Reviewer for ED204

DIVERSITY

• from the Latin “divertere,” meaning to turn away, separate, oppose

• (Collins Dictionary) state or quality of being different or varied
• (UNESCO) people’s differences which may relate to their race, ethnicity, gender, etc.

SKILLS NEEDED FOR DIVERSITY:

• Collaboration
• Communication

DIVERSITY WHEEL

• a framework founded by Marilyn Loden & Judy Rosener respond to the flourishing
divergence in America’s labor force.
• pointed to the significance of our social characters and the ways in which people
develop their identity
• consisted of Primary or Core & Secondary Dimensions of Diversity
a) Primary or Core Dimensions – Characteristics we were born with
b) Secondary Dimensions – characteristics also part of our social identity, but they can
change or be discarded as our life experiences impact us.

ABILITY

• (Collins English Dictionary) the possession of the qualities required to do something

DISABILITY

• (World Health Organization) umbrella term for impairments, activity limitations, and
participation restrictions
• not only a health issue but also an issue that affects a person’s state in life

PERSON WITH DISABILITY

• (American Disabilities Act of 1990) a person with a physical or mental impairment

substantially limiting one or more major life activity.

DISCRIMINATION

• Issues around race, gender, age, and intellect still abound despite charters, laws, and
policies upholding diversity.
MODELS OF DISABILITY ARE IMPORTANT AS THEY SERVE SEVERAL PURPOSES:

• provide definitions of disability.

• offer explanations of causal and responsibility attributions.
• are based on perceived needs.
• inform policy.
• are not value-neutral.
• define the academic disciplines that focus on disability.
• “shape the identity of PWDs.
• provide insight on how prejudices and discriminations occur.

THE MORAL/RELIGIOUS MODEL

• perceives disability as either a blessing or curse and permanent.

• Protection is also a primary concern as there is an instinct to protect both persons with
disabilities for their vulnerability and thee economic and social order which might be
disrupted by “deviant members” of society.
• disability is equated with the sin, evilness, or spiritual ineptness of either the PWD or of
a PWD’s family member.
• On the other hand, for those who view disability as a blessing, disability either becomes
one’s ticket to heaven or an opportunity toward character development.
• not as dominant now as it used to be during the Medieval times, but the perspective is
still reflected in some places where religion plays a huge influence on daily life.

THE BIOMEDICAL/INDIVIDUAL MODEL

• Evidence-based model of disability that sees disability as a glitch the PWD is born into,
which needs assessment and fixing
• Sees PWDs who are ill and meant to be treated or “made more normal”. (Olkin 1999)
• Sees Disability as a medical problem that resides in the individual
• A defect or failure of a bodily system and as such, is inherently abnormal &
pathological.
THE FUNCTIONAL/REHABILITATION MODEL

• Similar to biomedical models in that it sees the PWD as having deficits.

• These deficits then justify the need to undergo rehabilitative intervention such as
therapies, counselling, and the like with the aim of reintegrating the disabled into
society.

THE SOCIAL MODEL

• Points out that the social model became society’s reaction to how the biomedical
perspective viewed disability.
• Mike Oliver, considered the main proponent of the social model, wrote a position
paper directly reacting against how the medical field has been reinforcing a disabling
view of PWDs.
• According to sociological responses, disability occurs as a result of society’s lack of
understanding of individual differences.
• Sees PWDs as disabled not because they are deficient but because society “insists”
they are. Norms, after all, are determined by society.
• Disability is a social construct where standards and limitations that society places on
specific groups of people are what disable a person.
 • The World Health Organization (1980) differentiates disability and impairment.
a) Impairment is seen as “any loss or abnormality of psychological or anatomical
structure or function.”
b) Disability refers to “any restriction or lack (resulting from an impairment) of ability to
perform an activity in the manner or within the range considered normal for human
being.”

RIGHTS-BASED MODEL

• This model moves beyond explanation, offering a theoretical framework for disability
policy that emphasizes the human dignity of PWDs
• Recognize PWDs' vulnerability and try to address this by upholding and safeguarding
their identities and rights as human beings
• Recognize the fact that a properly formulated prevention policy may be regarded as an
instance of human rights protection for PWDs
• A rights-based approach to education ensures that all energies are devoted to the
realization of each learner’s right to education.
• There are four key actors directly involved in this model:
1. Government as duty bearers
2. Child as the rights-holder
3. Parents not only as a duty-bearer but also as representatives of the child
4. Teachers are both rights-holders and duty bearers.

TWINK TRACK APPROACH

• The twin track approach is a combination of the social model and the rights-based
model.
• A marrying of two perspectives allows for holistic changes to occur, with the option of
promoting individual needs whenever necessary.
• For instance, in education, this would mean allowing a PWD to join mainstream, yet be
given the opportunities for disability-specific programs in case additional support is
needed. (Chassy & Josa 2018)

EDUCATION

• action or process of teaching someone, especially in a school. (Merriam-Webster

Online)
• The real goal of education is to become a ‘good person’ and become a more capable
person than when you started. (Prensky, 2014)
• “education is not the filling of a pail, but the lighting of a fire.” (Butler Yeats)
SPECIAL EDUCATION

• An attempt to increase the fairness of universal public education for exceptional

learners because there are those with special difficulties or extraordinary abilities in
learning. (Kauffman & Hallahan, 2005)
• Tries to ensure that those perceived to have difficulties learning will be taught, albeit in
a different way.

INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

• an educational practice that places students with disabilities in the general education
classroom along with typically developing children under the supervision and guidance
of a general education teacher. (Del Corro-Tiangco 2004)
• takes root from special needs education and is anchored on the philosophy that every
child has an inherent right to be educated equally with his peers, no matter how
different he or she may appear to society.

FOUR KEY ELEMENTS: THE GUIDELINES FOR INCLUSION (2005) published by UNESCO

1. a never-ending search to find better ways to respond to diversity

2. collecting, collating, and evaluating information” for improving policy and practice.
3. Inclusion is all about the “presence, participation, and achievement” or learning
outcomes of all types of students.
4. puts particular emphasis on learners who may be at risk of marginalization, exclusion,
or underachievement.

THE 2030 AGENDA

• Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) are considered roadmaps or blueprints that

were developed by the United Nations to ensure a better and sustainable future for
everyone.

PHILIPPINE LAWS FOR PWDs

• RA 7277 - Equal rights and privileges of PWDs on employment, education, health,

telecommunications, auxiliary social services, accessibility, political, and civil rights.
• Administrative Order 35 - Nationl Disability Prevention and Rehabilitation (NPDR
Week) every 3rd week of July
• RA 9442 – 20% discount priviledges to PWDs
• NCDA Administrative Order No. 001 s.2008 - Guidelines on the Issuance of PWD ID
cards relative to RA 9442
• RA 10070 - Ammendment of RA 7277 (Implementation of Programs and Services for
PWDs in every province, city, and municipality- PDAO Law)
• RA 10366 - Accessible Polling Paces for PWDs and Senior Citizen
• RA 10524 – 1% of all government agencies, offices, corps shall be reserved for PWDs
• RA 10754 – Exemption of Vat on the following sale of Goods and services
• Civil Service Comission MC No.20, s.2017 - Express lanes for PWDs in all commercial
and government establishments
• RA 11228 - All PWDs shall be automatically covered by the National Health Insurance
Program (NHIP) of the PhilHealth and that the PhilHealth shall develop exclusive
packages for PWDs that will address their specific health and development needs.
 MAKING SCHOOLS INCLUSIVE which everyone is valued as the foundation for the
highest achievements of all.

● It develops shared inclusive values that are conveyed to

all new staff, students, governors, and parents/carers.
● Diversity is the new “normal.”
● The principles and values, in inclusive school cultures,
● Inclusive practices must be dynamic and guide decisions about policies and moment to moment
collaborative. practice in classrooms, so that school development
becomes a continuous process.
● To be truly inclusive, educators must always check
for the presence, participation, and achievement
of their learners.

● Differentiation plays an important role in the

DIMENSION B: Producing Inclusive Policies
success of inclusive education practices.
Section B.1 Developing the school for all
● "It takes on the social model of disability as its
starting point, builds on good practice, and then Section B.2 Organizing support for diversity
organizes the index work around a cycle of
● This dimension makes sure that inclusion permeates all
activities which guide schools through stages of
school plans.
preparation, investigation, development, and
review" (UNESCO 2005:30). ● Policies encourage the participation of students and staff
from the moment they join the school, reach out to all
● A three-dimensional framework was created.
students in the locality, and minimize exclusionary
(Booth and Ainscow, 2002)
pressures.

● Support is considered to be all activities which increase

the capacity of a school to respond to student diversity.

DIMENSION C: Evolving Inclusive Practices

Section C.1 Orchestrating learning

Section C.2 Mobilizing resources

● These three dimensions are interconnected and ● This dimension develops school practices which reflect
“chosen to direct thinking about school change.” the inclusive cultures and policies of the school.

● A non-supportive culture would most likely result ● Lessons are made responsive to student diversity.
in resistance from the school's direct
● Students are encouraged to be actively involved in all
stakeholders.
aspects of their education, which draws on their
knowledge and experience outside school.

● Staff identify material resources and resources within

each other. students, parents/carers, and local
THE DIMENSIONS AND SECTIONS IN THE INDEX
communities which can be mobilized to support learning
and participation.

DIMENSION A: Creating Inclusive Cultures

Section A.1 Building community

Section A.2 Establishing inclusive values

● This dimension creates a secure, accepting,

collaborating, and stimulating community, in
 I. CREATING INCLUSIVE CULTURES 2. BUILD KEY PEOPLE
● The government recognizes the need for teacher training,
both in the special needs education and general
education levels.
● Stakeholders are important because they play a
● It also pushes for the use of evidence-based teaching
major role in "connecting what is being taught in a
frameworks, provision of student assistance, and access
school to its surrounding community."
to instructional materials.
● In 2017, UNESCO reported that there has been
● Most importantly, calls are made for continuing research
significant global improvement in accessing
and forming of policies to be initiated by agencies such as
education, specifically in the primary level for the
the Department of Education so as to further refine the
last 15 years.
inclusive process and have it tailored to fit to the needs of
● However, in 2016 Global Education Monitoring children with additional needs.
Report reveals that there are still an estimated 263
million children and youth aged 6 to 17 all around
the world who are still not in school at this time.

