbanization).

●​ Increases living standards (demand for food variety).
●​ Larger populations impact on the availability of water for irrigation.

Techniques for improving crop yield:

Crop rotation: Changing the site of crops within seasons in a strategic sequence, so that
crops complement each other with the nutrients needed.

Advantages of moving crops within seasons:

●​ Diseases in the soil are left behind.
●​ Pests need to find a new site.
●​ Soil in the new plot is most likely to have the nutrients needed.
●​ Lowers the need to use fertilizers.

Fertilizers:
Contain minerals (NPK), when it's used correctly it can increase crop yield. Whereas when
used incorrectly it can cause serious damage to the environment.

Organic / Inorganic:
 ●​ Organic: Substances derived from natural sources (living sources). Ex: Manure and
compost.
●​ Inorganic: Manufactured, formulated to provide a precise amount of each nutrient.

Fertilizer type Advantages Disadvantages

Organic ●​ Natural resources. ●​ Unpleasant to

●​ Supply organic handle.
matter that improves ●​ Harder to transport.
the soil. ●​ Variable in
composition.

Inorganic ●​ Manufactured to ●​ Cost of manufacture.

meet a particular ●​ Transportation costs.
need of each plant.
●​ Easier to store.

Fertilizers provide an additional supply of essential nutrients to help plants build protein and
develop effectively.

Applying fertilizers correctly:

●​ If a fertilizer can dissolve easily it shouldn't be applied in a heavy rain season as it

can be washed away.
●​ Fertilizers should only be applied after testing if the crop needs it, otherwise it will not
be absorbed and eventually washed away.

Irrigation:
Adding water to plants artificially.

●​ Water is essential for cell activity and photosynthesis. Lack of it may cause
photosynthesis cease leading to plant growth being slowed down.

Common water application methods:

Overhead irrigation (sprinklers)

Advantages Disadvantages

Easy to set up. Small droplets can be blown by wind.

A large area is covered by a single Water on the leaves and soil surface can be
sprinkler. evaporated before reaching the roots.

No need to attach pipes or equipment to Not very precise.

each plant.
Clay pot irrigation
 Advantages Disadvantages

Simple technology. Large labor costs.

Easy to measure the amount of water Only suitable for large and more permanent
provided. plants.

Little surface evaporation.

Drip irrigation (localized)

Advantages Disadvantages

Water goes directly to the base of the plant. Expensive to install and maintain.

System can be controlled via computer. Inflexible (cannot be moved easily).

Water is used efficiently.

Flood irrigation
Advantages Disadvantages

Inexpensive. Inefficient use of water.

Covers large areas quickly. Damages soil structure.

●​ Plant growth can be stopped by other organisms that feed on it and weaken it.

Weeds: A plant growing in an inappropriate place, taking up the space and nutrients
needed for the actual crop.
●​ They may be poisonous.
●​ Compete with crops for water, nutrients and light.
●​ Can block drainage systems.
They can be controlled using herbicides (chemical). It has a liquid format via
sprayers or granules.

Pests: An animal that attacks or feeds from the crop.

They can be controlled by pesticides / insecticides (chemicals that kill
pests, insects and diseases).

Diseases: Caused by pathogens (bacteria, fungi and viruses).

Chemicals used to treat all of these can affect other organisms in the area, potentially
affecting food webs, they can also be poisonous for farmers, lastly, if chemical
residues remain in the crops, they can pose safety concerns.

Alternatives for chemical control:

 Biological control: Applying predators that feed from the pest and control the
infestation.
Pros
●​ No chemical residues on the crop.
●​ No impact of sprays in surrounding areas.
●​ No need of reapplication because they naturally reproduce new predators.

Cons
●​ Not instant as chemical control.
●​ The predator might not stay in the crop.
●​ The pest may breed faster than the predator.

Alternatives to herbicides:

●​ Cultural controls: Removing individual weeds (lots of labor).

●​ Weed barriers: Black plastic sheets covering the ground.
●​ Flame guns: Paraffin (flammable liquid) is used to scrotch off the top of the weeds
and kill its seeds.

Why do farmers prefer to use herbicides???

Easier to manage and the weed can be controlled over a longer season.
Alternatives are less effective.
Cheaper.

