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96519_cvr_ptg01_hires.indd 1 17/05/16 5:43 PM

 Contents
Preface xiii
About the Authors xvii

1 MARKETING IN TODAY’S ECONOMY 1

THE CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES OF MARKETING IN TODAY’S ECONOMY 2
Power Shift to Customers 3
Massive Increase in Product Selection 4
Audience and Media Fragmentation 4
Changing Value Propositions 4
Shifting Demand Patterns 5
Privacy, Security, and Ethical Concerns 5
Unclear Legal Jurisdiction 6
BASIC MARKETING CONCEPTS 7
What Is a Market? 8
What Is Exchange? 9
What Is a Product? 10
MAJOR MARKETING ACTIVITIES AND DECISIONS 13
Strategic Planning 15
Research and Analysis 15
Developing Competitive Advantage 16
Marketing Strategy Decisions 16
Social Responsibility and Ethics 19
Implementation and Control 20
Developing and Maintaining Customer Relationships 20

vi

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 Contents vii

TAKING ON THE CHALLENGES OF MARKETING STRATEGY 21

LESSONS FROM CHAPTER 1 23
NOTES 24

2 STRATEGIC MARKETING PLANNING 27

THE STRATEGIC PLANNING PROCESS 29
Organizational Mission versus Organizational Vision 30
Corporate or Business-Unit Strategy 34
Functional Goals and Objectives 35
Functional Strategy 36
Implementation 36
Evaluation and Control 36
THE MARKETING PLAN 37
Marketing Plan Structure 37
Using the Marketing Plan Structure 43
Purposes and Significance of the Marketing Plan 44
Organizational Aspects of the Marketing Plan 45
MAINTAINING CUSTOMER FOCUS AND BALANCE IN STRATEGIC PLANNING 46
Customer-Focused Planning 46
Balanced Strategic Planning 49
LESSONS FROM CHAPTER 2 51
NOTES 53

3 COLLECTING AND ANALYZING MARKETING INFORMATION 56

CONDUCTING A SITUATION ANALYSIS 58
Analysis Alone Is Not a Solution 58
Data Are Not the Same as Information 59
The Benefits of Analysis Must Outweigh the Costs 59
Conducting a Situation Analysis Is a Challenging Exercise 59
THE INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT 61
Review of Current Objectives, Strategy, and Performance 61
Availability of Resources 62
Organizational Culture and Structure 63
THE CUSTOMER ENVIRONMENT 63
Who Are Our Current and Potential Customers? 65
What Do Customers Do with Our Products? 65
Where Do Customers Purchase Our Products? 66
When Do Customers Purchase Our Products? 66

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viii Contents

Why (and How) Do Customers Select Our Products? 68

Why Do Potential Customers Not Purchase Our Products? 68
THE EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT 69
Competition 71
Economic Growth and Stability 73
Political Trends 74
Legal and Regulatory Issues 74
Technological Advancements 75
Sociocultural Trends 76
COLLECTING MARKETING DATA AND INFORMATION 79
Secondary Information Sources 79
Primary Data Collection 82
Overcoming Problems in Data Collection 83
LESSONS FROM CHAPTER 3 84
NOTES 85

4 DEVELOPING COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE AND STRATEGIC FOCUS 89

MAKING SWOT ANALYSIS PRODUCTIVE 91
Stay Focused 91
Search Extensively for Competitors 93
Collaborate with Other Functional Areas 93
Examine Issues from the Customers’ Perspective 93
Look for Causes, Not Characteristics 95
Separate Internal Issues from External Issues 96
SWOT-DRIVEN STRATEGIC PLANNING 97
Strengths and Weaknesses 97
Opportunities and Threats 97
The SWOT Matrix 99
DEVELOPING AND LEVERAGING COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGES 102
ESTABLISHING A STRATEGIC FOCUS 104
DEVELOPING MARKETING GOALS AND OBJECTIVES 109
Developing Marketing Goals 111
Developing Marketing Objectives 112
Moving beyond Goals and Objectives 115
LESSONS FROM CHAPTER 4 115
NOTES 117

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 Contents ix

5 CUSTOMERS, SEGMENTATION, AND TARGET MARKETING 119

BUYER BEHAVIOR IN CONSUMER MARKETS 121
The Consumer Buying Process 121
Factors that Affect the Consumer Buying Process 127
BUYER BEHAVIOR IN BUSINESS MARKETS 129
Unique Characteristics of Business Markets 130
The Business Buying Process 132
MARKET SEGMENTATION 133
Traditional Market Segmentation Approaches 133
Individualized Segmentation Approaches 136
Criteria for Successful Segmentation 138
IDENTIFYING MARKET SEGMENTS 139
Segmenting Consumer Markets 139
Segmenting Business Markets 144
TARGET MARKETING STRATEGIES 145
LESSONS FROM CHAPTER 5 147
NOTES 151

6 THE MARKETING PROGRAM 153

PRODUCT STRATEGY 155
Strategic Issues in the Product Portfolio 155
The Challenges of Service Products 158
Developing New Products 160
PRICING STRATEGY 162
Key Issues in Pricing Strategy 162
Pricing Service Products 168
Base Pricing Strategies 170
Adjusting the Base Price 171
SUPPLY CHAIN STRATEGY 172
Strategic Supply Chain Issues 173
Trends in Supply Chain Strategy 178
INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS 182
Strategic Issues in Integrated Marketing Communications 183
Advertising 185
Public Relations 187

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x Contents

Personal Selling and Sales Management 189

Sales Promotion 191
LESSONS FROM CHAPTER 6 195
NOTES 200

7 BRANDING AND POSITIONING 203

STRATEGIC ISSUES IN BRANDING 206
Basic Branding Decisions 206
Strategic Brand Alliances 209
Brand Value 209
Packaging and Labeling 212
DIFFERENTIATION AND POSITIONING 213
Bases for Differentiation 215
Positioning Strategies 217
MANANGING BRANDS OVER TIME 218
Development Stage 220
Introduction Stage 221
Growth Stage 221
Maturity Stage 223
Decline Stage 224
LESSONS FROM CHAPTER 7 226
NOTES 228

8 ETHICS AND SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY IN MARKETING STRATEGY 230

ETHICS AND SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY IN MARKETING STRATEGY 231
Dimensions of Social Responsibility 232
Sustainability 235
Marketing Ethics and Strategy 237
The Challenges of Being Ethical and Socially Responsible 239
ETHICAL ISSUES IN THE MARKETING PROGRAM 241
Product-Related Ethical Issues 241
Pricing-Related Ethical Issues 243
Supply Chain–Related Ethical Issues 244
Promotion-Related Ethical Issues 245

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 Contents xi

MANAGING AND CONTROLLING ETHICAL ISSUES 246

Regulating Marketing Ethics 246
Codes of Conduct 248
Ethical Leadership 249
RELATIONSHIP TO MARKETING AND FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE 250
Stakeholder Orientation 250
Marketing Financial Performance 251
INCORPORATING ETHICS AND SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
INTO STRATEGIC PLANNING 251
LESSONS FROM CHAPTER 8 252
NOTES 255

9 MARKETING IMPLEMENTATION AND CONTROL 260

STRATEGIC ISSUES IN MARKETING IMPLEMENTATION 262
The Link Between Planning and Implementation 262
The Elements of Marketing Implementation 264
APPROACHES TO MARKETING IMPLEMENTATION 268
Implementation by Command 268
Implementation through Change 270
Implementation through Consensus 271
Implementation as Organizational Culture 271
INTERNAL MARKETING AND MARKETING IMPLEMENTATION 272
The Internal Marketing Approach 272
The Internal Marketing Process 274
EVALUATING AND CONTROLLING MARKETING ACTIVITIES 275
Formal Marketing Controls 276
Informal Marketing Controls 279
Scheduling Marketing Activities 281
LESSONS FROM CHAPTER 9 283
NOTES 286

10 DEVELOPING AND MAINTAINING LONG-TERM CUSTOMER

RELATIONSHIPS 289
MANAGING CUSTOMER RELATIONSHIPS 290
Developing Relationships in Consumer Markets 292
Developing Relationships in Business Markets 294

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xii Contents

QUALITY AND VALUE: THE KEYS TO DEVELOPING CUSTOMER RELATIONSHIPS 296

Understanding the Role of Quality 296
Delivering Superior Quality 298
Understanding the Role of Value 299
Competing on Value 303
CUSTOMER SATISFACTION: THE KEY TO CUSTOMER RETENTION 304
Understanding Customer Expectations 304
Satisfaction versus Quality versus Value 307
Customer Satisfaction and Customer Retention 310
Customer Satisfaction Measurement 312
LESSONS FROM CHAPTER 10 313
NOTES 317