3. IDENTIFY AND ERADICATE BARRIERS

1. WHAT STAKEHOLDERS CAN DO? ● UNESCO's Guide for Inclusion (2005) advocates for the
identification and removal of obstacles that have to do
● The rights-based approach to educational
with transforming prevailing attitudes and values on a
programming "insists that no right can exist
systemic level.
without a corresponding governmental
obligation" (Van den Brule-Balescut & Sandkull ● The Philippine government seems to be in consonance
2005). with this aspect in the light of its existing legislative
policies that ground the undeniable importance of
● Thus, governments and communities are starting
inclusion.
to understand how they are accountable to
children with additional needs in fulfilling their ● It is also continuously reorganizing structures in
right to education and providing access to quality education and implementing programs that highlight the
education that is also safe, welcoming, and need for primary stakeholders like the school, the
inclusive. parents, and other policy makers, to acquire more
understanding and capacity-building to manage an
● The following are some steps stakeholders can
inclusive environment.
take to create inclusive cultures:

COMMON BARRIERS TO INCLUSION

1. SET PARAMETERS FOR INCLUSION
● The government has identified key people and
professions, and highlighted important factors
leading to the success of inclusive education – i.e.,
● ATTITUDES, VALUES SYSTEMS, MISCONCEPTIONS, AND
placement process, committees, staffing and
SOCIETAL NORMS
responsibilities, teacher training and
compensation, incentives for private sector - can lead to prejudices and/or actual resistance to
participation, and collaboration of the Department implement inclusive practices (UNESCO 2005).
of Education with other branches of government.
● PHYSICAL BARRIERS - the lack of building, facility,
● These clearly show not just an attempt to transportation, or road accessibility are types of physical
centralize inclusive practices, but an initiative to barriers that can literally affect one's mobility.
make the welfare and development of children
● CURRICULUM - a rigid "one size fits all" type of
with additional needs the responsibility of all.
curriculum that does not allow room for
 individual differences can significantly stunt one's ● There are, however, nuances between the two as well.
learning and opportunity for growth.

● LACK OF TEACHER TRAINING AND LOW

TEACHER EFFICACY - whether training in teaching
strategies, using curriculum frameworks, or
behavior and classroom management, lack of
training as well as low confidence in one's own
skills can directly affect how inclusive practices
are implemented.

● POOR LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION

- language barriers may also directly have
implications on how well inclusive practices are
implemented.

● LACK OF FUNDING - enough funding can allow for

training more teachers as well as coming up with
more appropriate programs instructional
materials, or facilities, lack of funds can be limiting
and debilitating to schools.

● LACK OF POLICIES - policies have the ability to

unify beliefs and mobilize resources;
unfortunately, lack of it can become a convenient
justification for inaction.

● ORGANIZATION OF EDUCATIONAL

SYSTEMS - centralized systems may have some

type of detachment in terms of implementing
policies and seeing the reality of how such policies
are affecting learners and other stakeholders.

● TOO MUCH FOCUS ON PERFORMANCE-

BASED STANDARDS - schools have also reportedly
refused inclusion because of fear that the
presence of learners with additional needs will pull
down their rankings in standardized tests.

2. SPECIAL EDUCATION VS. II.PRODUCING INCLUSIVE POLICIES

MAINSTREAMING VS. INCLUSIVE
EDUCATION

● Special education assesses, instructs, and

evaluates students individually and intentionally, ● UNESCO (2005) realistically acknowledges that a societal
this type of educational setting is beneficial to change in attitude need not be initially present in a
those with very unique needs as well. community before inclusion can be fully practiced.

● Mainstreaming shares more similarities with ● Without this realization, differences in standards and
inclusion than with special education. quality of education may surface as potential problems.

● Both look at integrating the child with additional ● Just very recently, the pre-service education curriculum
needs into a general education setting. was restructured so that special needs education units
are not only given to special needs education majors but
to other education majors as well.
● The following is a list of other possible steps that
educators can take to facilitate the much- needed
societal shift and inform policy.

1. INVOLVE OTHER SECTORS OF SOCIETY

● Current training and awareness campaigns seem
to limit the movement of inclusion to a mere
home- school relationship.

● At most, these are extended to the departments

for social welfare and health.
● However, for an inclusive set-up to truly be and these have to be used wisely to benefit the child with
successful, active involvement of the entire additional needs.
community must be ensured.

● For instance, those in the business, commercial,

security, and religious sectors must also be given
representation in trainings.

● For instance, students belonging to architectural

and interior design programs have been working
on theses and capstone projects where their main
clients have additional needs.

● The idea is for everyone-regardless of their

training or exposure-to become more sensitive
and aware of the PWD population.

● The more aware a community is, the more it will be

able to help.

2. COLLABORATE
● Whether creating an academic program specific
to a child with additional needs or creating a new
legislative bill for the PWD community,
collaboration is crucial.

● Each member of the inclusive education team

would have their own strengths and weaknesses,
and these have to be used wisely to benefit the
child with additional needs.

● Del Corro-Tiangco (2014) states that general

education teachers are trained in the general
curriculum but would not know how to teach and
manage children with additional needs; while a
special needs education teacher would be
equipped to handle atypical behaviors but would
not know much about the general education
curriculum.

● True collaboration would guarantee an inclusive

program that would cover as many areas as
possible.

3. RECOGNIZE THE SHIFT IN ROLES OF THE

TEACHERS

● Whether creating an academic program specific

to a child with additional needs or creating a new
legislative bill for the PWD community,
collaboration is crucial.