Efficiency gains through mechanization: Machines have the capacity to transport large
loads and to replace the farmer in certain tasks.

Selective breeding is a method used to improve the quality of livestock and crops.
Consists on:
●​ Identify the wanted characteristics of the species
●​ Chose the parents that exhibit these characteristics
●​ Raise the offspring
●​ Select the best offspring
●​ Repeat

However, combining the existing characteristics of parents and selecting the best offspring
for future crosses is a slow process and has a slow success rate.

Genetic modification: Can produce faster results, consisting of the alteration of the DNA of
species through genetic engineering. Adding a piece of DNA from one organism to another.
GMO (Genetically modified organism).

Pros:
●​ Disease and pest resistance (genes from a resistant plant can be added).
●​ Less use of pesticides.
●​ Higher yields.
Cons:
 ●​ Unknown impacts on human health.
●​ Products are not natural.

Controlling the crop environment:

●​ Providing shade for cattle.
●​ Windbreakers at the edge of crops.
●​ Removing trees that shade crops.

Greenhouse: Building made of glass or another transparent material to manage the

environment in which a crop grows. In this way, sunlight passes through the material and
heat is trapped.

Hydroponics: Growing plants without soil, with the nutrients needed dissolved in water.

Pros:
●​ There is no need for soil.
●​ Can be applied anywhere.
●​ Easy to harvest.
●​ Water is recycled and used efficiently.
Cons:
●​ Only suitable for small production areas.
●​ Requires much technical knowledge.
●​ Disease (if present) spreads rapidly.
●​ Plants die quickly if conditions are not optimum.

The impact of agriculture on people and the environment 3.5

Overuse of insecticides / pesticides:

●​ Can cause resistance within the pest population (the ability to survive even exposed
to the toxic chemical).
●​ Unintended environmental damage, killing beneficial insects like bees.
●​ Heavy rainfall can cause leaching of herbicides and insecticides into water bodies.

Misuse of fertilizers:
Fertilizers getting washed into water bodies can cause high amounts of nitrogen and
phosphorus, leading to eutrophication, which is a reduction of oxygen and sunlight in the
water body resulting in death of fish and other animals.

Misuse of irrigation: Too much irrigation can have impacts on the soil.

●​ Damage the soil structure: Air pockets are clogged and soil gets compacted.
●​ Death of plant roots: Waterlogged does not let plant roots get oxygen.
●​ Loss of nutrients: Nutrients dissolve in water.
●​ Soil erosion: Water run-off takes away soil particles with it.

Causes and impacts of soil erosion 3.6

Soil erosion is a natural process that shapes the landscape. Human activities (agriculture)
can result in large and rapid changes in the landscape.

Causes:
●​ Removal of natural vegetation leaves the soil weakened and unable to support
intense rainfall (because roots of existing plants help the soil bind together).

●​ Over cultivation, soil that is cultivated regularly starts losing structure due to the
breakdown of particles (smaller particles are easier to move).

●​ Overgrazing weakens the plants and therefore gradually dies, and no plant roots
leaves soil more vulnerable to erosion.

●​ Wind erosion, removal of vegetation leaves soil far more prone to being blown
around by wind.

Impacts of soil erosion: Loss of the topsoil means the most productive layer of soil has
been removed, and subsoil is not capable of maintaining plant growth. Also, there is a loss of
habitat for many organisms due to desertification.

●​ Famine: Lack of access to food over a large area.

●​ Malnutrition

Methods to reduce soil erosion 3.7

Terracing (artificial development of flat areas). Helps to prevent rainwater erosion on steep
slopes. Reducing the water volume and speed that runs down a hillside.

Contour ploughing ????

Bunds are artificial embankments at the edges of growing spaces to hold water and prevent
soil erosion from run-off and wind erosion.

Windbreaks are a permeable barrier made of ethier living vegetation or artificial material,
used to reduce the impact of wind in an area.
Natural windbreaks have positive effects:
●​ Provide additional habitats for beneficial insects and animals.
●​ The roots of the windbreak help to hold back soil if the area is prone to erosion by
run-off.

Organic matter, with its addition, soil becomes more fertile contributing plant growth.
 Chapter 4 Water and its management

The distribution of water on Earth 4.1

●​ More than 75% of the Earth is covered with water. However, only 3% of it is fresh
(non-salty).