CASES
CASE 1 USA TODAY: INNOVATION IN AN EVOLVING INDUSTRY 318
CASE 2 CONSUMERS TAKE A SHINE TO APPLE, INC.331
CASE 3 MONSANTO BALANCES THE INTERESTS OF MULTIPLE STAKEHOLDERS 342
CASE 4 NEW BELGIUM BREWING (A): SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY AS COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE 355
CASE 5 NEW BELGIUM BREWING (B): DEVELOPING A BRAND PERSONALITY 364
CASE 6 MATTEL CONFRONTS ITS MARKETING CHALLENGES 373
CASE 7 MISTINE: DIRECT SELLING IN THE THAI COSMETICS MARKET 384
CASE 8 BP STRUGGLES TO REPAIR ITS TARNISHED REPUTATION 396
CASE 9 CHEVROLET: A CENTURY OF PRODUCT INNOVATION 407
CASE 10 WYNDHAM WORLDWIDE ADOPTS A STAKEHOLDER ORIENTATION MARKETING
STRATEGY 422
CASE 11 NASCAR: CAN’T KEEP A GOOD BRAND DOWN 431
CASE 12 INDYCAR: SEEKING A RETURN TO MOTORSPORTS’ FAST LANE 443
CASE 13 ZAPPOS: DELIVERING HAPPINESS 454
CASE 14 NETFLIX FIGHTS TO STAY AHEAD OF A RAPIDLY CHANGING MARKET 465
CASE 15 GILLETTE: WHY INNOVATION MAY NOT BE ENOUGH 475
CASE 16 IKEA SLOWLY EXPANDS ITS U.S. MARKET PRESENCE 487
CASE 17 UBER: THE OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES OF MARKET DISRUPTION 496
CASE 18 SCENTSY, INC.: A SUCCESSFUL DIRECT SELLING BUSINESS MODEL 507
CASE 19 SIGMA MARKETING: STRATEGIC MARKETING ADAPTATION 515
CASE 20 BELLE MEADE PLANTATION: A SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP MARKETING STRATEGY 525
CASE 21 COCA-COLA: INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS 534

Index 544

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Preface
Welcome to one of the most interesting, challenging, and important topics in your
business education. What makes marketing strategy so interesting, challenging, and
important you ask? To begin, marketing strategy is interesting because (1) it is inher-
ently people-driven and (2) it is never stagnant. A distinct blend of both art and sci-
ence, marketing strategy is about people (inside an organization) finding ways to
deliver exceptional value by fulfilling the needs and wants of other people (custo-
mers, shareholders, business partners, society at large), as well as the needs of
the organization itself. Marketing strategy draws from psychology, sociology, and
economics to better understand the basic needs and motivations of these people—
whether they are the organization’s customers (typically considered the most
critical), its employees, or its stakeholders. In short, marketing strategy is about peo-
ple serving people.
For this reason, marketing strategy is interesting because it is never stagnant.
The simple fact is that people change. A strategy that works today might not work
tomorrow. Products that are popular today are forgotten next week. These truisms
are important because truly understanding marketing strategy means accepting the
fact that there are few concrete rules for developing and implementing marketing
activities. Given the constant state of change in the marketing environment, it is vir-
tually impossible to say that given “this customer need” and “these competitors”
and “this level of government regulation” that Product A, Price B, Promotion C, and
Distribution D will produce the best results. Marketing simply doesn’t work that way.
The lack of concrete rules and the ever changing economic, sociocultural, competi-
tive, technological, and political/legal landscapes make marketing strategy a terribly
fascinating subject.
Now that you know why marketing strategy is so interesting, it should be easy
to see why it is also challenging. A perfect marketing strategy that is executed
flawlessly can still fail. Sometimes, organizations are lucky and have success despite
having a terrible strategy and/or execution. The nature of marketing can make mar-
keting planning quite frustrating.
Finally, the importance of marketing strategy is undeniable. No other business
function focuses on developing relationships with customers—the lifeblood of all
organizations (even non-profits). This statement does not diminish the importance
of other business functions, as they all are necessary for an organization to be suc-
cessful. In fact, coordination with other functions is critical to marketing success.
However, without customers, and marketing programs in place to cultivate customer
relationships, no organization can survive.

xiii

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xiv Preface

OUR FOCUS
Given this marketing landscape, Marketing Strategy: Text and Cases, 7th Edition
provides a practical, straightforward approach to analyzing, planning, and imple-
menting marketing strategies. Our focus is based on the creative process involved
in applying the knowledge and concepts of marketing to the development and imple-
mentation of marketing strategy. Our goal is to encourage students of marketing to
think and act like a marketer. By discussing the key concepts and tools of marketing
strategy, our emphasis on critical thinking, both analytical and creative, allows stu-
dents to understand the essence of how marketing decisions fit together to create a
coherent strategy.
Our approach in Marketing Strategy: Text and Cases, 7th Edition is also
grounded in the development and execution of the marketing plan. Throughout the
text, we provide a comprehensive planning framework based on conducting sound
background research, developing market capabilities and competitive advantages,
designing integrated marketing programs, and managing customer relationships for
the long term. We also emphasize the need for integrity in the strategic planning pro-
cess as well as the design of marketing programs that are both ethical and socially
responsible. We also stress the integration and coordination of marketing decisions
with other functional business decisions as the key to achieving an organization’s
overall mission and vision. Throughout the text, we offer examples of successful
planning and implementation to illustrate how firms face the challenges of marketing
strategy in today’s economy.

PURPOSE
We view strategic marketing planning not only as a process for achieving organiza-
tional goals, but also as a means of building long-term relationships with customers.
Creating a customer orientation takes imagination, vision, and courage, especially in
today’s rapidly changing economic and technological environments. To help meet
these challenges, our text approaches marketing strategy from both “traditional” and
“cutting-edge” practices. We cover topics such as segmentation, creating a competi-
tive advantage, marketing program development, and the implementation process
with a solid grounding in traditional marketing, but also with an eye toward emerging
practices. Lessons learned from the rise, fall, and reemergence of the dotcom sector,
recent corporate scandals, and the most recent economic recession illustrate the
importance of balancing the traditional and emerging practices of marketing strat-
egy. Our text never loses sight of this balance.
Although our approach allows for the use of sophisticated research and
decision-making processes, we have employed a practical perspective that permits
marketing managers in any sized organization to develop and implement a marketing
plan. We have avoided esoteric, abstract, and highly academic material that does not
relate to typical marketing strategy decisions in most organizations. The marketing
plan framework that we utilize throughout the text has been used by a number of
organizations to successfully plan their marketing strategies. Many companies report
great success in using our approach partially due to the ease of communicating the
plan to all functional areas of the business.

TARGET AUDIENCE
Our text is relevant for a number of educational environments, including undergrad-
uate, graduate, and corporate training courses. At the undergraduate level, our text
is appropriate for the capstone course or any upper-level integrating course such as

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 Preface xv

“Marketing Management,” “Marketing Strategy,” or “Marketing Policy.” At this level,

the text provides an excellent framework to use with our included text-based cases,
live-client cases, or a computer simulation. At the graduate level, our text is appropri-
ate for courses addressing strategic marketing planning, competitive marketing strat-
egies, or as a supplement for any simulation-based course. A growing segment of the
market, corporate training, can utilize our text when educating business profes-
sionals interested in developing marketing plans of their own, or interpreting and
implementing the plans of others.
Each of the 21 cases included in our text describes the strategic situations of
real-world, identifiable organizations. Because these cases feature real situations,
instructors have the option of using the case material as published, or they may
give students the opportunity to update the cases by conducting research to find
the latest information. Many additional resources for students and instructors can
be found at our text’s companion website, www.cengagebrain.com.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Throughout the development of this text, several extraordinary individuals pro-
vided their talent and expertise to make important contributions. A number of indi-
viduals have made many useful comments and recommendations as reviewers of
this text.
We also deeply appreciate the assistance of several individuals who played a
major role in developing cases or other materials. Specifically, we thank the follow-
ing individuals:
Joe Alexander, Belmont University
Noushin Laila Ansari, University of New Mexico
Timothy W. Aurand, Northern Illinois University
Harper Baird, University of New Mexico
Chandani Bhasin, University of New Mexico
Christin Copeland, Florida State University
Linda Ferrell, Belmont University
John Fraedrich, Southern Illinois University – Carbondale
Bernadette Gallegos, University of New Mexico
Sederick Hood, University of New Mexico
Jennifer Jackson, University of New Mexico
Danielle Jolley, University of New Mexico
Kimberly Judson, Illinois State University
Robert P. Lambert, Belmont University
Cassondra Lopez, University of New Mexico
Julian Mathias, University of New Mexico
Kevin Mihaly, Florida State University
Christian Otto, University of New Mexico
Greg Owsley, New Belgium Brewing Company
Kelsey Reddick, Florida State University

