SWD 315 HND I

DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK

Network Fundamentals

Networking is a very comprehensive subject and the first part of this lecture covers basic
networking issues. At the end of the lecture, it is recommended that the students who will master
the basics of networking would explore further training.

1
 Introduction to Network Fundamentals

What is a Computer Network?

People and digital devices are entities that communicate with each other among themselves. Just
as people have a circle, devices in the digital world have a circle.

(Image Source: colcampus.com)

This environment created by the devices in the digital world is called "Computer Network". In
other words, the structure in which at least two devices communicate with each other can be called
"Computer Network".

(Image Source: speaknetworks.com)

2
Purposes of Computer Networks

Computer networks have become usable for many different purposes with the developing
technology. The main uses of computer networks are as follows:

• Providing image and sound transfer (Chat and online meetings)

• Hardware sharing (Printer sharing)
• File, data and information sharing
• Software sharing
• Central management
• Support

ARPANET and Internet

The Internet has gone through many development processes from the past to the present. When it
first appeared, it was not as common and large as it is used today. The mass that could be used was
very limited and was mostly used for military purposes. The Advanced Research Projects Agency
Network (ARPANET) is a computer network considered the foundation of the Internet. The basis
of Internet technologies are the technologies used in ARPANET. In 1969, ARPANET was
connected to three university networks in the USA, creating a computer network. Later, this
structure expanded and grew even more. The image below shows the ARPANET in 1969 and 1982
and the computer networks it is connected to.

(Image Source: portswigger.net)

3
This network, which spread over a wider geographical area, has reached the present day and
created the Internet.

In this part of the lecture, what computer networks are, their purpose of use and the history of the
internet are discussed. In the next part, we will discuss, “Types of Networks” will be explained.

Types of Networks

Computer networks are geographically divided into many groups according to their size. There may
be large networks with millions of devices in them and small networks consisting of 2-3 devices.
The following image shows some types of computer networks by size.

Personal Area Network (PAN)

Personal Area Network (PAN) refers to networks with a minimal and small number of devices that
cover very short distances (for example, up to 10 meters). For example, a mobile device and a
wireless headset connected via Bluetooth are examples of this type of network.
There are only 2 devices in this small network: A mobile device and a wireless headset.

(Mobile Icon Source: pelfusion.com)

4
Local Area Network (LAN)

Local Area Network (LAN) has a larger area than PAN and can support many more devices. It is
the most commonly used and found network type. Sometimes, a network with two devices can
also be called a LAN. The fact that it supports much more than two devices in terms of capacity
and is geographically spread over a wider area indicates that it is a LAN-type network. For
example, home networks and shared networks within the building can be given as examples of
LAN.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

The Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a geographically city-sized computer network in which
many LAN computer networks are interconnected. It connects networks with fiber optic cabling.

(Icon Source: designcontest.com)

5
Wide Area Network (WAN)

Wide Area Network (WAN) is the computer network with the largest geographical area among
computer networks. This computer network is so large that it can even contain continents. It hosts
all other computer networks within it. An example of this computer network is the "Internet". The
following address can be used to see the intercontinental fiber-optic infrastructures around the
world:

Submarine Cable Map: submarinecablemap.com

(Image Source: icograms.com)

Campus Area Network (CAN)

Campus Area Network (CAN) is a computer network that is geographically smaller than MAN
and larger than LAN. This computer network can contain several LANs. Usually, the computer
networks of universities, institutions, or private companies are given as an example of this
computer network.

(Image Source: icograms.com)

6
In this part of the lecture, the types of computer networks according to their size are discussed. In
the next part of the lecture, the topic of “Network Topologies” will be explained.

Network Topologies

Network topology is a visual map to understand the physical or logical structure of a computer
network. The locations of the devices and cables in the network are among the factors that
determine the network topology. There are many benefits to having a network topology. For
example, it is possible to see which other device(s) in the network will be affected if a device on
the network fails to perform its task. If we are looking at a network topology of a large network, it
is possible to see the subnets in the network and the devices it is connected to.
Network topology is divided into 2 types:

Physical Topology

It is a type of topology in which all devices and components in the network are drawn in terms of
their exact locations. Looking at this topology, it is seen which cabling is made over which paths
and devices. What is seen in the drawing has a physical counterpart. For example, if there is a
network device in the path from device A to device B, this device is seen in the physical topology.