The water cycle 4.2

Evaporation: Liquid water turns into vapor due to sun heating.

Condensation: The vapor rises to the sky forming clouds. (liquid)

Precipitation: The liquid water (rain) or ice particles fall into the Earth due to gravity.

Transpiration: Water may be taken by the roots of plants and transported to the top of the
plant by movement, subsequent loss of water vapor from their leaves.

Surface runoff: If water falls into the ground, it will eventually run over the surface into
rivers.

Interception: The process by which water is stopped from reaching the ground by trees or
other plants.

Infiltration: Process by which water seeps into the ground.

Groundwater flow: Infiltrated water flows through rocks.

Through flow: Infiltrated water flows through soil.

Why humans need water 4.3

Domestic use: Water for domestic use must be especially safe.

Industrial use: Used in a vast range of industrial processes. Ex: Cooling in the production of
electricity.

Agricultural: Irrigation.

The main sources of freshwater for human use 4.4

Water from rivers (surface water): Usually, water is not safe to drink, but it can be treated to
make it potable.
In some cases reservoirs are built (artificial lakes to store water), another type can
be service reservoirs (potable water is stored in them). Ex: Water towers and
cisterns.
Water from the ground (water in the soil and in rocks under the surface): Water is obtained
from aquifers using wells, a hole dug into rock to reach the water stored in there.

Water from the sea: Needs to be treated to make it fresh (by desalination)
●​ Distillation: Water is boiled and released as vapor, leaving the salt behind. Vapor is
then condensed as liquid water.
Produces large waste quantities.

●​ Reverse osmosis: Salt water is pumped at high pressure through a membrane.

Energy is needed.

Availability of safe drinking water around the world 4.5

Physical water scarcity: Lack of rainfall or high levels of evaporation.

Economic water scarcity: A country may have water but not the economic resources to
extract it or make it potable.

Multipurpose dam projects 4.6

The construction of a dam over a river is a controversial and expensive project but also
beneficial:
●​ Generation of electricity in hydroelectric power plants
●​ Flood control
●​ Irrigation
●​ Tourism and leisure
●​ Provision of water

Disadvantages of dam projects:

●​ Relocation of people
●​ Flooding land
●​ Disrupting life cycles of fish and other aquatic organisms

Water-related diseases 4.7

Bacteria may enter drinking water from sewage, if these bacteria are pathogens and this
water is drunk, diseases can be spread.
●​ Cholera and typhoid (water borne)
●​ Malaria (water related)

Sources, impact and management of water pollution 4.8

Sewage water disposed into water bodies without being treated before, can have serious
impacts in the marine ecosystem.

Acid rain: A precipitation that has a lower pH than 7. This is caused due to the burning of
fossil fuels that produce emissions of gasses (sulfur dioxide) and oxides of nitrogen. These
gasses react with water in the atmosphere forming acids.
Eutrophication: When there is an increase in nitrates and phosphates in a river or lake, it
causes the rapid growth of algae leading to an algae bloom, then, algae dies and there will
be an increase in organic matter acting as food for bacteria while they decompose the algae.
Lastly, bacteria use up the oxygen lowering its levels, leading to the death of other
organisms in the water.

Chapter 5 Oceans and fisheries

The resource potential of the oceans 5.1
Supply food and chemicals (building materials) and route for transportation, a largely
untapped source of energy, tourism opportunities and potential for safe drinking water.

Food: Fish
Main fisheries are located in continental shelves (water is shallow, sunlight can penetrate
and there’s more oxygen) also, nutrients are abundant. Good conditions for plant growth and
therefore fish, that depend on them.

Chemicals and building materials: Sand, gravel and crushed rock are mined for the
construction industry. Oil (offshore drilling)
●​ Salt
●​ Magnesium
●​ Gold
●​ Tin
●​ Titanium
●​ Diamonds

Wave and tidal energy: Waves that break on shores

Tourism: Cruise ships and beaches (+economy)
Transport: Bulky freights, people and goods
Potential for safe drinking water: Desalination

World fisheries 5.1

Major ocean currents: Surface currents (movement of the surface water of the sea in a
constant direction) are caused by the prevailing winds (direction in which the wind generally
blows at a place).