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xvi Preface

Don Roy, Middle Tennessee State University

Mike Sapit, Sigma Marketing
Jennifer Sawayda, University of New Mexico
Beau Shelton, University of New Mexico
Bryan Simpson, New Belgium Brewing Company
Debbie Thorne, Texas State University
Jacqueline Trent, University of New Mexico
Robyn Watson, Florida State University
Lecia Weber, University of New Mexico
Celeste Wood, Florida State University
We greatly appreciate the efforts of Jennifer Sawayda, University of New
Mexico, for coordinating much of the new case development in this edition. The
editorial, production, and marketing staff at Cengage cannot be thanked enough.
With a deep sense of appreciation, we thank Mike Roche and Zach Fleischer.
Finally, we express appreciation for the support and encouragement of
our families and friends, and our colleagues at Belmont University, Florida State
University, and the University of New Mexico.

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About the Authors
O.C. FERRELL, PH.D.
Belmont University
O.C. Ferrell (Ph.D., Louisiana State University) is University Distinguished Chair of
Business Ethics at Belmont University. He recently served 9 years as University Dis-
tinguished Professor of Marketing at the Anderson School of Management, Univer-
sity of New Mexico. He also served at the University of Wyoming and was Chair of
the Marketing Department at Colorado State University. Prior to his arrival at CSU,
Dr. Ferrell was the Distinguished Professor of Marketing and Business Ethics at the
University of Memphis. He has also served as a professor at the University of Tampa,
Texas A&M University, Illinois State University, and Southern Illinois University. His
MBA and BA degrees are from Florida State University.
Dr. Ferrell is past president of the Academic Council of the American Marketing
Association and former chair of the American Marketing Association Ethics Commit-
tee. Under his leadership, the committee developed the AMA Code of Ethics and the
AMA Code of Ethics for Marketing on the Internet. He is a Society for Marketing
Advances Fellow and the Vice President of Publications for the Academy of Market-
ing Science. He is a former member of the Board of Governors as a Distinguished
Fellow for the Academy of Marketing Science. He received the Cutco Vector Distin-
guished Marketing Educator Award from the Academy of Marketing Science. In addi-
tion, he received the first Innovative Educator award from the Marketing
Management Association.
Dr. Ferrell has taught a wide variety of courses, including marketing strategy,
principles of marketing, marketing ethics, international marketing, as well as most
undergraduate courses in marketing. For 16 years he taught a graduate course in
competitive marketing strategies at Thammasat University in Bangkok, Thailand.
He has also been a visiting professor at University of Wisconsin, University of
Michigan–Ann Arbor, and University of Hanover, Germany.
Dr. Ferrell is the co-author of over 20 books and more than 100 articles. His
research is published in the Journal of Marketing Research, the Journal of Market-
ing, the Journal of Business Ethics, the Journal of Business Research, the Journal
of the Academy of Marketing Science, as well as other journals. His Marketing: Con-
cepts and Strategies text, co-authored with Bill Pride, is one of the most widely
adopted principles of marketing texts in the world. Furthermore, his Business
Ethics: Decision Making and Cases is the leading business ethics text.
Dr. Ferrell has served as an expert witness in many high-profile civil litigation
cases related to marketing ethics. More recently he has assisted international cor-
porations and worked with state regulatory agencies in modifying marketing pro-
grams to maintain compliance with both ethical and legal requirements. Currently,

xvii

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xviii About the Authors

he is working with the National Association of State Boards of Accountancy to

develop an ethical leadership certification for students. He has appeared on the
NBC Today show and he has been quoted in national papers such as USA Today.
Dr. Ferrell and his wife Linda (also a faculty member at Belmont University) live
in Nashville, Tennessee. He continues to help coordinate the Daniels Fund Ethics Ini-
tiative at the University of New Mexico. He enjoys golf, skiing, reading, and travel.

MICHAEL D. HARTLINE, PH.D.

Florida State University
Michael D. Hartline (Ph.D., University of Memphis) is Interim Dean and Charles A.
Bruning Professor of Business Administration in the College of Business at Florida
State University. Previously, he served as Associate Dean for Strategic Initiatives
and Chair of the Department of Marketing. Prior to joining the FSU faculty in 2001,
Dr. Hartline served on faculty at the University of Arkansas at Little Rock, Louisiana
State University, and Samford University. His MBA and B.S. degrees are from
Jacksonville State University in Alabama.
Dr. Hartline primarily teaches graduate courses in Marketing Strategy and
undergraduate courses in Services Marketing. He has won many teaching and
research awards and made many presentations to industry and academic audiences.
Dr. Hartline has also served as a consultant to several for-profit and nonprofit orga-
nizations in the areas of marketing plan development, market feasibility analysis,
customer satisfaction measurement, customer service training, and pricing policy.
He currently serves on the Academic Advisory Council of the Direct Selling Educa-
tion Foundation and on the board of the Knight Creative Communities Initiative in
Tallahassee, Florida. He has previously served on the executive committee of the
Academy of Marketing Science, co-chaired two international conferences for the
American Marketing Association, and has served on the editorial review boards of a
number of leading marketing journals.
Dr. Hartline’s research addresses marketing implementation issues in service
firms. Specifically, his work examines the role of customer-contact employees and
workgroups in the effective delivery of quality service to customers. Dr. Hartline’s
research appears in the Journal of Marketing, the Journal of Service Research, the
Journal of Business Research, the Journal of Relationship Marketing, the Journal
of Services Marketing, the Cornell Quarterly, the Journal of Strategic Marketing,
the Journal of Business Ethics, and the Marketing Science Institute Working
Paper Series.
Dr. Hartline and his wife Marsha live in Tallahassee with their three daughters
Meghan, Madison, and Mallory. They have two dogs, Bella and Chief (both Japanese
Chins), and two cats, Snickers and Sammie. Dr. Hartline is a self-professed electron-
ics and gadget enthusiast who enjoys music, reading, computers, travel, college
football (Go Seminoles!), and being a dad.

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Marketing in Today’s CHAPTER
Economy
1
INTRODUCTION
As noted in the opening Beyond the Pages 1.1 story, competing in today’s economy
means finding ways to break out of commodity status to meet customers’ needs bet-
ter than competing firms. All organizations—both for-profit and nonprofit—require
effective planning and a sound marketing strategy to do this effectively. Without
these efforts, organizations would not be able to satisfy customers or meet the
needs of other stakeholders. For example, having an effective marketing strategy
allows Apple to develop popular products, such as the iPhone, iPad, iWatch, and its
MacBook line of computers. Further, effective planning and strategy allows Cola-
Cola to continue its leadership in soft drinks, make key acquisitions, and continue
its expansion into the lucrative Chinese market. These and other organizations use
sound marketing strategy to leverage their strengths and capitalize on opportunities
that exist in the market. Every organization—from your favorite local restaurant to
giant multinational corporations; from city, state, and federal governments, to chari-
ties such as Habitat for Humanity and the American Red Cross—develops and imple-
ments marketing strategies.
How organizations plan, develop, and implement marketing strategies is the
focus of this book. To achieve this focus, we provide a systematic process for devel-
oping customer-oriented marketing strategies and marketing plans that match an
organization to its internal and external environments. Our approach focuses on
real-world applications and practical methods of marketing planning, including the
process of developing a marketing plan. The chapters of this book focus on the
steps of this process. Our goal is to give the reader a deeper understanding of mar-
keting planning, the ability to organize the vast amount of information needed to
complete the planning process, and an actual feel for the development of marketing
plans.
In this first chapter, we review some of the major challenges and opportunities
that exist in planning marketing strategy in today’s economy. We also review the
nature and scope of major marketing activities and decisions that occur throughout
the planning process. Finally, we look at some of the major challenges involved in
developing marketing strategy.