Logical Topology

It does not show the exact location of the devices in the topology like physical topology. It often
contains fewer elements than physical topology. Because data flow is important in logical
topology. For example, data going from device A to device B may not be included in the topology
if it passes over device C between device A and device B, and device C has no effect on the data
that would need to be displayed on it. In this topology, it is the path of the data flow that is desired
to be emphasized rather than the physical placement of the devices.

Some topologies are described in the following topics:

Ring Topology
It works in a closed-loop logic. The sent data travels around the ring in one direction until it reaches
the destination. Each node passes the incoming data over it and ensures that it reaches the target.
There is no hierarchical relationship between nodes.

7
Star Topology

Each node in the Star topology is connected to a central node. All data flow is done through the
central node. Star topology is one of the most common computer network topologies.

(GIF Source: youtube.com)

8
Mesh Topology

It is a network topology where there is no central node and each node can be directly connected to
the other. Mesh topology is not a suitable topology for large networks. It is divided into 2 types:

Full-Mesh
In the Full-Mesh topology, each node in the network is connected to all other nodes by cabling
separately. In this topology, it is unlikely that the connection between two nodes will be broken.
Because there are alternative ways of connecting.

(GIF Source: gifer.com)

9
Partial-Mesh
In the Partial-Mesh topology, although each node is not directly connected to all other nodes, they
are largely interconnected. Just like in Full-Mesh topology, there are alternative ways to reach the
target node in case of disconnection.

(GIF Source: ejlaturnas.wordpress.com)

Bus Topology
Bus topology is a topology where nodes are located on a common path and data transmission is
made with a bidirectional connection on this path. In the bus topology, each node receives every
transmitted data even if it does not belong to it. Since there is no hierarchical order among the
nodes, there is no transmission priority.

10
Point-to-Point Topology
Point-to-point topology is the simplest topology and consists of two nodes connected together. For
example, a passing call between two phones creates a point-to-point topology, or a direct
connection between two computers creates a point-to-point topology.

Tree Topology
Tree topology is a hybrid network topology formed by connecting star and bus topology. Tree
topology has a hierarchical order and each node can have any number of subnodes.

(GIF Source: i.pinimg.com)

11
In this part of the lecture, what the network topology is, its types and some network topologies are
discussed. In the next part of the discussion, the subject of the “OSI Reference Model” will be
explained.

OSI Reference Model

This part of the lecture is briefly described. The details of the OSI reference model are in the
second part of the lecture series.
What is the OSI Reference Model?
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model was developed by ISO (International
Organization of Standardization) in 1978. The OSI model is a model created to enable
communication between different operating systems. With this model, it has become easier to
understand network structures. It is a reference quality and has a layered architecture. Each layer
in the OSI model has separate tasks. There is a hierarchical order between these layers and each
layer serves the next layer. The number of layers in the OSI model is 7.

Data transmission is carried out through these layers and the data is transmitted to the user. Each
layer in the OSI model is explained under the following topics.

1. Physical Layer
The physical layer is the first layer in the OSI model. In this layer, data is transmitted in bits along
the communication channels. Since the physical layer is only responsible for the transmission of
data, it does not have any information about the type of data it transmits and what it is. The data
for this layer consists of ordered bit sequences.

12
2. Datalink Layer
The datalink layer is the 2nd layer in the OSI model. This layer processes the bits from the physical
layer and prepares them to be sent to the next layer. The basic operation in this layer is physical
addressing. The first layer responsible for error checking in the OSI reference model is the
"Datalink Layer".

3. Network Layer
The network layer is the 3rd layer in the OSI model. The network layer is responsible for delivering
the data to the destination logical address (IP Address). The basic operation in this layer is logical
addressing.

4. Transport Layer
The transport layer is the 4th layer in the OSI model. The transport layer is responsible for
transmission security. This layer provides many additional controls for error-free transmission of
data and thanks to these controls, data transmission is successfully performed.