Finding the fish: Fish rely on phytoplankton (fish are found where conditions are good for
phytoplankton) Light - Water - Carbon dioxide (light is only available on the surface,
therefore is likely to be the limiting factor) continental shelves.

200m Euphotic zone: Below this, photosynthesis cannot happen.

Upwelling: Cold water is forced upwards leading to nutrient-rich surface water =

Phytoplankton growth and more fish.

Overfishing: Fish being caught before they could breed

El niño southern oscillation ENSO: Change in the pattern of currents that prevents
upwelling, leading warm, nutrient-poor water upwards, preventing phytoplankton propper
growth (less food for fish)

The exploitation of the oceans: Impacts on fisheries 5.3

Overfishing of marine species: Leads to lack of growth as fish are being catched before
their full development.
Reasons of overfishing:
●​ Bycatch (non-targeted individuals) wrong species, wrong sex or size
●​ Demand of fish as food
●​ Economic gain / yields
●​ Huge nets

Sustainable fishing: Involves monitoring the amount of fish left in order to provide the later
generations with availability of fish.

Nets:
●​ Trawl nets, catch all kinds of unwanted fish and damage the seabed.
●​ Drift nets, not anchored and often used in coastal areas.
●​ Seine nets hang like a curtain in the ocean (surrounding net).
●​ Dredge nets, dragged along the seabed.

Strategies to manage fisheries in a sustainable way:

Farming marine species: Effective, but species are susceptible to parasites and pests.

Strategies to manage the harvesting of marine species 5.4

●​ Every country with a coastline has a zone of 200 nautical miles designated as the
economic exclusion zone (under the control of the country)
Net type and mesh size and shape
●​ Drift nets are now banned in certain areas
●​ Mesh size: If the mesh is too small, it will catch juvenile fish and they won't be able to
escape.
●​ Quotas: Limits on how many or what species of fish can be catched.
●​ Closed seasons and protected areas: Close fisheries for a period of the year
(usually during breeding season). Some fisheries are protected by preventing fishing
in certain areas (where the target species are known to breed).
●​ International agreements and conservation laws

How well do these strategies work?? The laws are only as good as their enforcement level,
the vastness of the ocean makes it difficult to monitor fishery laws and agreements.
 Chapter 6 Managing natural hazards

What is a natural hazard? 6.1

Natural events that have the potential to cause damage/loss of life, infrastructure and
properties.
●​ Geological hazards: Earthquakes / volcanic eruptions
●​ Climatic hazards: Droughts / tropical cyclones / floods

Other ways in which natural hazards can be classified:

●​ Magnitude / intensity of the event
●​ Speed at which the event takes place
●​ Duration / frequency

Natural disaster; serious disruption to a community caused by a natural hazard.

What causes earthquakes and volcanic eruptions? 6.2

Layers of the earth:

●​ Inner core (solid, made of iron and nickel)
●​ Outer core (liquid made of iron and nickel)
●​ Mantle (made of silicate materials), the lower mantle flows slowly due to convection
currents. The upper mantle is brittle and joins with the top layer of the earth
(lithosphere).
Two types of crust:
Oceanic Crust Continental
Crust

Made of basalt Made of granite

Thinner and Thicker and

denser (can heavier (cannot
sink) sink)

●​ Heat from the core creates convection currents (heat transfer from place to place)
which causes plates to move.
●​ When convection currents rise, plates move away from each other.
●​ When convection currents sink, plates move towards each other.
●​ Plate boundary: The place where two plates meet. (most earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions occur here). However, some volcanic eruptions take place at hotspots and
earthquakes can occur wherever there’s movement in the crust.

Types of plate boundaries:

●​ Constructive (divergent) Magma rises and solidifies forming a new basaltic ocean.
(seafloor spreading) Can also form submarine volcanoes that can appear above sea
level as volcanic islands. Also, if two plates move away from each other, a rift valley
may form.
●​ Destructive (convergent) The denser oceanic plate subducts under the lighter and
an ocean trench is formed.
 ●​ Conservative: No plate is destroyed or created, they slide past each other. Plates
get locked together, pressure builds up until it’s eventually released as an
earthquake.

