Terrestrial Ecosystem

Terrestrial Ecosystem has variations in their properties due to physical environmental factors
such as climate, soil, topography etc. These variations lead to diversity in the communities and
the ecosystem unlike the aquatic ecosystem where water dictates the tune of the habitat.
Terrestrial ecosystem is a 3-phase system. Terrestrial ecosystems are known by the type of main
vegetation in them. For example, if the main vegetation in an ecosystem is grass, then the
terrestrial ecosystem will be known as grassland ecosystem. If the ecosystem is forest, then the
terrestrial ecosystem will be known as forest ecosystem and if the ecosystem is desert, then the
terrestrial ecosystem will be known as desert ecosystem.

Abiotic Components

These are the non-living components of the ecosystem including inorganic and organic
substances present in the soil and atmosphere. The climate (temperature, light rainfall etc.)
and soil (minerals) vary from ecosystem to ecosystem.

a. Atmosphere: It provides the oxygen for animal, and CO2 for plant, both of which circulate
well and rarely limits plants and animal growth.

b. Climate: This is more variable in the terrestrial ecosystem than the aquatic ecosystem. For
instance, rainfall is not predictable and so water availability. Temperature is also more variable
than in aquatic ecosystem. Temperature is controlled by absorption of heat by soil, rock and
vegetation.

c. Soil: Soil performs two functions

a. Supporting living organisms

b. Source of essential nutrients for the plants.

It is also a site for detritus food chain and it is central to biogeochemical cycling of nutrients.

In the terrestrial ecosystem, soil varies both in physical and chemical properties from place to
place.

Biotic Components
 (i) Producers: These are mainly trees that show much species diversity and greater
degree of stratification especially in tropical rain and tropical deciduous forests.
Besides trees, there are also present shrubs and ground vegetation.
(ii) Consumers. Following types of consumers occur in the terrestrial ecosystems.
(a) Primary Consumers. These are the herbivores that include smaller animals
feeding on tree leaves as ants, flies, beetles, lead-hoppers, bugs, spiders, etc., and
larger animals grazing on shoots and/or fruits of producers as elephants, deer,
moles, squirrels, goats etc.
(b) Secondary Consumers. These are the carnivores like snakes, birds, lizards, fox,
etc., feeding on the herbivores.
(c) Tertiary Consumers. These are the top carnivores like lion, tiger, etc., that eat
upon carnivores of secondary consumer‘s level.

(iii) Decomposers. These are wide variety of microorganisms including fungi (species of
Aspergillus, Polyporus, Alternaria, Fusarium, Trichoderma, etc.), bacteria (species of
Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Clostridium, etc.) and actiomycetes (species of
Streptomyces). Rate of decomposition in tropical and subtropical forests is more
rapid than in the temperate one.

Types of Terrestrial Ecosystem

There are many varieties but there is hardly any clear cut boundary from one type to the other.
However, some species are adapted to the same habitat based on similarities in their

1. Composition

2. Structure

and thus can be classified as types of ecosystem. The basic ecosystem types are called BIOMES.
Each biome tends to be distributed in areas of similar geographical characteristics. These
characteristics are significant in identifying the differences and similarities between
communities.

Biomes have been classified based on different criteria. The basic unit of classification is plant
Association.

Plant Association is an assemblage of plant with definite composition and uniform appearance
growing under uniform habitat condition.
Terrestrial ecosystem type can be grouped to

- Tropical

- Temperate

- Tundra (cold region)

- Desert

Plant Assemblage

- Forest

- Savannah

- Grassland

- Desert

Terrestrial Ecosystem Types

(1) Tropical rainforest

(2) Sub-tropical rainforest

(3) Tropical seasonal forest

(4) Tropical savannah

(5) Temperate rainforest

(6) Temperate deciduous forest

(7) Boreal conifer forest

(8) Temperate Evergreen Woodland

(9) Thorn Woodland and Scrubland

(10) Temperate Grassland

(11) Desert
(12) Tundra

Tropical Rainforest

Occurrence and General characteristics

This is the most complex and diverse forest on earth. It is also the most luxuriant and
productive in terms of gross organic matter.

There are 3 important regions of tropical rainforest.

(1) American tropical rainforest located in South America especially the Amazon in Brazil and
Mexico.

(2) Malaysian rainforest found in the South East Asia, Borneo, Malaya, Sumatra, Phillipines
and South West India and Eastern Coast of Australia.

(3) African rainforest found along the Atlantic coast, Congo Basin, Malagasy and Pockets of it
in East Africa.

General Characteristics

(1) The plants are luxuriant and productive.

(2) Animals are abundance and diverse.

Although, the number of large mammals may be small, there are definitely more species of
vertebrates especially birds and insects in this biome.

(3) The mean daily temperature seldom exceeds 13°C and its more or less constant throughout
the year.

(4) Precipitation is usually high about 2000 mm. Precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration so
that shortage of soil moisture does not seasonally inhibit plant growth.