5. Session Layer
The session layer is the 5th layer in the OSI model. The session layer is responsible for providing
the necessary services for the presentation layer to work. The main operation in this layer is session
management.

6. Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is the 6th layer in the OSI model. The presentation layer is the layer where
data is displayed. Two communicating nodes must use a common language for data representation.
Thanks to this layer, the agreement is made in the language used.

7. Application Layer
The Application layer is the 7th and final layer in the OSI model. The application layer is the layer
closest to the user and provides access to structures found in the user-level OSI model.

In this part of the lecture, what the OSI model is, its structure, and its layers are discussed. In the
next part of the lecture, “Network Devices” will be explained.

Network Devices

In a computer network, there are network devices, each responsible for a separate task. Without
these components in a computer network, the network cannot fulfill its task. Therefore, knowing
the tasks and capabilities of network devices allows for solving problems in the network and
understanding security breaches. In this way, a solution is reached by taking quick action. In this
part of the training, information about network devices in an IT network will be discussed.

13
Switch

The switch is one of the network devices operating at layer 2 according to the OSI reference model.
However, according to the OSI reference model, some switches with more manageable features
operate at layer 3. The switch is the interconnection device and is used to connect the nodes that
want to connect to the network. Sizes may vary depending on the number of ports on it.

(GIF Source: instrumentationtools.com)

As seen above, the switch device transmits the data coming from the source port only to the
destination port, so it provides a data transmission that will not adversely affect the network
performance. In terms of security, it prevents data belonging to two parties from reaching third
parties, thus increasing data security in a way.

14
Router

The router is one of the network equipment working at the 3rd layer according to the OSI reference
model. The router is a packet routing device with highly advanced features that contains an
operating system (IOS - Internetworking Operating System). It is network equipment used by
placing it between two computer networks. For example, it is often used in LAN-LAN connections
and WAN-LAN connections. The most basic task of the router is packet routing and thanks to this
device, the networks are separated from each other (segmentation). In other words, it is one of the
devices that separate computer networks from each other. It is a configurable device.

(Image Source: indiamart.com)

Hub

The hub is one of the network hardware operating at layer 1 according to the OSI reference model.
The hub device, which has a very simple structure, is one of the devices used to connect computers
that want to connect to the network.

(GIF Source: instrumentationtools.com)

15
(Image Source: memory4less.com)

Repeater

The repeater is one of the network equipment working at layer 1 according to the OSI reference
model. There are only 2 ports on the repeater device. These ports transform the incoming signal
into an outgoing signal and transmit it to the destination. It strengthens the weak signals on it and
enables it to transmit data to longer distances. It is a device similar to a hub but does not have as
many ports as a hub.

16
(Image Source: t4tutorials.com)

Bridge

The bridge is one of the network hardware running at layer 2 according to the OSI reference model.
The bridge performs packet routing by connecting two computer networks. Although it has a
similar task to a router, it is a very simple device with fewer ports than a router. It is also separated
from the router by working at the 2nd layer. The bridge can be used in LAN-to-LAN connections.

(Image Source: tipsmake.com)

17
Modem

Modems are generally small-sized network equipment in which the features of some devices such
as switches are gathered together. It contains a small operating system. It is generally used in home
networks to access the internet environment. It may have one or more ports on it. In addition, it is
possible to provide an internet connection by using wireless devices together with the modem in
wireless-supported modems.

(Image Source: crast.net)

Firewall
A firewall is one of the network equipment running at layer 4 according to the OSI reference model. A firewall
is vital to network hardware located between the internet, which is considered an insecure network, and the
existing network. The task of the firewall, which is one of the basic network equipment necessary to ensure the
security of the network, is to block or allow traffic according to certain rules. Although there are many types,
the most commonly used and known type of firewall is hardware network firewall devices. Having a firewall
device alone is not enough to protect the network against external threats. Because attackers can even infiltrate
networks with firewalls. The firewall must be configured correctly. Incomplete and incorrect firewall
configurations can negatively affect network performance, as well as cause security vulnerabilities.