● Each member of the inclusive education team

would have their own strengths and weaknesses,
● Del Corro-Tiangco (2014) states that general
education teachers are trained in the general
curriculum but would not know how to teach and
manage children with additional needs; while a
special needs education teacher would be
equipped to handle atypical behaviors but would
not know much about the general education
curriculum.

● True collaboration would guarantee an inclusive

program that would cover as many areas as
possible.

4. INCLUDE TRANSITIONS IN PLANNING

● An abrupt systemic change that is not well-
planned or that disregards practices-whether
existing or implied may hinder the shift to
inclusion and cause resentment from all
stakeholders.

● Instead, current practices have to be respected

and honored so as to facilitate a gradual shift to
inclusive education.

● Booth and Ainscow (2002) recommend that

schools reflect on their current policies and
practices to check their readiness for an inclusive
set-up.

● They also devised a questionnaire that would help

administrators, faculty and other stakeholders
comprehensively gather baseline data.

Specifically, schools may look at the following:

● Student admissions
● Accessibility to utilities and facilities
● Supports available to students, parents, and
school personnel

● Learner accommodations
● Exclusionary or discriminatory incidents
● Number of bullying cases
● Faculty and staff promotions
 III. EVOLVING INCLUSIVE PRACTICES ● UDL refers to the design of instructional materials and
activities to make the content information accessible to
all children (Rose & Meyer 2006 as cited in Turnbull et al.
2013).

● Evolving inclusive practices is the third dimension ● It is best used in a general education classroom where
to Booth and Ainscow's framework for schools learners are different.
(2002), where administrators must first try to
● Through the provision of delivering content and allowing
create an inclusive culture among its stakeholders,
student to construct learning in more than one way.
then build better, more all- encompassing policies.
● UDL ensures that all students learn genuinely.
● The goal of the first two steps is to ascertain habit-
forming conditions, which make procedures that
are otherwise unfamiliar feel like second nature to
us.
THREE ELEMENTS OF UDL
● Once this happens, we can start focusing on
raising the participation and success rates of 1. Multiple means of representation – presenting
learners with additional needs inside our information in multiple ways. Teachers use this principle
classrooms. when they find more than one way to explain a concept or
provide information.
● The term “evolving” assumes that we already have
strategies in place which we just have to revisit for 2. Multiple means of action and expression – encourages
possible tweaking. students to demonstrate their learning through various
forms (e.g., exams, multimedia, concept maps, papers,
● It suggests advancement and positive growth,
projects). This principle highlights executive functioning,
which means we can look at these existing
where students apply what they learn strategically.
strategies and just adjust these according to the
needs of our students along the way. 3. Multiple means of engagement – refers to different
opportunities for student involvement (e.g., interactive
● Two effective evidence-based inclusive practices
activities, group discussions, online discussion boards).
that can be used in the classroom are Universal
This principle reflects the idea that students have
Design for Learning (UDL) and Differentiated
different motivations to engage in learning.
Instruction.

1. UNIVERSAL DESIGN FOR LEARNING

● In architecture, universal designs refer to
structures that were made in such a way that they
can be used by customers or clients with a wide
range of needs (Dukes & Lamar-Dukes 2009 as
cited in Salend 2011).

● Such designs ensure accessibility for all.

● For example, an architect designs a commercial
complex where ramps, elevators, escalators,
handrails, wide doorways and sidewalks, and signs
embossed in Braille abound. It is a very user-
friendly building. Obviously, the designer
imagined that some customers might walk into
the complex in wheelchairs or white canes. The
architect does not know if or when it's going to
happen, but he anticipated it and incorporated it
into his design anyway.
 experiences need to be designed in a way that provide opportunities for students to learn and demonstrate their
understanding in varied ways.

● Thus, Differentiating Instruction (DI) helps ensure that

learners are engaged in respectful tasks and provide
diverse means of learning that reflect their strengths and
address their needs simultaneously.

How is Instruction Differentiated?

● Bender in 2002 (as cited by Gentry et al. 2013) identified

elements of the curriculum that can be differentiated:

(1) content,
(2) process,
(3) product, and
(4) learning environment in response to the students'
characteristics: interests, readiness, and learning
profile.

As an overview, differentiation is achieved by providing

materials and tasks:
2. DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION
a) at varied levels of difficulty;
● According to Tomlinson (2010), differentiated (or
differentiating) instruction is a teacher's response b) with varying levels of instructional support;
to students' varying needs, interests, and learning
c) by using multiple grouping arrangement;
styles.
d) that involve student choice; and
● "It refers to a systematic approach to planning
curriculum and instruction for academically e) use varied evaluation strategies.
diverse learners. It is a way of thinking about the
classroom with the dual goals of honoring each
student's learning needs and maximizing student's
learning capacity."
● As teachers, you must know your curriculum.
● When teachers differentiate instruction, they use a
● You are suggested to revisit or identify which are non-
variety of teaching and learning strategies that are
negotiable and negotiable learning objectives and tasks.
necessary to meet the diverse needs of students in
any class (Friend & Bursuck 2009). ● You are also expected to know your students' interests,
readiness level (based on diagnostic data), and learning
styles/profile (strengths and needs).

● You may create a class profile to provide an overview of

Why Differentiate Instruction? the class's characteristics and needs.