Characteristics of earthquakes:
●​ Consists in ground shaking / moving in sudden jerks, resulting from the build up or
sudden release of tension.
●​ The focus is where the earthquake begins underground, the point on the Earth’s
surface directly above is the epicenter.
●​ The magnitude of the earthquake is measured by a Richter scale (by an instrument
called seismometer).
●​ The ground may suffer from liquefaction (sediments with a high water content
behave liquid).
●​ A tsunami can also be created if the earthquake takes place at a coastal area.

Factors that must be considered:

●​ Location of the epicenter.
●​ Time of the earthquake.
●​ Geology of the area (determines if liquefaction takes place).
●​ Relief of the area (possible landslides or tsunamis).
●​ Severity of aftershocks.
●​ Level of development of human settlements which will affect the way of dealing with
the impact.
●​ Population density.
●​ Building strength.

Characteristics of volcanoes: A volcano is a hole / crack through which magma erupts into
the surface (gasses and pyroclastic material).

Two types of volcanic activity

●​ Intrusive: Magma cools underground forming igneous rock.
●​ Extrusive: Magma flows out to the Earth’s surface as lava.

What causes tropical cyclones? 6.3

Tropical cyclones: Large areas of very low pressure with wind speeds over 119 km/h.

Conditions needed for tropical cyclones to form:

●​ Ocean temperature must be at least 27 degrees celsius.
●​ Warm ocean water must be at least 60 m deep.
●​ Conditions must occur between latitudes 5 and 20 north and south.
●​ Very little wind shear.
Between may and november in the northern hemisphere
Between november and may in the southern hemisphere

Tropical cyclones start as clusters that grow in size and start to spin. The air cools at high
altitudes and sinks forming the eye of the storm.
Characteristics of tropical cyclones
●​ Can be up to 800 km in diameter and 20 km in height.
●​ Rotate in an anticlockwise direction around the eye (the calmest part of the storm)
in the northern hemisphere.
●​ Rotate in a clockwise direction in the southern hemisphere.
●​ Sky becomes cloudy, wind speed increases, and rain with sunny intervals.
●​ Air pressure falls, wind speed increases. Cumulonimbus clouds form and very heavy
rains (eyewall / vortex).
●​ In the eye the sky is clear, winds are light and there’s little rain, temperatures are
warm.

Tropical cyclones create the following hazards:

●​ Strong winds: Structural damage of buildings
●​ Heavy rains: River flooding and landslides
●​ Storm surges: Flooding in low lying coastal areas and low pressure can cause raise
in sea levels

What causes flooding? 6.4

Flooding is when the discharge of a river exceeds the capacity of the river’s channel (river
overflows).

Physical causes and impacts:

Weather Can exceed the infiltration capacity of the

soil and lead to an increased overland flow.
Prolonged rainfall can saturate the soil
reducing infiltration capacity.

Previous weather Antecedent soil moisture, amount of water

in the soil before a rainfall event. The more
saturated, the less infiltration and more
overland flow.

Soil / rock type Impermeable rocks and soil have a low

infiltration capacity, leading to greater
overland flow. (clay / granite)

Relief Steeper gradients lead to faster overland

flow and less time for water to infiltrate.

Earthquakes / volcanic eruptions / tropical Tsunamis and storm surges, flood low lying
cyclones coastal areas.
Human causes:
Deforestation Reduced interception and infiltration.

Urbanisation Concrete and tarmac are impermeable

surfaces (more overland flow).

Agriculture Overgrazing and leaving soil exposed

reduced interception. Heavy machinery
compacts the soil (impermeable).

Climate change Enhanced global warming may lead to a

rise in sea levels and more rainfall.

What causes droughts? 6.5

Drought is when there’s lack of rain or less rain than normal over a long period of time.
Leading to a deficit in water supply to support plants / people.

Reasons:
●​ Changes in the atmospheric circulation patterns altering storm tracks and wind
patterns.
●​ Air in high pressure systems sinks and rain clouds do not form.
●​ La niña (the counterpart to El niño).