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2 Chapter 1 • Marketing in Today’s Economy

BEYOND THE PAGES 1.1

Thriving in Commodity Hell1 industry hard in 2008. To counteract the down-
turn, Southwest expanded routes by acquiring
Have you noticed that regardless of the industry,
rival companies such as AirTran. The company
most goods and services offered by competing
also stands apart from others with its innovative
companies are eerily the same? Most household
“No Bag Fees” policy. Other firms, however,
appliances, such as refrigerators, washing
avoid commodity status through the most basic
machines, and stoves, offer the same basic
of marketing tactics: brand building. Here, firms
features and come in white, beige, black, or stain-
break free from commodity status by developing
less steel. Virtually all Android-based smartphones
a distinctive brand position that separates them
offer the same features at similar prices. Even air-
and their products from the competition. Firms
line flights from New York to Los Angeles are
that come to mind are Apple, Coca-Cola, and
essentially the same. Everywhere you look, most
Chick-fil-A. By offering compelling reasons for
companies offer the same basic products to the
consumers to buy products, brand building
same customer groups at roughly the same prices.
allows firms to increase margins. Apple, in partic-
This situation is referred to as “commodity hell”
ular, enjoys the highest profit margins of any firm
and it’s a tough situation for most companies.
in the technology sector.
Commoditization is everywhere and is the result
Starbucks is another case in point. Starbucks
of mature markets where goods and services lack
clearly sells one of the most commoditized, ubiq-
any real means of differentiation. Unfortunately
uitous products of all time: coffee. Starbucks
for companies, when customers begin to see all
Chairman Howard Schultz, however, does not
competing products as offering roughly the same
accept that his firm is in the coffee business.
benefits, price is the only thing that matters.
Instead, Schultz sees Starbucks as a “third place”
Commoditization is a consequence of mature
to hang out (with home and work being number 1
industries where slowing innovation, extensive
and number 2, respectively). Through this mental-
product assortment, excess supply, and frugal
ity, Starbucks offers its customers much more
consumers force margins to the floor. Since
than coffee, including wireless Internet access,
firms have few competitive differences, they are
music, food, and relaxation. Starbucks has contin-
unable to increase margins. They must also spend
ued its brand-building activities by introducing
a great deal on promotion to attract new custo-
breakfast combos, Via instant coffee, and the con-
mers. This situation makes firms more vulnerable
tinued push of its Seattle’s Best brand into restau-
to the entry of new competitors. Consider the air-
rants, offices, hospitals, and vending machines.
line industry. Notwithstanding a few minor differ-
Getting out of commodity hell is not an easy
ences, most air travelers see all airlines as being
feat. To do so, firms must give consumers a com-
roughly the same. They all get passengers from
pelling reason to buy their products over compet-
Point A to Point B while offering the same basic
ing products. Ultimately, winning the commodity
customer services. This makes price the driving
game is all about innovation. Consider the firms
force in consumer decision-making and allows
that top Fast Company’s list of the World’s Most
discount airlines such as Southwest and Jet Blue
Innovative Companies for 2014 (in order): Goo-
to steal customers away from traditional full-
gle, Bloomberg Philanthropies, Xiaomi, Dropbox,
service carriers. This same precarious situation
Netflix, Airbnb, Nike, and ZipDial. Each of these
exists in a broad range of industries including
companies offers innovative products, processes,
telephone service, hotels, packaged goods, auto-
or experiences that stand apart from the compe-
mobiles, household appliances, and retailing.
tition; yet each competes in mature industries
As you might expect, low price leaders can
known for commoditization. These companies
do quite well in commoditized markets. South-
prove that innovation and good marketing strat-
west, for example, was profitable for over
egy are the antidotes for commodity hell.
33 years until the economic recession hit the

THE CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES OF MARKETING

IN TODAY’S ECONOMY
Traditional ideas about marketing strategy began to change forever during the mid-
1990s. Advances in computer, communication, and information technology forever

Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 Chapter 1 • Marketing in Today’s Economy 3

changed the world and the ways that marketers reach potential customers. The col-
lapse of the dot-com bubble in the late 1990s was followed by a historic collapse of
the worldwide economy in 2008. The powerhouse companies of the past have weak-
ened and lost relevance in an economy marked by constant change and consumer
skepticism. Consider the following fundamental changes to marketing and business
practice, as well as our own personal buying behavior.

Power Shift to Customers

Perhaps the single most important change during the last two decades is the shift in
power from marketers to consumers. Rather than businesses having the ability to
manipulate customers via technology, customers often manipulate businesses
because of their access to information, the ability to comparison shop, and the con-
trol they have over spending. Individual consumers and business customers can
compare prices and product specifications in a matter of minutes. Using a smart-
phone and the Amazon app, customers can walk Target’s aisles, scan bar codes to
check prices on Amazon, and order items for 2-day delivery while in the store. This
fact is the reason that Target, and other retailers like Best Buy, now price matches
Amazon and other online competitors. In other cases, customers are able to set
their own prices, such as purchasing airline tickets at Priceline.com. Customers can
now interact with one another, as merchants such as Amazon and eBay allow custo-
mers to share opinions on product quality and supplier reliability. As power con-
tinues to shift to customers, marketers have little choice but to ensure that their
products are unique and of high quality, thereby giving customers a reason to pur-
chase their products and remain loyal to them.
Daniel Koebe/Fancy/Corbis

Consumers can instantly find competitors’ prices while in the store.

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4 Chapter 1 • Marketing in Today’s Economy

Massive Increase in Product Selection

The variety and assortment of goods and services offered for sale on the Internet and
in traditional stores is staggering. In grocery stores alone, customers are faced with
countless options in most aisles, such as in cereal and soft drinks. The growth in
online retailing now allows customers to purchase a car from CarsDirect, handmade
gifts from over 1.2 million shops on Etsy, or a case of their favorite wine from
Wine.com. Increased transaction efficiency (e.g., 24/7 access, delivery to home or
office even on weekends) allows customers to fulfill their needs more easily and con-
veniently than ever before. Furthermore, the vast amounts of information available
online has changed the way we communicate, read the news, and entertain our-
selves. Customers can now have the news delivered to them automatically via smart-
phone apps, such as Flipboard, that pull from hundreds of sources. This radical
increase in product selection and availability has exposed marketers to inroads by
competitors from every corner of the globe.

Audience and Media Fragmentation

Changes in media usage and the availability of new media outlets have forced mar-
keters to rethink the way they communicate with potential customers. Since the
advent of cable television in the 1970s, mass media audiences have become increas-
ingly fragmented. Television audiences, for example, shifted from the big three net-
works (ABC, CBS, NBC) and began watching programming on ESPN, HGTV,
Nickelodeon, and the Discovery Channel. When the growth of the Internet, satellite
radio, and mobile communication is added to this mix, it becomes increasingly diffi-
cult for marketers to reach a true mass audience. Media audiences have become
fragmented due to (1) the sheer number of media choices we have available today,
and (2) the limited time we have to devote to any one medium. Today, customers
increasingly get information and news from Facebook and Twitter rather than the
New York Times or CBS. They spend a growing amount of time interacting with
handheld devices than they do reading magazines, listening to the radio, or watching
television. As shown in Exhibit 1.1, consumer usage of traditional media is declining,
while the usage of mobile media is on the rise. However, despite the challenge of
reaching mass audiences today, media fragmentation does have a big advantage: It
is easier to reach small, highly targeted audiences who are more receptive to specific
marketing messages.

Changing Value Propositions

Even before “The Great Recession” began in 2008, consumers and business
buyers were already facing increasing costs associated with energy, food, building

EXHIBIT 1.1 Change in Daily Media Usage by U.S. Adults, 2010–2014.

Percent Change (%)

Television 3.7
Desktop Online −13.6
Tablets 676.2
Smartphones 235.0
Radio −15.5
Newspapers −9.4
Magazines −34.9

SOURCE: Statista, “Average Daily Media Use in the United States from 2010 to 2014,” Statista, http://www.statista.com/
statistics/270781/average-daily-media-use-in-the-us/, accessed February 18, 2015.

Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 Chapter 1 • Marketing in Today’s Economy 5

materials, and other essentials. Then, as the economy weakened, buyers were forced
to tighten their belts and look for other ways to lower expenses. This trend actually
began after the dot-com collapse as consumers saw for the first time that they could
bypass some types of firms and do things for themselves. For example, travel agents
and real estate agents have been hit hard by e-commerce. Many customers now turn
to Travelocity and Expedia, rather than travel agents, for assistance in booking air-
line tickets, cruises, or hotel stays. A similar change has taken place in the real estate
industry as buyers are moving their house hunting online, while sellers are increas-
ingly taking the “for sale by owner” route. Consequently, many marketers learned a
tough lesson: In situations where customers see goods and services as commodities,
they will turn to the most convenient, least-expensive alternative.
Today, many of these same consumers face pay cuts or losing their jobs in addi-
tion to increased expenses. These and other economic hardships have forced con-
sumer and business buyers to rethink value propositions and focus on the
importance of frugality. The effects on business have been dramatic. For example,
Radio Shack filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in early 2015 in the face of a highly
commoditized market and stiff competition from other electronics retailers, particu-
larly Amazon.2 A similar shakeout is happening in the book retailing segment. Bor-
ders, for instance, closed its doors after fierce competition from Barnes & Noble,
Amazon, Walmart, and Target lured its shoppers away. Likewise, e-book readers,
like Amazon’s Kindle, have had a profound impact on traditional book publishing.
Because books have become highly commoditized, consumers typically search for
the lowest prices rather than the fringe benefits offered by traditional bookstores.
E-book readers add to that by being more ecologically advantageous. This is the
essence of being frugal, as customers look for ways to cut spending on unnecessary
parts of their lives.

Shifting Demand Patterns

In some cases, changes in technology have shifted customer demand for certain
product categories. News is one well-known example, where traditional newspapers
are slowly disappearing while online and mobile news continues to grow. Now, many
newspaper companies have folded, some are on the brink of folding, while others
have cut publication to only a few days per week. Another example is the explosive
growth in the digital distribution of music and video. The success of Apple’s iTunes,
YouTube, Spotify, and Netflix, along with the continuing integration of television and
computers, has dramatically shifted demand for the music and movie industries. Hol-
lywood film studios are grappling with soft demand in theaters and the declining
popularity of DVDs as customers increasingly look for online movie options, or for
other forms of entertainment such as video games. This trend ultimately led to the
demise of industry pioneer Blockbuster video in 2011.

Privacy, Security, and Ethical Concerns

Changes in technology have made our society much more open than in the past. As a
result, these changes have forced marketers to address real concerns about security
and privacy, both online and offline. The fallout from the massive data breach at Tar-
get in 2013 is still being felt today. The estimated loss to Target from thieves hacking
into its systems is roughly $148 million, not to mention the losses incurred by Target’s
customers.3 Further, businesses have always collected routine information about their
customers. Now, customers are much more attuned to these efforts and the purposes
for which the information will be used. Though customers appreciate the convenience
of e-commerce and mobile access to information, they want assurances that their
information is safe and confidential. Concerns over privacy and security are especially
acute with respect to online businesses such as Facebook, Google, mobile banking,

Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
coast. Now, Montessus points out that volcanoes are the most
frequent on the short, abrupt slopes. In some cases, however, where
the long slopes are the roughest, it is these slopes that are most
frequently shaken.
The beds of the ocean that lie along rapidly descending lines,
especially when they lie on the borders of large mountain ranges,
are especially liable to earthquakes.
Dr. Charles Davison has made a map of the earthquakes of Japan in
which he had adopted the plan of representing the origin or centres
of earthquakes by a series of contour lines like those employed on
topographical maps. The advantage of this type of map over that
employed by Mallet is just this: Davison's earthquake map of Japan
in which the active volcanoes are marked by dots, and the
earthquakes by contour lines surrounding the points of origin,
discloses the interesting fact that here the positions of the volcanoes
and the earthquake centres coincide, since the mountainous districts
where the active volcanoes are numerous are singularly free from
earthquakes. This can be seen from an inspection of Fig. 55.
 CHAPTER XXXIV