18
(Image Source: digitaltrends.com)

Gateway

Gateway is one of the network equipment that can work at every layer according to the OSI model.
The gateway is a network component that provides inter-network communication located between
two networks. In other words, it connects networks. Although it is similar to router devices in
terms of its function, it differs from routers with its ability to work in every layer. In addition, there
are not only hardware but also software gateway types. Gateways are a gateway for other nodes in
the network. Through this device, they can go out of the network and communicate with a node in
another network.

(Image Source: tipsmake.com)

In this part of the lecture, the basic network devices and their functions are discussed. In the next
part of the topic of the “TCP/IP Model” will be explained.

19
TCP/IP Model

What is the TCP/IP Model?

The TCP/IP model was designed and developed by the Department of Defense (DoD) in the 1960s.
When the TCP/IP model was introduced, no model set the standards in computer network
communication yet. With this model, it was determined how the network communication should
be based on the internet. The TCP/IP model has a layered architecture and consists of 4 layers:

➢ Application Layer
➢ Transport Layer
➢ Internet Layer
➢ Network Access Layer

Network Access Layer

The network access layer is the 1st layer in the TCP/IP model. It corresponds to layers 1 and 2 in
the OSI reference model. This layer includes physical accesses and hardware controls.

Internet Layer
The Internet layer is the 2nd layer in the TCP/IP model. It has similar functions as layer 3 in the
OSI reference model. In this layer, network communication functions are performed by logical
addressing.

Transport Layer
The transport layer is the 3rd layer in TCP/IP model. It has similar functions as layer 4 in the OSI
reference model. In this layer, data transmission is made and the reliability of the communication
is ensured. Whether the data is transmitted correctly without corruption is managed in this layer.

20
Application Layer
The Application layer is the 4th and final layer in the TCP/IP model. It is a layer that covers all
the operations performed in layers 5, 6, and 7 in the OSI reference model. Application-level
controls and operations are executed in this layer.

OSI Model vs. TCP/IP Model

Although the OSI reference model and the TCP/IP model are very similar models, they differ from
each other on some points. When the TCP/IP model first emerged, it emerged out of necessity, not
aiming to be a standard. The OSI reference model, on the other hand, aimed to design the ideal
network communication, which should be in theory, including its practical use. The TCP/IP model
was developed based on some protocols. The OSI model, on the other hand, was not developed on
any protocol.

The image above shows which layers in the OSI reference model are equivalent to which layers in
the TCP/IP model in terms of tasks and protocols.

In this section of the lecture, what the TCP/IP model is, its layers and its difference from the OSI
model are discussed. In the next section of the subject of "IP Addressing Mechanism" will be
explained.

IP Addressing Mechanism

While creating TCP/IP computer networks, a logical address (IP Address) must first be assigned
to each device in the network. These assignment processes are called "IP Addressing

21
Mechanisms". If an IP address is not assigned to a device in the network, it cannot communicate
with devices inside or outside the network.

What is an IP Address?
IP Address is the ID of the device's network address. Connection operations are performed using
IP addresses. IP addresses are divided into IPv4 and IPv6. Examples of both types of IP addresses
are the following IP addresses:

IPv4: 192.168.4.1

IPv6: 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334

Structure of IP Address
The IP address consists of 4 bytes (32 bits). A period is placed between each byte and is expressed
in decimal notation. For example, the image below shows the conversion of the IP address between
binary representation and decimal representation:

22
Since each byte consists of 8 bits, the 8-bit value must be "0" (zero) for each byte to receive the
minimum value. Similarly, the 8-bit value must be "1" for each byte to get the maximum value.
For example, let's calculate the minimum and maximum values that each byte in the IP address
can take:

Minimum (Binary): 00000000

As can be seen as a result of the calculation, the decimal equivalent of the binary expression
"00000000" is "0" (zero).

Maximum (Binary): 11111111

As can be seen as a result of the calculation, each byte of the IP address can take a value between
“0-255”.