Impacts of natural hazards 6.6

Droughts:
●​ Water sources dry up
●​ Loss of crops, wildlife, farm animals and plants
●​ Increase in food prices due to lack of production
●​ Soil erosion / desertification
●​ Health problems due to malnutrition and dehydration

Tropical storms:
●​ Flooding from storm surges and heavy rainfall
●​ Disruption of electricity, transport and water supply
●​ Damage to crops, leading to food shortages
●​ Loss of wildlife habitats

Tectonic hazards:
●​ Landslides covering buildings and streets
●​ Tsunamis affecting coastlines
●​ Fires due to ruptures of gas pipes
●​ Loss of wildlife habitats

Flooding:
●​ Contamination of water supplies leading to diseases
 ●​ Loss of crops
●​ Rivers change their course

Strategies to manage natural hazards 6.7

Earthquakes
Prediction Preparation and protection

Seismometers can monitor tremors. Earthquake proof buildings

●​ Flex piping for gas
●​ Fire resistant materials
●​ No bricks or concrete blocks

Epicenters of past events can be mapped to Smart meters that cut gas supply to prevent
see if a pattern is developing. fires

Unusual animal behavior Land-use planning (build important

infrastructure in low risk areas)

Volcanoes
Prediction Preparation and protection

Seismometers to monitor tremors caused Study past eruptions to create a volcano

by magma hazard map

Satellites to measure increasing ground Lava diversion channels and lava barriers
temp

Building reinforcements (sloping roofs to

protect against ash fall

Tropical cyclones
Prediction Preparation and protection

Satellites for their track ●​ Cyclone shelters

●​ Buildings on stilts (prevents flooding
from storm surge)
●​ Embankments along coast

Flooding
Prediction Preparation and protection

Monitoring amounts of rainfall and changes Hard engineering projects / adapt houses
in river discharge (power sockets higher)

Taking into account the characteristics of Soft engineering projects (afforestation)

the drainage basin and type of storm Using sand bags and pumps

Widening / deepening the river channel

 Land use planning (higher land for
settlement)

Drought
Prediction Preparation and protection

Monitoring precipitations and temp Increase water supplies (dams and

reservoirs)

Water conservation (storage tanks / spray

irrigation)
Planting drought resistant crops
Reduce deforestation
Increase water recycling

Agricultural improvements (shelterbelts to

reduce wind and evaporation)

Governments stockpiling supplies of water,

food and med

Chapter 7 The atmosphere and human activities

Composition 7.1

The atmosphere is a layer of gasses held to the earth by gravitational force

●​ Nitrogen 78%
●​ Oxygen 21%
●​ Other gasses 1% (argon, water vapor, carbon dioxide)

Aerosols or solid particles: dust, fine sand, volcanic ash and water vapor.

●​ Product of volcanic eruptions (mostly)

●​ Inert or noble gasses: stable gas
 ●​ Variable gasses: Their quantity can change as a result of evaporation,
transpiration and pollution.

●​ Human activities that change the composition of the atmosphere:

Carbon dioxide is added by burning fossil fuels and deforestation.

Methane is increased by growing rice and keeping cattle.
Some gasses can be reduced by afforestation and by the release of CFCs

Structure

The troposphere: Temperature decreases with height and wind speeds increase with
height. The top of the layer (TROPOPAUSE) is 8 KM in the poles and 17KM in the tropics
and marks the upper limit of the earth's weather and climate.

The stratosphere: Pressure falls but temperatures increase with height (temperature
inversion) caused by the concentration of ozone that absorbs UV. Acts as a shield for
meteorites. Its upper limit is marked by the STRATOPAUSE. Ozone layer!!

The mesosphere: Pressure decreases and temperatures fall. The MESOPAUSE marks the
upper limit of this layer.

The thermosphere: Temperatures rise rapidly because of the absorption of UV radiation.

The THERMOPAUSE marks the upper limit of this layer.

Key terms:
Temp inversion: when temperatures increase with altitude

The natural greenhouse effect

Process that helps to keep the earth's surface and atmosphere warm.
The earth receives short-wave radiation from the sun as the surface warms up, long-wave
radiation is emitted back to the atmosphere

Greenhouse gases:
●​ Carbon dioxide (burning of fossil fuels)
●​ Methane (rice and cattle)
●​ CFCs (aerosols, ref and cooling systems)
●​ Nitrous oxides

Atmospheric pollution and its causes 7.2

Occurs when the atmosphere contains gasses in harmful amounts, caused by pollutants
(primary pollutants and secondary pollutants)

Smog (smoke and fog)

Caused by the burning of fossil fuels in industries, homes and vehicles. Photochemical
smog involves chemical reactions induced by sunlight on certain pollutants that convert
them into harmful substances.