THE CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES

Earthquakes occurred long before man appeared on earth. It is

natural, therefore, that our early ancestors, experiencing these
unwelcome phenomena, vaguely endeavored to explain their causes.
These early attempts at explanation have in many cases been of an
exceedingly fanciful character.
The ancient Mongolians and Hindoos declared that earthquakes are
due to our earth resting on a huge frog and that they occur
whenever the frog scratches its head.
In Japan, where earthquakes are very common, the ignorant people
even at a much later day declared that there exists in the depth of
the sea an immense fish which, when angry, dashes its head
violently against the coast of the island, thus making the earth
tremble. This is, doubtless, the biggest fish-story extant.
Another folk-lore explanation in Japan attributes the cause of the
tremblings of the earth to a subterranean monster whose head lies
in the north of the island of Hondo, while his tail lies between the
two principal cities. The shaking of his tail causes earthquakes.
Fantastic and foolish as these explanations are, it is worthy of note
that the first of the Japanese explanations shows no little
observation on the part of the people, since it locates the starting-
points of earthquakes as being not on the land, but on the bottom of
the sea. In point of fact, nearly all the great earthquakes in Japan
seem to start somewhere between the coasts of the islands on the
sea-bottom that leads down to a very deep part of the Pacific known
as the Tuscarora Deep.
Many years ago nearly everyone believed that earthquakes were
caused solely by the forces that produce volcanic eruptions; that all
earthquakes, whether in the neighborhood of active volcanoes, or at
great distances therefrom, were to be regarded solely as volcanic in
their origin.
It is now recognized that the most severe and far-reaching
earthquakes have no immediate connection with volcanic explosions,
but are due to the sudden slippings of the earth's strata over lines of
faults; or, in other words, earthquakes are most frequently of the
tectonic type.
At the present time there is unfortunately much difference in opinion
as to the exact cause of earthquakes. By this is not meant the
immediate cause, but the ultimate cause. As to the immediate
cause, practically all are agreed that quakes of volcanic origin are to
be traced to the same forces that produce volcanic eruptions, while
quakes of tectonic origin are due directly to the slipping of the strata
along the faults. But when inquiry is instituted as to the nature of
the forces that cause the volcanic eruptions, or that produce such an
alteration of the strata as permits them afterwards to slip and thus
jar the earth, there is much difference of opinion.
As can be seen from a few quotations of well-known authorities,
only two kinds of earthquakes exist; namely, volcanic earthquakes
and tectonic earthquakes.
Dana, for example, while acknowledging that small earthquakes may
be caused by the sudden falling of large rock masses into cavities in
the crust of the earth, says:
"But true earthquakes come, for the most part at least, from one or
the other of the following sources of disturbance.
"1. Vapors suddenly produced, causing ruptures and friction.
"2. Sudden movements or slips along old or new fractures.
"Earthquakes due to the former of these methods are common
about volcanoes, and at the Hawaiian islands shakings that are
destructive over the island of Hawaii at the moment of some of the
more violent eruptions, do not often affect the island of Oahu, a
depth of 500 fathoms of water, the least depth between the two
islands, being sufficient to stop off the vibrations....
"Earthquakes of the second mode of origin may occur in all regions,
volcanic or not. They have their origin mostly in the vicinity of
mountain regions, where old fractures most abound. The vibrations
may begin in a slip of a few inches, in fact; but where there has
been a succession of slips, up and up from 10,000 feet or more, as
in the Appalachian, earthquakes of inconceivable volcanic activity
must have resulted."
Dana points out that volcanoes stand on lines of fractures in the
openings of which their existence began and that, during geological
time, slips up or down these fractures have occurred, producing
earthquakes and possibly starting eruptions.
Prestwich, a well-known English geologist, speaks very decidedly
concerning the causes of earthquakes:
"For my own part, I am disposed to share the belief expressed by
Dana that the tension or pressure, by which the great oscillations or
plications of the earth's crust have been produced, have not entirely
ceased; and that this is generally the most probable cause of
earthquakes. The uplifting of the great continental tracts and
mountain ranges must have always left the interior of the crust in a
state of unstable equilibrium, and any slight slide or settling along an
old fracture, or in highly disturbed and distorted strata, would be
attended by an earthquake shock.
"In volcanic areas the removal of the large volumes of molten rock
from the interior to the surface must produce settlements and
strains which might also result in some of these minor earthquakes
to which volcanic districts are so subject. Where we have the two
conditions combined, as they are in the Andes in South America,
these earthquake phenomena are, as we should expect, developed
on the grandest and widest scale."
Geikie, the Scotch geologist, says:
"Various conceivable causes may, at different times and under
different conditions, communicate a shock to the subterranean
regions. Such as the sudden flashing into steam of water in the
spherodial state, the sudden condensation of steam, the explosion of
a volcanic outpour, the falling in of the roof of a subterranean cavity,
or the sudden snap of deep-seated rocks subjected to prolonged and
intense stress."
Sir Charles Lyell, the great English geologist, holds the following
views concerning the origin of earthquakes. He speaks as follows in
his "Principles of Geology":
"1. The primary cause of the volcanoes and the earthquakes are to a
great extent the same, and connected with the development of heat
and chemical action at various depths in the interior of the globe.
"2. Volcanic heat has been supposed by many to be the result of the
high temperature which belonged to the whole planet when it was in
a state of igneous fusion, a temperature which they suppose to have
been always diminishing and still to continue to diminish by radiation
into space....
"The powerful agency of steam or aqueous vapor in volcanic
eruptions leads us to compare its power of propelling lava to the
surface with that which it exerts in driving up water in the pipe of an
Icelandic geyser. Various gases also, rendered liquid by pressure at
great depths, may aid in causing volcanic outbursts and in fissuring
and convulsing the rocks during earthquakes."
Major Clarence Edward Dutton, U. S. A., an acknowledged authority
on seismology, speaks as follows:
"Thus far, then, we have two causes of earthquakes which are
apparently well sustained: (1) the downthrows, which have often
been observed to be accompanied by earthquakes, and (2) volcanic
action. But neither of them have been shown to be connected with
more than a comparatively small number. Much the greater part of
the earthquakes still require explanation, and the indications are
manifold that some of them are produced by some cause yet to be
stated."
He acknowledges, however, this unknown cause may be traceable to
volcanic agency. To quote him in full:
"It remains now to refer to the possibility that many quakes whose
origin is unknown, or extremely doubtful, may, after all, be volcanic.
This must be fully admitted, and, indeed, it is in many cases highly
probable. Evidences that volcanic action has taken place in the
depths of the earth without visible, permanent results on the surface
abound in ancient rock exposures. Formations of great geological
age, once deeply buried and brought to daylight by secular
denudations, show that lavas have penetrated surrounding rock-
masses in many astonishing ways. Sometimes they have intruded
between strata, lifting or floating up the overlying beds without any
indication of escaping to the surface. Sometimes the lava breaks
across a series of strata and finds its way into the partings between
higher beds. Or it forces its way into a fissure to form a dike which
may never reach the surface. In one place a long arm or sheet of
lava has in a most surprising and inexplicable manner thrust itself
into the enveloping rock-mass, and in the older or metamorphic
rocks these offshoots or apophyses cross each other in great
numbers and form a tangled network of intrusive dikes. In other
places the intruded lava has formed immense lenticular (lense
shaped) masses (laccolites), which have domed up the overlying
strata into mountain masses. These intrusions, almost infinitely
varied in form and condition, are often, in fact usually, inexplicable
as mechanical problems, but their reality is vouched for by the
evidence of our senses. What concerns us here is the great energy
which they suggest and their adequacy to generate in the rocks
those sudden, elastic displacements which are the real initiatory
impulses of an earthquake. They assure us that a great deal of
volcanic action has transpired in past ages far under ground, which
makes no other sign at the surface than those vibrations which we
call an earthquake."
Koto, the celebrated Japanese student of earthquakes, and a
member of the Earthquake Investigation Committee appointed by
the Japanese Government for studying the great Mino-Owaro
earthquake, in Japan, 1891, is properly regarded as an authority on
earthquakes. Living, as he does, in a country where earthquakes and
volcanic eruptions are of almost daily occurrence, he has had
abundant opportunity for studying these phenomena, especially in
connection with the Seismological Institute of Japan. He speaks as
follows:
"To make clear once for all my own standpoint, I may say plainly
that the chain of volcanoes and the system of mountains of the non-
volcanic earthquake, appear to me to have very intimate and
fundamental relations with the so-called tectonic line."
Mallet regards earthquakes that can be directly traceable to volcanic
origin as unsuccessful efforts on the part of nature to establish
volcanoes. He speaks concerning this matter as follows:
"An earthquake in a non-volcanic region may, in fact, be viewed as
an uncompleted effort to establish a volcano. The forces of explosion
and impulse are the same in both; they differ only in degree of
energy, or in the varying sorts and degrees of resistance opposed to
them. There is more than a mere vaguely admitted connection
between them, as heretofore commonly acknowledged—one so
vague that the earthquake has been often stated to be the cause of
the volcano (Johnson, 'Phy. Atlas,' Geology, page 21), and more
commonly the volcano the cause of the earthquake, neither view
being the expression of the truth of nature. They are not in the
relation to each other of cause and effect, but are both unequal
manifestations of a common force under different conditions."
Before closing this chapter on the causes of earthquakes it may be
well to state briefly the explanations that have been suggested by
those who hold that the earth is solid and cold throughout its entire
mass, except that in the neighborhood of volcanic districts there are
limited areas situated only a comparatively few miles below the
surface where the rocks are highly heated.
Professor Mallet suggested that the source of heat for these local
areas of melted rocks was to be found in the enormous mechanical
force that is developed by the crushing of the strata in the earth's
crust. The principal objection to Mallet's theory is to be found in the
fact that, for this heat to be available for the melting of rocks, it
must be produced rapidly, and not spread out over long periods of
time. Moreover, there would appear to be no other way to account
for the production of the great force required to effect the crushing
of the earth's strata save on the assumption of a highly heated
interior still cooling and contracting.
In his "Aspects of the Earth" Shaler has suggested an hypothesis
that may be regarded to a certain extent as explaining how heat,
slowly generated, might be blanketed, or prevented from escaping
and so possibly reaching a temperature sufficiently high to melt the
materials in portions of the interior not far below the surface of the
earth.
"We thus see that in the water imprisoned in the deposits of the
early geological ages and brought to a high temperature by the
blanketing action of the more recently deposited beds, we have a
sufficient cause for the great generation of steam at high
temperatures, and this is the sole essential phenomenon of volcanic
eruptions. We see also by this hypothesis why volcanoes do not
occur at points remote from the sea, and why they cease to be in
action soon after the sea leaves their neighborhood....
"The foregoing considerations make it tolerably clear that volcanoes
are fed from deposits of water contained in ancient rocks which have
become greatly heated through the blanketing effects of the strata
which have been laid down upon them. The gas which is the only
invariable element of volcanic eruptions is steam; moreover, it is the
steam of sea-water, as is proven by analysis of the ejections. It
breaks its way to the surface only on those parts of the earth which
are near to where the deposition of strata is lifting the temperature
of water contained in rocks by preventing, in fact, the escape of the
earth's heat."
Another very common theory is that of chemical action, or the heat
produced by the oxidation of various substances inside the earth,
such, for example, as iron pyrites, a compound of iron and sulphur.
When Sir Humphrey Davy discovered metallic sodium and it was
found that this material, when thrown on water, possessed the
power of liberating intense heat, the discovery was welcomed by
geologists as affording a possible explanation of the cause of
volcanoes and earthquakes.
It may be said generally concerning chemical action as the source of
the earth's interior heat, that the chief objection against it is the fact
that such heat is liberated too slowly to result in the production of a
very high temperature. This objection does not exist in the case of
such substances as metallic sodium, since here the heat is rapidly
developed and is sufficient in amount to fuse the substances
produced. But in the lava produced in such great quantities as it is in
volcanic districts there must be liberated at the same time large
quantities of gaseous hydrogen. Now, although hydrogen is, as we
have already seen, sometimes given off with the gases that escape
from volcanic craters, yet the quantity which escapes is so small that
this theory of volcanic activity has been practically abandoned.
Quite recently, however, among the various chemical substances that
are produced under the extremely high temperatures of the electric
furnace have been found, or formed, a number of curious
substances such as calcium carbide, calcium silicide, barium silicide,
etc., that possess the property of becoming highly heated on coming
in contact with water.
Now it is an interesting fact that the hydrogen and other gases
which are given off by the action of water on these substances are
absorbed in large quantities by the materials themselves, so that the
objection of the absence of hydrogen and similar gases in the craters
of the volcanoes would not be quite as objectionable as in the case
of such substances.
Of course, it is impossible to say whether such substances as
calcium carbide, etc., actually exist inside the earth's crust, yet, as
has been pointed out, the principal condition necessary for their
formation, i. e., a high temperature, existed at times long after the
earth, assuming the correctness of the nebular hypothesis, was
separated from the nebulous sun.
There still remains to be discussed the most curious of all possible
causes that have been suggested for the presence of the local
heated areas at comparatively short distances below the earth's
crust; namely, radio-activity.
In 1896, Henri Becquerel, a Frenchman, while investigating the
power of the X-rays, when passing through certain substances, to
produce phosphorescence, or causing the substances to shine in the
dark, made the extraordinary discovery that some of the salts of
uranium possess the power of emitting a peculiar radiation closely
resembling the X-rays, that is able to pass through substances
opaque to ordinary light as well as to affect photographic plates. But
the most extraordinary part of this discovery was that the salts of
uranium apparently possess the power of giving out this radiation
continuously without being exposed to the sun's rays.
This peculiar property was called radio-activity, and was shortly
afterwards found to be present in many other substances besides
uranium, and notably so in two newly discovered elements known as
polonium and radium.
Now it has been suggested that if there existed somewhere beneath
the earth's crust in these locally heated areas, large quantities of
radio-active substances, these regions would at last become highly
heated, and in this way likely to produce volcanoes and earthquakes.
It would not, however, seem that this is probably their true cause.
From what has just been said it is clear how exceedingly difficult it
has become to explain the source of the earth's interior heat when
the fact of the earth's original highly heated condition is denied. We
are, therefore, disposed with Russell to believe, as stated in the first
part of this volume, that the ultimate cause of both volcanoes and
earthquakes is to be found in the gradual cooling of an originally
highly heated globe, and that the greater part of the interior is still in
a highly heated condition, hot enough to be melted but yet in a solid
condition by reason of the great pressure to which it is subjected.
 CHAPTER XXXV