● All learners are unique and have varying interests, ● Next, you have to identify and plan what and how to
talents, strengths, as well as needs. differentiate your material.

● Hence, it is essential that teaching and learning ● The goal is to start small and take simple steps toward
experiences reflect this diversity. differentiating instruction.

● To ensure engaged, successful, and flourishing

learners, teaching and learning
● Table 3.3 provides a guide on how to effectively ● Student choice on product (oral presentations, written
differentiate in the classroom. report, role plays, simulations, etc.)

● Varied journal prompts

● Choice boards
DIFFERENTIATION STRATEGIES ● Think-Tac-Toe
● Tiered Activities (by readiness and interest)
● More items (advanced learners)
CONTENT ● Less items (with special needs)
(What is taught?) (What is learned?) ● Learning contracts
● Provide additional materials/skills ● RAFT (Role, Audience, Format, Topic)
● Reduce materials
● Skills Exploration by interest

PROCESS LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

(How is it taught?) (How is it learned?) (How is the classroom arranged?)

● Choices of reading materials ● Flexible grouping: whole class, small groups, one-on-one,
peerteaching, pairs partner learning, independent
● Varied presentation styles: say it, show it, and
learning, and cooperative learning.
made it
● Flexible seating
● Use media (video, audio, computer, TV, and
manipulatives ● Preferential seating
● Varied pacing ● Pull-out from class (for learners with special needs)
● Reading buddies: (Read/summarize,
Read/Question/Answer, Visual
Organizer/summarizer

● Think-Pair-Share by readiness, interest, and

learning profile

● Learning centers/sections
● Small-group instruction
● Jigsaw (expert groups)
● Cooperative learning activities
● Teams, Games and Activities
● Learning contracts

PRODUCT

(How is it assessed?)

(How is learning demonstrated?)

● Homework options
 COMPONENTS OF SPECIAL AND INCLUSIVE ● Child development and social workers use developmental
EDUCATION screening tools such as the Early Childhood Care and
Development (ECCD) Checklist that covers items
expected for a child's typical development.

● Once a program of pre-referral intervention has been

I. CHILD FIND THROUGH A PRE- REFERRAL PROCESS designed, implementation and evaluation follow to
determine how effective it is in addressing the needs of
● Referral for evaluation and special education
the child.
services begins by identifying students who have
additional needs and who may be at risk for
developmental disabilities.

● School guidance counselors, early childhood

B. PRE-REFERRAL STRATEGIES
teachers, primary school teachers, and
community-based daycare workers are often the ● Essential in a pre-referral intervention is the use of pre-
first to notice such developmental delays in referral strategies that are designed to provide immediate
children. instructional and/or behavior management support to a
child.
● In other instances, the parents themselves notice
the delays and seek consultation with ● Using such strategies lessens the behavior management
pediatricians and other specialists. support special education and makes efficient use of time
and financial resources that could have been spent for
special education assessment (Heward 2013).

● This will also lessen the tendency of over- referrals to

A. PRE-REFERRAL PROCESS special education and wasting time as children wait to be
tested rather than receive the instructional and
● A child noted to have significant difficulties in
behavioral support they need.
relation to expected competencies and
developmental milestones may be referred by
parents and teachers for observation and
assessment.
Examples of pre-referral strategies are:
● A team of professionals, known as a pre- referral
team, is comprised of special education teachers, ● observation of the child’s behavior;
counselors, administrators, and psychologists who
● including interactions with parents, teachers, and peers;
collaborate to determine reasons for the observed
challenges (Hallahan et al. 2014). ● interview of parents and teachers to gather more
information about the child;
● They collaborate to find ways to meet the needs of
children with developmental delays. ● review of school records; and

● Children with noted developmental delays and ● analysis of the child's academic output through error
difficulties are identified through observations and analysis, portfolio assessment, and criterion-referenced
use of norm and criterion referenced tests. and curriculum. based assessment (Taylor 2009).

● They are not immediately referred for special Depending on the information gathered, corresponding
education testing but are first provided with the changes can be made to manage the child's needs, such
necessary academic and behavioral support as modification of the classroom environment (e.g.,
needed to address noted challenges. seating arrangement, group change, and teacher's
proximity in class), instructional support, and relevant
● In his assessment model, Taylor (2009) explained
classroom and behavior management (Mcloughlin &
that the initial step is to determine teaching areas
Lewis 2009).
where a learner will benefit from additional
support through a variety of means.

● Very young students who are at-risk or suspected

to have additional needs may also be identified
through community-based screening.
 PRE-REFERRAL PROCESS INITIAL IDENTIFICATION A. ASSESSMENT PURPOSE
● Recognition of potential problems ● Assessment has a variety of purpose in special and
inclusive education.
● Parent of Teacher observation
● It begins with initial identification that was explained in
● Review of school records, classroom observations
the previous section in Child Find and the pre-referral
DETERMINATION OF TEACHING AREAS process.
AND STRATEGIES
● The results of an assessment are used to decide on a
● Small-group instruction child's educational placement and to plan programs for a
child identified to have additional needs.
● Direct instruction
● Progress monitoring and evaluation of teaching programs
IMPLEMENTATION OF TEACHING
and services is another, the purpose of which is to
PROGRAMS
determine how effective programs are to assist the
● Additional in-class or after-school support inclusive teacher and the special education teacher
(Giuliani & Pierangelo 2012).
● Modification of classroom environment and
behavior There are a variety of assessment methods that regular
and special education teachers can use.
● Modification of instruction to address potential
needs (1) interviews,

EVALUATION OF TEACHING PROGRAM (2) observations,

● Determine effectiveness of programs on learning (3) checklists or rating scales, and

and behavior
(4) tests.