Desert Ecosystem

The desert biomes are characterized by extremely low rainfall (less than 25cm). They occupy
about 17% of the land. Due to scarcity of water and high temperature, the biota is poorly
represented.
Aquatic Ecosystem

Aquatic ecosystem is a one-phase ecosystem in which water dominates the entire habitat as
medium of all nutrients for aquatic life. Water is also a medium for organic and inorganic
waste. The amount of energy reaching any aquatic community depends on how much light
can be absorbed by the water. Different ecosystems like pond, lake, river, stream, spring,
estuary and the sea, are operating as self-sufficient interacting systems in the hydrosphere.
These ecosystems have a more or less similar fundamental plan of their gross structure and
function. However, they differ in respect of their species composition and productivity rates.

In addition, the heat property of the water controls the circulations pattern within the
ecosystem. Generally, aquatic ecosystem classification is based on the salinity or the amount of
the materials dissolved in the water.

Abiotic components

The other physio-chemical factors such as dissolved oxygen, light and temperature water, and
several inorganic substances like C, H, O, N, P, Ca, S. Some proportions of nutrients are in
solution state but most of them are present stored in particulate matter as well as in living
organisms.

Elements in Aquatic Ecosystem

In sea water, there are about 92 naturally occurring elements. In fresh water, there are fewer
elements. Important elements are Na, Mg, K, Ca, Cl, e. t. c. Cl has the greatest concentration
followed by Na. In determining the salinity of water, the concentration of chlorine is used.

Sources of the above named elements in the seas include

(1) Rock weathering

(2) Decay of organic matter

(3) Atmosphere

Biotic components

Producers: These include green photosynthetic organisms such as Phytoplanktons,

macrophytes, attached algae, water grasses and other amphibious plants. Others include
marshgrasses, seaweeds, sea grasses, benthic algae and larger marine plants.
Primary consumers: These include zookplanktons and benthos forms. Zookplankton comprises
ciliates, flagellates, other protozoans, small crustacean like copepods and Daphnia. Others are
flatworms, leeches, water insects, snails, Secondary consumers are the carnivores which feed
on the herbivores, e.g. insects and fish while tertiary consumers are some large fishes as game
fish and crocodiles that feed on the smaller fishes. Many birds and mammals also get their food
from rivers and streams.

Decomposers or Microconsumers: Several bacteria, fungi (Aspergillus, Cephalosporium,

Phythium, etc.) and actinomycetes represent this group.

Aquatic Ecosystem Types

Pond or Lake Ecosystem: A pond or lake is a good example of a self-sufficient and self-
regulating ecosystem. Location size, depth and substratum of a pond or lake constitute the
biology of the ecosystem.

River or Stream Ecosystem: The running water of a stream or a river is usually well oxygenated
because it has a large surface area to absorb oxygen from the air. The river or stream water has
lesser mineral content and greater penetration of light. In the lower reaches water is usually
muddy cutting down the light at the river bed.

Ocean or Marine Ecosystem: Oceans cover more than two thirds of the earth‘s surface. The
marine environment is characterized by its high concentration of salts and mineral ions. The
ocean represents a very large and stable ecosystem.

Estuaries Ecosystem: An estuary is a semi-closed coastal body of water that has a free
connection with sea. It is strongly affected by tidal action, and within this sea water is mixed
with fresh water from land drainage. River mouths, coastal bays, tidal marshes and bodies of
water behind barrier beaches are some of the examples of estuaries ecosystems. Estuaries are
generally productive because of water flow subsidies and abundance of nutrients.

Marine Ecosystem There are more ecological zones in marine ecosystem than freshwater.
Marine ecosystem has about 35 % salinity e.g. The Ocean. This comprises more than 99 % of
the earth’s surface water.

Zone of ecological activities

1. - Neric Zone
- Littoral zone

- Benthic zone

- Aphotic zone

- Photic zone

The Neric zone is near the land

2. Pelagic zone (open water)

3. Inter tidal zone (near the beach)

4. Sub-littoral zone (where aquatic plants are found)

5. Continental shelf (shallow part where fishing activities concentrate)

Vertical Division

1. Epipelagic (near the surface)

2. Mesopelagic (middle)

3. Bathpelagic (near the bottom)

4. Abyssopelagic (the bottom of the ocean)

ECO-DEVELOPMENT

Eco-development is used to describe a form of planned growth that uses locally available
resources within the constraints or limit of the local environment. It refers to development at
regional and local levels, consistent with the potentials of the area involved, with attention
given to the adequate and rational use of natural resources, technological styles and
organizational forms that respect the natural ecosystems and local social and cultural patterns.
The term is also used to describe an integrated approach to environment and development.
Eco-development is specified as a new equilibrium between man and the environment that
suggests management of natural resources in accordance with the laws of nature (use and not
abuse) and includes national culture and tradition, as well as internal moral values.