EARTHQUAKES OF THE GEOLOGICAL PAST—

CATACLYSMS

There were numerous volcanoes in the geological past; therefore,

since volcanic eruptions are generally attended by earthquake
shocks, it follows that during that remote past the earth has been
violently shaken by earthquakes. Indeed, if we assume, as we
believe to be the case, that the cause of earthquakes is correctly to
be traced to an originally heated globe which is gradually cooling, it
follows that the earth was necessarily subject to great earthquakes
almost from the time when it began to cool.
But to establish as a fact the occurrence of an earthquake at so
remote a time in the earth's history is far more difficult than to
detect the occurrence of a volcano at that time. While the
earthquake shocks may produce fissures in the earth's crust, and
may be accompanied by great changes of level, yet the great time
that has elapsed between such occurrences and the present would
permit the various geological agencies that are at work either to
cover these fissures completely, or completely to remove by erosion,
or in other similar ways, the rocks in which they occurred. It is
different in the case of a volcano; for the volcanic craters are in
many cases still left standing, and then there are the voluminous
sheets of lava that have spread over great areas of the earth, as well
as numerous volcanic cones. Besides, there are thousands of square
miles of surface that have been covered, often to great depths, by
deposits of volcanic dust thrown out at one time or another from the
craters of the then active volcanoes.
I am sure you will acknowledge that any force capable of causing
great cracks or fissures in the earth's crust, must, while doing this,
have produced violent shakings of the earth. Great cracks or fissures
are to be found in the rocks of all the geological formations. These
are a record of the earthquakes that must have attended these
convulsions. And there is plenty of evidence to show that the earth's
crust has been torn into these fissures in places deep down below
the present surface; for, by the action of water, many of these
portions have been uncovered so that these great cracks or fissures
which have been afterwards filled with a molten rock that has
hardened can be seen in the great dikes that still remain.
But there are still other evidences of the existence of earthquakes
during the geological past. There are found in the different strata of
the earth's crust fossil remains of the plants and animals that lived
on the earth long before the creation of man. By a careful study of
these fossils we know positively the kinds of animals and plants that
lived on the earth, in its waters, or in its atmosphere, when these
strata were being deposited. It is in this way possible for a geologist
to trace the life of the earth and its development as it is written on
the great book of which the earth's different strata form the
separate pages. Now, a careful study of the earth's fauna and flora
during the geological past, shows, beyond any question, that
occasionally great changes have occurred in the earth; for, here and
there, during different times, we find that certain species of animals
and plants have completely disappeared, to be followed, after
certain intervals, by entirely different species. It is evident,
therefore, that changes have occurred that have made it impossible
for the animals and plants that formerly lived on the earth to exist
under the changed conditions. These occurrences are known to
geologists as exterminations, catastrophes, or cataclysms. They are
also sometimes called revolutions, for they mark a more or less
complete wiping-out of the animals living at the time they occurred.
If you will try to think you will readily understand how great a
catastrophe must be, that would be able to wipe out or completely
destroy an entire race of animals.
You have doubtless read with astonishment the terrible catastrophe
that accompanied the eruption of Krakatoa, especially at the loss of
life and property caused by the great waves that were set up in the
ocean, but far reaching as these losses were they have nevertheless
affected but a limited portion of the earth. The plain truth is even
more stupendous, for catastrophes of the geological past appear to
have been so far-reaching and powerful as to affect the whole
surface of the earth, and to have annihilated entire races of animals
and plants as if they had never existed.
Geologists are all practically agreed that there are only two ways in
which such exterminations of the earth's life could have been
caused, and these are changes in the earth's climate, or the starting
of waves in the sea by great earthquakes. In the sea; for it must be
borne in mind that in the geological past the greater part of the
earth's surface was covered by water, and the land areas were
comparatively small and low, so that waves created by earthquakes
might easily have overwhelmed the entire land surface.
Of course, it is fair to suppose that in many cases these
exterminations may have been caused by sudden changes of
climate, such as would naturally have resulted from any change in
the direction of hot ocean currents which formerly flowed from the
equator to the poles. The appearance of a fairly large mass of land
in the central parts of the ocean might readily have turned aside the
hot ocean currents that formerly swept over the polar regions, thus
greatly lowering the earth's average temperature in these regions.
But it seems probable that the principal cause of the destruction of
life in the geological past was produced by earthquake waves in the
sea, sweeping over the continents. Let us, therefore, examine two of
the earth's principal geological revolutions or cataclysms; namely,
that which occurred at the close of an early geological time known
as the Palaeozoic, and that which occurred at the end of a geological
time intermediate between the Palaeozoic time or the time of
ancient life, called the Mesozoic time, and the Cenozoic time, or the
time immediately preceding the present time. These two revolutions
are called by Dana, the Post-Palaeozoic, or Appalachian Revolution,
and the Post-Mesozoic Revolution. Both were characterized by the
making of great mountain systems, and were, therefore, especially
liable to repetitions of tremendous earthquakes that must have
produced enormous waves in the ocean.
"Palaeozoic time," says Dana, "closed with the making of one of the
great mountain ranges of North America—the Appalachian, besides
ranges in other lands, and in producing one of the most universal
and abrupt disappearances of life in geological history. So great an
event is properly styled a revolution."
Towards the close of the Palaeozoic time immense disturbances of
the earth's crust occurred during the uplifting of the Appalachian
Mountain System. One may, perhaps, form some faint idea of the
immensity of the forces at work, from the fact that there were great
faults produced by the uplifting of the lands attended with
displacement amounting to 10,000 or 20,000 feet or more; that in
parts of southwestern Virginia there were flexure faults 100 miles in
length.
As to the probability of the extensive exterminations that have
occurred during these times being produced by earthquake waves,
Dana speaks thus:
"The causes of the extermination are two.... (1) a colder climate....
(2) earthquake waves produced by orogenic movements
(movements producing mountain ranges). If North America from the
west of the Carolinas to the Mississippi Valley can be shaken in
consequence of a little slip along a fracture in times of perfect quiet
(the allusion here to the Charleston earthquake, in 1886), and ruin
mark its movements, incalculable violence and great surgings of the
ocean should have occurred and been often repeated during the
progress of flexures, miles in height and space, and slips along
newly opened fractures that kept up their interrupted progress
through thousands of feet of displacements....
"Under such circumstances the devastation of the sea-border and
the low-lying land of the period, the destruction of their animals and
plants, would have been a sure result. The survivors within a long
distance of the coastline would have been few. The same waves
would have swept over European land and seas, and there found
coadjutors for new strife in earthquake waves of European origin.
These times of catastrophe may have continued in America through
half of the following Triassic period; for fully two thirds of the Triassic
period are unrepresented by rocks and fossils on the Atlantic
border."
Coming now to the Post-Mesozoic revolution this period was marked
by the making of the greatest of the North American mountain
systems.
Dana points out that this revolution affected the summit region of
the Rocky Mountains over a broad belt probably as long as the
western side of the continent.
This great belt of mountain-making extended from the Arctic regions
through North America, probably paralleled by like work, of equal
extent, in South America, but on a more eastern line.
"The disappearance of species," says Dana, "at the close of Mesozoic
time was one of the two most noted in all geological history.
Probably not a tenth part of the animal species of the world
disappeared at the time, and far less of the vegetable life and
terrestrial Invertebrates; yet the change was so comprehensive that
no Cretaceous species of Vertebrate is yet known to occur in the
rocks of the American Tertiary, and not even a marine Invertebrate."
In tracing the causes of these disappearances, Dana points out that,
perhaps, the principal cause was a decrease in the temperature of
the ocean, since the destructions were limited in large measure to
marine life. He regards, however, the other most probable cause as
traceable to earthquake waves; for the making of a great mountain
range along the entire length of the continent resulted in
displacements of the rock formations along lines hundreds of miles
in length. Such displacements must have been attended by a
succession of earthquakes of unusual violence, causing the
destruction by sudden shocks beneath, and resulting, directly and
indirectly, in waves sweeping over the continent. Since at this time
the land was still low for the greater part, the huge waves must have
repeatedly swept over the greater part of the land, leaving only the
smaller species of animals and the vegetation.
It is evident, therefore, that during the geological past earthquakes
occurred that were probably vastly greater than any that have
occurred on the earth during more recent times.
 CHAPTER XXXVI