● If despite provision of additional support,

B. METHODS OF ASSESSMENT TESTS
struggles and difficulties persist, then the child is
referred for assessment either within the school, if ● School psychologists, educational diagnosticians, and
such services are available, or referred to a other related professionals use a variety of assessment
professional for further assessment. tools to ensure that results are valid and reliable.

● What is essential at this point is that the teachers NORM-REFERENCED TESTS

have implemented a variety of approaches and
● are standardized assessments that compare a child's
practices to ensure that support is provided
performance with a representative sample of students of
before formal assessment.
the same chronological age.

● Such tests are rigorously made by a team.

● Results are reported as percentile ranks and age and

II. ASSESSMENT grade equivalent scores, which makes it easier for
professionals to determine class and individual
● Assessment is the process of collecting
performance.
information about a child's strengths and needs.
● While such quantitative reporting makes it easier to
● It uses a problem-solving process that involves a
compare the test performance of children in a class, it has
systematic collection as well as interpretation of
its limitations in terms of use in instructional planning.
data gathered decisions (Salvia et al. 2013).
● Intelligence Tests (e.g., Wechsler Intelligence Scale for
● Teachers and administrators make based on the
Students and Stanford-Binet
assessment results.
 Intelligence Scale) and Achievement Tests (Wide ● An example of authentic assessment is observation of
Range Achievement Tests and Kaufman Test of young students as they interact with family members,
Educational Achievement) are examples of norm- peers, and objects in naturally occurring activities across
referenced assessments. settings (e.g., home, school, playground, etc.), and
routines.
CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTS
● During observations, teachers and specialists can use
● This test compare a child's performance based on
running records which focuses on the occurrence of
established standards and competencies and can
behaviors as they happen sequentially. Clay (2000 as cited
be used to describe student performance
in Dennis et al. 2013) identified essential information to be
(Jennings et al. 2006 as cited in Spinelli 2012).
included in a running record:
● Scores are typically reported as simple numerical
● Date and time of the observation
scores, percentage of correct responses, letter
grades, or graphic score reports. ● Names of children involved

● Such assessment data are more useful and ● Location of the incident
relevant as these provide specific skills a child has
● Verbatim recording of what the children said
mastered and those that need additional
instruction (Gargiulo 2012). ● Actual events that occurred

CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTS ● Anecdotal records contain shorter descriptions of

incidents or anecdotes that teachers and specialists can
● This test compare a child's performance based on
use to analyze a student's behavior and plan strategies for
established standards and competencies and can
a specific child or group of children.
be used to describe student performance
(Jennings et al. 2006 as cited in Spinelli 2012). ● Other examples of authentic assessment for young
children are play-based assessment and portfolio
● Scores are typically reported as simple numerical
assessment.
scores, percentage of correct responses, letter
grades, or graphic score reports.

● Such assessment data are more useful and

relevant as these provide specific skills a child has
C. ASSESSMENT PRINCIPLES
mastered and those that need additional
instruction (Gargiulo 2012). ● Assessment practices should be anchored on principles
as provided by the Division for Early Childhood of the
AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENT
Council for Exceptional Student (DEC) (2014).
● There are other ways of assessing students
● Child- and family-centered practices, a team- based
considered at-risk for developmental delays or
approach, application of individualized and appropriate
have additional needs.
process, and use of genuine and meaningful
● One that is highly recommended by professionals communication that adhere to ethical and legal practices
is the use of authentic assessment methods and are the recommendations provided by the DEC.
tools.
● Thus, a variety of assessment methods and tools, use of
● Authentic assessments provide students the authentic measures, as well as involvement of the family
opportunity to apply knowledge and skills in are necessary to make decisions for placement and
meaningful, real-world settings (e.g.. classroom, instructional planning (DEC 2014).
playground, etc.) rather than in an artificial and
contrived setting (Dennis et al. 2013).

● Assessment tasks that are more real- life are

considered more authentic.
 III. PLACEMENT self-contained special education class but still located in a
general education school.
● Assessment results are used to decide a child's
appropriate education placement within a ● In this learning environment, all students receive
continuum from the least to the most restrictive individualized and group instruction with peers with
settings. disabilities and additional needs from a special education
teacher, depending on the program goals, students may
● During the evaluation, student performance is
be given the opportunity to interact with typically
assessed and the team determines if there would
developing peers through school community-building
be any changes in the educational placement
activities.
within the continuum.
● Moving up in the placement continuum, some students
● Teams will base this on their observations,
who need more intensive instruction and supports are
assessment results, and other factors, with the
educated in a special education class in a special
goal to move toward the least restrictive learning
education school.
environment.
● Teams of professionals, along with the special education
● Sound decisions are made to allow for fluidity in
teacher, work with students with disabilities and
the child's placement based on the child's
additional needs in a highly specialized setting.
strengths, abilities, and needs.
● On the other end of the continuum is the most restrictive
● A general education classroom is the least
or isolated setting, such as a residential facility where
restrictive environment for a child with additional
students live and receive their educational support
needs.
twenty-four hours a day.
● Access to the same learning experiences and
● Finally, children with multiple disabilities, often of the
opportunities is provided as to typically
severe kind, are provided with home or hospital- based
developing students.
programs to manage their medical condition and learn as
● Thus, it is considered as the "most normalized or much as they could.
typical setting" (Gargiulo, 2012).
● Inclusive education espouses that all students, to the
● Additional support in the form of maximum extent possible, is provided access to general
accommodations or changes in expectations education classroom with the provision of support to
through curriculum modifications may be remove barriers to enable success.
provided but still within the same classroom as
peers within the year level.