Key terms:
Short-wave radiation: visible light and UV
Long-wave radiation: outgoing or terrestrial radiation
Primary pollutants: emitted directly from the source
Secondary pollutant: forms through chemical reactions with primary pollutants
Photochemical smog: air pollution with high levels of ozone and nitrogen oxides
Particulate matter PM: mixture of particles and liquid droplets suspended in the air
Volatile organic compounds VOCs: chemicals that enter the atmosphere as gasses from
evaporation

Conditions that cause temperature inversion and increase concentration of smog:

●​ High air pressure
●​ Calm conditions resulting from high pressure
●​ Valleys surrounded by steep-sided hills
Acid rain
A precipitation with a lower pH than 6. The acidity results from burning fossil fuels in
factories and power stations that release sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides into the
atmosphere.

Ozone depletion
Ozone is a greenhouse gas that can be found in the troposphere (bad) and in the
stratosphere (good). Screens the earth from harmful radiation from the sun.
The natural balance of the ozone layer is disrupted by human activity, mainly because of
CFCs, found in:
●​ Plastic manufacturing
●​ Air cooling systems
●​ Refrigeration fluids
●​ Aerosol sprays
They reach the stratosphere and UV radiation breaks them down releasing chlorine (what
damages the layer)

Key terms:
Depletion: reduction or loss
Polar vortex: circulation of strong upper level winds that surround Antarctica and keep cold
air locked in above the continent

The enhanced greenhouse effect

Addition of greenhouse gasses to the atmosphere through human activities = MORE heat
retained in the atmosphere and increase in temperature (global warming or climate change)

How?

Greenhouse gas Human activities

Carbon dioxide Burning fossil fuels and deforestation

Methane Growing rice, keeping cattle, deforestation

and decomposition of waste

CFCs Aerosol sprays, fire extinguishers,

 refrigeration and air conditioning

Nitrogen oxides Vehicle exhausts and chemical fertilizers

Tropospheric ozone Chemical reactions involving nitrogen

oxides and unburnt fuel vapors

7.3 Impacts of atmospheric pollution

Smog:
In people
●​ Irritation of eyes and throat, increasing respiratory diseases (asthma)
●​ Fine particles carried to the lungs leading to lung cancer. Strokes and heart attacks
●​ Breathing difficulties
Environment
●​ Ability of plants to make and store food through photosynthesis is reduced due to
lack of sunlight
●​ Growth, reproduction and general health of plants decline, making them more
propense to disease and pests
Acid rain:
In people
●​ Acidification of groundwater making water undrinkable and can cause diarrhea and
stomach upsets
●​ Aluminum leached from the soil into the groundwater
●​ Limestone buildings are chemically weathered
●​ Crop yields decline
Environment
●​ Trees affected as foliage dies
●​ Acidification of groundwater damages tree roots
●​ Nutrients leached out of the soil
●​ Aquatic and animal life in lakes is poisoned as acidity levels increase
Ozone depletion:
In people
●​ Higher levels of UV radiation lead to sunburns, skin cancer, retina damage and
cataracts
●​ Immune system can be suppressed
Environment
●​ Extra UV radiation inhibits the reproductive cycle of phytoplankton, which make up
the lowest layer in some food webs. Can affect population of some species
 ●​ Changes in biochemical composition makes some plant leaves less attractive as food
●​ Melting ice sheets, glaciers and permafrost can lead to increasing sea levels

Climate change:
In people
●​ Negative impacts in certain economic activities (skiing industry)
●​ Droughts and floods may have impacts on crop yields and loss of homes or migration
in some cases
Environment
●​ Sea level rise will lead to the loss of coastal land and increased erosion
●​ Animal and plant species won't be able to adapt fast enough to changes leading to
loss in biodiversity, habitat or extinction
●​ Severe storms and droughts
●​ Changes to fishing industries if fish species move to different waters
●​ Ecosystem change may lead to plant and animal species move into different areas
and new species emerge (invasive)
●​ Warmer temperatures could allow diseases such as malaria to spread

7.4 Managing atmospheric pollution

International co - operation (the atmosphere has no boundaries among countries)