Objectives of Eco-Development

The goal of eco-development is to achieve a reasonable and equitably distributed level of

economic well-being that can be perpetuated continually for many human generations. It
implies using renewable natural resources in a manner that does not eliminate or degrade
them, or otherwise diminish their usefulness for future generations (at a rate not faster than
their rate of regeneration). Eco-development also requires depleting non-renewable energy
resources at a slow enough rate so as to ensure the high probability of an orderly society
transition to renewable energy sources.

Other objectives are include:

1. protection of biodiversity;

2. prevention of ecological imbalance that leads to disasters such as soil erosion, flooding,
desertification etc;

3. reduce the rate of deforestation and increase forest cover;

4. It should cutoff the emissions of CFC, SO2, NO2 and CO2;

5. It should reduce waste generation.

6. It should eliminate poverty and deprivation and above all.

7. It should bring benefits to all.

Ecology and Environmental Planning

International Union for Conservation of Nature defines Environmental Planning as “…a

process whereby regional, national or subnational resource conservation or development plans
are created in ways that consciously seek to minimise long term negative effects on existing
levels of environmental quality ..." There are, however, views which consider Environmental
Planning as all planning, that is, including planning for regions, towns and settlements of
various kind.

Ecology and environmental planning is a spatial and societal planning activity which includes
both the protection of biotic and abiotic resources as the basis of societal use and the protection
of landscapes and species. It involves the decision making on various land uses (such as
agriculture, transport, recreation, nature conservation) and other environmental resources in
an equitable way as to ensure ecological sustainability. Ecology and environmental planning
seeks to ensure human development which does not compromise ecological elements in
anyway. In this sense, it is the practice of making systematic, well thought and guided
decisions to guide the nature and extent of human interaction with his environment and
ecosystem.

In relation to implementation, ecology and environmental planning advocates for the

integration of environmental issues in planning decisions, and ensures that institutions
responsible for ecology and environmental planning direct national, local, and sector-specific
policies, plans and investment decisions based on considerable consideration for
environmental issues. This approach of ecology and environmental planning ensures greater
participation and collaboration between environment and stakeholders of development. This
strengthens institutions to carefully consider environmental issues by establishing effective
linkages of development and environment in practice (EU, 2013). Williams (2000), view
ecology and environmental planning as making it possible for people to live in an area
governed more by nature than legislation, and resulted in the creation of sustainable human
settlements rooted on principles of ecological balance, community self-reliance, and
participatory democracy. Ecology and environmental planning is a multi-dimensional activity.

Environmental Planning Approaches

Development is a complex process, hence planning has been usually recognised as responsible
for its coordination both in space and time. Approaches to planning include;

1. Interdisciplinary and not multidisciplinary

2. Holistic

3. Comprehensive

4. Participatory

5. Coordinated

6. Continuous

1. Interdisciplinary and not multidisciplinary

By been inter disciplinary, it is meant that the approach for environmental planning should
integrate, analyze, synthesizes and harmonizes links between disciplines into a coordinated
and coherent whole as against been multidisciplinary approach where knowledge is drawn
from different disciplines without synthesis and a marriage of ideas, each discipline confined
within his boundaries.

2. Holistic

The approach should consider development in all spheres as a single entity, and the various
relationships between development and environment which is also supposed to be considered
as a whole.

3. Comprehensive Planning

Comprehensive planning is a process that determines community goals and aspirations in

terms of community development. The result is called a comprehensive plan and both
expresses and regulates public policies on transportation, utilities, land use, recreation, and
housing. Comprehensive plans typically encompass large geographical areas, a broad range of
topics, and cover a long-term time horizon. The term comprehensive planning is most often
used by urban planners in the United States.

4. Participatory

Participatory planning is an urban planning paradigm that emphasizes involving the local
community from the very beginning (preparation of Local Action Plans) of the strategic and
management processes of urban planning; or, community-level planning processes.

5. Coordinated

Because development is a hydra-headed phenomenon, coordinated is key to planning. The

focus of environmental planning is sustainable outcomes for development, in most cases
government plays the role of coordination.

6. Continuous

Planning for development is a continuous process especially for in order to cater for negative
effects of development on the environment. For example, environmental audit is conducted to
assess and ameliorate or mitigate the negative effects of a development project on the
environment.

Alteration of Environment for Development Purpose

As human beings affect their environment through their various activities, the environment
also affects them. These effect may be +ve or –ve. The effect of development project on the
environment can be categorised into 2;

1. Those with direct impact on the environment e.g. Building and construction work.

2. Those with direct effect on natural resources vis-à-vis the environment e.g. Exploitation,
processing and utilization of natural resources.

There is need to promote the +ve effect of our action on the environment so as to ensure
sustainable utilization of the resources
Case Study

Effect of forest loss

The effect of the removal of vegetation cover can lead to the following:

1. Changes in regional climate

2. Changes in biological productivity

3. Accelerated soil erosion

4. Destruction of water shed stability

5. Increased emission of green house gases

6. Loss of biological diversity.