● Another option for placement is to be in a general

education class but the child receives
supplementary instruction and services such as
speech, physical, and occupational therapy or
counseling services during the school day.

● Students who may be part of a general education

class are pulled-out of their class to receive
instruction from a specialist teacher in a resource
room.

● In such a placement, it is assumed that the child

will benefit more from either a small-group or
individualized instruction with a specialist teacher
who will be able to more intensively target his
learning needs.

● Other students need more intensive support that

is not provided in a general education class.

● Teams may decide to recommend placement for a

child in a more restrictive setting such as a
 IV. ACCOMMODATIONS AND CURRICULAR 2. RESPONSE ACCOMMODATION
MODIFICATIONS
● Response accommodations allow students with
disabilities and additional needs a variety of ways to
complete assignments, written tests, performance tasks,
and other activities.
A. ACCOMMODATIONS
● Providing such instructional and assessment supports
● Based on the definition, accommodations are allows them to access the same learning experiences as
supports provided to students to help gain full other students in a general education classroom.
access to class content and instruction, without
altering the curriculum standards and
competencies expected and to demonstrate
accurately what they know.

● When accommodations are provided in a general

education classroom for children with disabilities,
barriers are removed from accessing education.

● As a result, children can work around the effect of

their disabilities.

● Examples of accommodations are altering

instruments, toys or materials, changing the room
during specific activities, providing time
extensions or allowances for tests and tasks, and
changing response formats in worksheets.

● Accommodations may be provided both during

assessment and instruction, depending on the
learning profile and needs of a child and may vary
in terms of presentation, response, setting, and
scheduling (Beech 2010).

3. SETTING ACCOMMODATION
● Changes in the location or conditions of the educational
setting or environment may be necessary for students
1. PRESENTATION ACCOMMODATION
who need support in terms of behavior, attention, and
● Children with disabilities may need specialized organization of space and materials.
presentation formats especially those with
● Accommodation in a setting may allow a child who gets
sensory impairments so they can learn the same
easily distracted to work in a quiet corner of the
content alongside typically developing peers.
classroom in his own study carrel so that he will not be
sidetracked by environmental stimuli.

● Or a child who is still unable to read fluently may be

allowed to take a silent reading comprehension test in
another room with a supervising adult just so she could
hear herself read aloud which helps her better understand
the story.

4. SCHEDULING ACCOMMODATION
● Changing time allotment, schedule of tasks and
assessments, and management of time are some types of
scheduling accommodations.
● Students with slower ability in processing
information and directions well as with focusing
issues may need these types of accommodation.
 ● Some examples of accommodation that can V. PARENT INVOLVEMENT
modify scheduling are:

(1) extending time for assignments and

assessments;
● It has long been established that parent involvement in
(2) providing breaks in between tasks;
education, planning, and management of children with
(3) providing a visual schedule or a checklist of disabilities and additional needs is essential as they are
individual responsibilities; the primary caregivers and have direct influence on their
children.
(4) providing predictable routines and
procedures; and ● This is anchored on Bronfenbrenner's Human Ecological
Theory, which states that there are five environmental
(5) providing an electronic device with alarms and
systems that comprise a child's social context. For the
cues.
purpose, focus is given on the microsystem, where the
child and his/her family belong, along with peers, school,
and the immediate community (i.e., neighborhood).

● Within these microsystems, a child has direct interactions

B. MODIFICATIONS
with parents, teachers, peers, and others; while the
● Curriculum modifications are provided for mesosystem refers to the linkages or relationships
students with significant or severe disabilities between microsystems such as the connections between
where content expectations are altered, and the family experiences and school experiences and between
performance outcomes are changed in relation to family and peers (Santrock 2011).
what are expected of typically developing
students of the same age (DEC 2007).

● When instruction and assessment are modified, a

student with disability is still given the right to
access the same learning opportunities as other
students in the general education class, but the
tasks are more respectful and appropriate to the
student's abilities and

● Curricular modifications include changes in

instructional level, content and performance
criteria, as well as the breadth and depth of
content being learned by students.

● Students with disabilities or additional needs may

be given more, less, or different content and
resource materials altogether.

● They may also be assessed using different

standards that are more appropriate to the
student's needs and abilities, such as being Bronfenbrenner's Human Ecological Systems Theory
provided with fewer objectives, shorter lessons, or
a smaller number of vocabulary words to learn.