Classes of IP Address
IP addresses are divided into 5 classes. To learn the class of the IP address, the first byte of the IP
address is checked. According to the decimal value of the first byte, it is understood which of the
classes the IP address belongs to in the table below.

23
It is possible to find out which network the device with that IP address is included in via its IP
address. To learn this information, first of all, it should be known which class the IP address
belongs to. Then, the “Network Bits” fields in the table below are checked.

For example, let's find out which class the IP address "192.168.4.1" belongs to and which bytes
are the network bits:

Step 1: Check the decimal value of the first byte: "192"

Step 2: According to the table, it is learned which class the value “192” belongs to: “Class C”
Step 3: According to the table, it is checked which bytes of an IP address belonging to the "C"
class belong to the network bits: "first 3 bytes"

According to the information we have obtained, it can be said that the IP addresses with the same
first 3 bytes belong to the devices in the same network. For example, the IP address “192.168.4.1”
and the IP Address “192.168.4.2” are on the same network. Because there is a change only on the
byte where the host bits are located. Network bits have the same value: 192.168.4.X

24
What is IPv6?

Today, the number of devices connected to the internet network is quite high. Considering that all
these devices have an IP address, IPv4 is no longer sufficient. For this reason, some technologies
(NAT) and IPv6 have been developed to solve this problem. With IPv6, the use of IPv4, which has
a limited number of addresses, has begun to decline and leaves its place to IPv6. The following
table compares IPv4 and IPv6:

(Image Source: commons.wikimedia.org)

Private IP Addresses

Some of the IP addresses are reserved for special purposes. These reserved IP addresses are IP
addresses used in private networks. Private networks are networks that are not directly connected
to the Internet and are connected to the Internet with an intermediary network device. For example,
home networks and on-premises networks. In-home networks, the modem device provides a
connection to the Internet and manages the packet flow. The modem device has a network interface
facing the home network and a network interface facing the internet side. The part called the
private network is the part where the home network interface of the modem device is located. The
IP addresses of the devices in this section are reserved IP addresses that are not used in the internet
environment. The following table shows the private IP address ranges:

25
What is a Localhost?

Localhost is the IP address range that specifies the device's own network address. It is used to
access services running locally on the device. It is commonly known as the "127.0.0.1" IP address.
However, any IP address in the range “127.0.0.1 - 127.255.255.255” can be used for this purpose.
Another name is the "loopback" address.

In this section of the lecture, what the IP address is, its structure, classes, types, and IPv6 are
discussed. In the next part the “Network Address Translation (NAT)” will be explained.

Network Address Translation (NAT)

Network Address Translation (NAT) is a method that converts private IP addresses to public IP
addresses. Since private IP addresses are non-routing IP addresses, these IP addresses cannot be
used on the internet. These IP addresses allow communication in the local network only. Thanks
to NAT, limited IPv4 addresses are used more sparingly. In addition, a kind of network
segmentation is provided thanks to NAT. It is beneficial in controlling and securing the
connections coming from outside the network into the network. To use the NAT method, a device
with a gateway must perform packet routing. This device has a NAT table and IP address
conversions are performed by looking at this table.

NAT Advantages and Disadvantages

Although NAT is often used as a solution to running out of IPv4 addresses, it also has some
disadvantages. Some advantages and disadvantages can be seen in the table below.

26
Example of NAT
NAT is quite simple in nature. The simple working logic is shown in the picture below:

(Image Source: javatpoint.com)

When the device with an IP address of 10.6.1.2 goes to the Internet, it must first transmit the packet
to the gateway device that provides the Internet output. The gateway device receiving the packet
determines the network to which it will forward the packet and the destination address by looking
at the information fields in the packet. After seeing that it has an IP address belonging to the
Internet, it makes changes to the packet by using the information in the NAT table, in other words,
it performs NAT conversion. After conversion, it forwards the packet to the next network device
to forward the packet to the destination IP address. When the incoming response packet arrives, it
redirects the packet to the relevant device in the internal network by performing the reverse of
similar operations, and packet transmissions are performed together with NAT transformations.
In this part of the training, what NAT is, its advantages, disadvantages, and the simple working
logic of NAT are discussed.

27