● Educational teams responsible for instructional

planning may indicate curricular modifications in
the student's Individual Educational Plan (IEP),
Such modifications are needed so that students
also have access to the general education
curriculum.
 ● The Division of Early Childhood of the Council of 1. PARENT-TEACHER CONFERENCES
Exceptional Children (DEC) espoused the use of
● Parent-teacher conferences are face-to-face meetings
family-centered practices in the assessment and
held between parents and teachers.
instruction of young children.
● Conducting such meetings is necessary so parents of
● Turnbull and Turnbull (2002 cited in Kirk et. Al.
students with disabilities and additional needs will be able
2015) provided the principles of a family- centered
to share about their child's background, strengths and
model:
abilities, history of difficulties, and practices they have
(1) honors the family choice by changing the power been implementing at home as well as interventions done
relationship between professional and families, with other specialists.

(2) abandons a pathology orientation and adopts a ● Together with teachers, they can coordinate their efforts
strengths orientation, and and services to support their child both in school and at
home.
(3) where the entire family becomes the unit of
support and not just the child with a disability and ● Schools differ when it comes to the frequency of parent
the child's mother (p. 19). teacher conferences.

● In this way, the whole family is provided support, ● One best practice is to hold a meeting with parents at the
capitalizing on the child and family members' beginning of a school year as part of goal setting for the
strengths and resources, not on their deficits and student with a disability.
needs.
● In this way, both parents and teachers can set
● Teachers and administrators may also be guided expectations for the year and agree on goals and
by these principles when communicating and objectives for the child.
collaborating with parents and families of students
● This is also a good opportunity for teachers to establish
with disabilities.
rapport with parents.
● Parent involvement has been found to be directly
● Conferences are also held after every grading period (e.g.,
related to academic achievement and
every quarter, trimester, and semester) so that progress,
improvements in the school performance of
changes, and results can be communicated and discussed
children.
with parents and agree on necessary action plans.
● Educational support and collaboration with
teachers have been found to promote child
success in school (Reschly & Christenson 2009).

● Moreover, programs for children with disabilities 2. WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

become more effective and successful when
● Home-school communication may also be conducted
children and families are involved (Newman 2004
through written messages, such as the use of a home-
cited in Heward 2013).
school communication notebook, where teachers and
parents write homework assignments, the student's
behavior in the classroom, as well as progress on program
goals.
A. HOME – SCHOOL COMMUNICATION
● A written communication may be time consuming. but
● Having established the critical role of parents in a some parents prefer this form of collaboration as the
student's developmental and academic progress messages are documented and they can provide a copy
and achievement, it is essential that there is a to a developmental specialist when needed.
close home and school collaboration and
communication.

● To establish partnerships, problem-solving, two-

way communication, and shared decision making
are some of the practices needed.

● Communicating with parents may be done in

several ways.
 3. DIGITAL COMMUNICATION B. OTHER WAYS TO INVOLVE PARENTS
● With the influx of mobile devices, many parents
and families are more able to communicate
through electronic and digital means such as
email, text messages, and social network ● Parents also have strengths, abilities, intuitive knowledge,
messaging systems. and the commitment to help their own child.

● A study found that parents and teachers perceive ● They become advocates of their own children.
technology as an effective tool to promote parent
● To maximize their involvement, schools provide other
involvement and thus value its use for
opportunities such as parent education training,
communication (Olmstead 2013).
workshops, and parent support groups.
● Because it is instant and real-time, parents and
teachers are immediately able to receive messages
and updates about the student.

● However, drawbacks can also occur such as when 1. PARENT EDUCATION

both parties are not mindful of parameters in
● Parent education may take the form of providing
communication; hence, it is necessary that parties
seminars and workshops to parents to equip them with a
agree on certain boundaries in order to be
better understanding of their child's disability and
respectful of everyone's time and personal space.
accompanying strengths, uniqueness, as well as specific
techniques and strategies that they can practice at home.

● Such training sessions can be for a few hours done on a

quarterly basis or for a regular period, such as every
4. HOME – SCHOOL CONTRACTS
Saturday, depending on the needs of the parents and the
● A home-school contract contains an agreement training capacity of the school.
between teachers and parents regarding
● In this way, parents become educated in evidence- based
behavioral and/or academic goals for a student
approaches so that there will be continuity in the
with disability.
practices implemented between the home and school.
● Just like any formal contract, this is a written
agreement between teachers, parents, and
students (when appropriate) on specific objectives
and corresponding reinforcements or rewards
2. PARENT SUPPORT GROUPS
when they are met.
● Parent support groups are also helpful as parents are able
● One example of a home-school contract is a Daily
to ask other parents about tips and techniques to work
Report Card, an individualized intervention used in
with their children.
schools that is anchored on the behavioral
principles of operant conditioning. ● Parents should be empowered so that they can
participate in planning and organizing parent support
● The card Indicates specific behaviors targeted for
groups.
a child with disability that are framed as positive
statements and targets for improvements. ● Through such groups, parents can draw support from one
another during meetings as they share techniques and
● The use of a daily report card has been found to be
strategies, even frustrations and successes about their
beneficial in helping a child with Attention Deficit
children.
Hyperactivity Disorder in school and in promoting
daily collaboration between teachers and parents ● In summary, this chapter has presented the different
(Moore et al. 2016; Mautone et al. 2012). components of inclusive and special education, which
include the following: prereferral, assessment, placement,
accommodations curricular modifications, and parent
involvement.
● Across these components, a team approach is highly recommended where each member the
child, parents, general education teacher, special education teacher, therapists, and other
specialistscoordinate and collaborate in planning and making decisions for the child with
disabilities.