THE KIMBERLY DIAMOND FIELDS AND THEIR

VOLCANIC ORIGIN

The elementary substance carbon occurs in three forms, i. e.,

charcoal, graphite, and the diamond. The commonest form of carbon
is to be found in charcoal, as well as in bituminous coal, anthracite
coal, and lignite. Graphite, also known as plumbago, or black lead, is
the substance you have seen so often in the lead of pencils. The
diamond, as every one knows, is the highly prized precious stone
that sparkles so brightly in the light, and is so hard that it is capable
of scratching almost any other substance.
Diamonds are found in various parts of the world. We are now
interested in them, however, only as they occur in certain parts of
the world, as in the great Kimberly diamond fields in Southern
Africa.
Dr. Max Bauer in his book on precious stones says that the discovery
of diamonds in South Africa was made by a traveller named O'Reilly,
who, in 1867, saw a child sitting in the house of a Boer named
Jacobs, playing with a shining stone. Jacob's farm was a short
distance south of the Orange River near Hopetown. This stone
proved to be a diamond weighing some twenty-one and three-tenths
carats and was afterwards sold for $2,500. The incident led to the
discovery and consequent development of the Kimberly diamond
fields.
Without going into a description of the different deposits in which
diamonds are found, it will suffice to say that in the Kimberly district
the diamonds occur distributed through the materials that fill
peculiar funnel-shaped depressions called pipes which extend
vertically downward to unknown depths. The rock that fills a pipe
consists of an entirely different material from that in which the pipe
occurs. The upper extremity of the pipe is generally slightly elevated
above the general surface for a few yards. The pipes vary in
diameter from twenty to 750 yards, diameters of from 200 to 300
yards being quiet common.
In 1892, the diamond-bearing material found in the pipes of the
Kimberly mines had been excavated vertically downwards a distance
of 1,261 feet, without any signs of its being exhausted.
Now, the materials which fill the pipe of the great Kimberly mine are
practically the same in all the mines in the neighborhood. At the
upper part of the pipe the materials show the action of weathering
by exposure to the air. Here the ground is of a yellowish color.
Below, the materials have a blue color.
According to Bauer the diamond-bearing material that fills the upper
part of the pipe consists of a soft, sandy material of a light yellow
color, known to diamond miners as yellow ground, or yellow stuff.
In the case of the Kimberly mine, the yellow ground has a thickness
of about sixty feet. Below it the material has a blue color and is
known as the blue ground. This latter material possesses the
character of a volcanic tuff, which is a hardened clay. It is of a green
or bluish green color and has the appearance of dried mud that
holds or binds together numerous irregular, tough, and sometimes
rounded fragments of a green or bluish black serpentine.
The diamonds are found near the surface in the yellow ground, as
well as downwards through the blue ground. It was at one time
thought that most of the diamonds existed in the yellow ground, and
that they would soon disappear entirely at short distances below
where the blue ground began. Under this belief some of the most
valuable claims changed hands at prices far below their true value. It
was soon found, however, that large and valuable stones existed in
the blue ground, and, indeed, this ground has never been mined to
a depth below where valuable diamonds appear.
The diamonds occur in very small quantities spread through the
yellow and blue grounds. The following statement by Bauer will
show this:
"A striking illustration of their sparing occurrence is furnished by the
fact that in the richest part of the richest mine, namely, in the
Kimberly mine, they constitute only one part in 2,000,000, or
0.00005% of the blue ground. In other mines the proportion is still
lower, namely, one part in 40,000,000, a yield which corresponds to
five carats per cubic yard of rock."
Of course, you will desire by this time to know the manner in which
the pipes of the diamond mines of South Africa have become filled
with the diamond-bearing rocks, and particularly what diamonds
have to do with a book on volcanoes and earthquakes.
Dr. Emil Cohen, who has made a study of these regions, regards the
pipes as volcanic vents or chimneys, and that the materials filling the
pipes have been brought up from below by volcanic forces. He says:
"I consider that the diamantiferous ground is a product of volcanic
action, and was probably erupted at a comparatively low
temperature in the form of an ash saturated with water and
comparable to the materials ejected by a mud volcano. Subsequently
new minerals were formed in the mass, consequent on alterations
induced in the upper part by exposure to atmospheric agencies, and
in the lower by the presence of water. Each of the crater-like basins,
or, perhaps, more correctly, funnels, in which alone diamonds are
now found, was at one time the outlet of an active volcano which
became filled up, partly with the products of eruption and partly with
ejected material which fell back from the sides of the crater
intermingled with various foreign substances, such as small pebbles,
or organic remains of local origin, all of which became imbedded in
the volcanic tuff. The substance of the tuff was probably mainly
derived from deep-seated crystalline rocks, of which isolated remains
are now to be found, and which are similar to those which now crop
out at the surface, only at a considerable distance from the diamond
fields. These crystalline rocks from which the diamonds probably
took their origin, were pulverized and forced up into the pipes by the
action of volcanic forces, and imbedded in this eruptive material,
these diamonds either in perfect crystals or in fragments are now
found."
So far as the volcanic origin of the diamonds of the Kimberly
diamond fields is concerned, Cohen's theory has been generally
accepted with the following modifications: that the pipes were not
filled by a single volcanic eruption, but by successive eruptions, and
that in the case of the Kimberly mine, the pipes contain the results
of as many as fifteen successive eruptions. There has, however,
been another and more important modification proposed to Cohen's
theory, which is far more probable. It will be noticed that Cohen's
theory regards the action of the volcanic eruption as only serving to
bring fragments of a deep-seated mother rock that contained the
diamonds up from below with the material that fills the pipe. Now,
Prof. Carvill Lewis proposes the following very important change in
Cohen's theory: that the blue ground does not consist of
fragmentary material or tuff, but was forced up from below in the
pipe in a molten mass and consolidated on cooling. In other words,
the blue ground is filled with an ordinary igneous rock that was
solidified in place in the vent or pipe.
In the great Kimberly mines the surface of the pipe is divided into
numerous separate claims, each consisting of a small square lot.
There are so many of these claims in the Kimberly mine that its
surface is honey-combed by numerous square pits. The work is done
largely by native Kaffirs employed there since the '70's. As the
material was removed from the pit, the adjoining claims were
separated from each other by high vertical walls.
At a later date, in order to remove the material and separate the
lots, high staging provided with ropes and hauling machinery was
erected. The number of these ropes is now so great that the mine
has the appearance of a huge cobweb.
A very extensive series of investigations has been made at a
comparatively recent date by Prof. Henri Moissan of France on
various chemical products that are obtained under the influence of
the high temperatures of the electric furnace. When a powerful
electric current is caused to pass through a highly refractory
material, that is to say, a material difficult to fuse, such as carbon, it
raises it to an extremely high temperature. A still higher temperature
can be obtained by causing a powerful current to flow between two
carbon rods that are first brought into contact, and then gradually
separated from each other, just as they are in the ordinary arc lights
employed for lighting the streets of our cities. In the latter way a
temperature that is estimated as high as 3,500° C. (6,332° F.), can
be readily obtained. Under these very high temperatures some very
curious chemical products have been obtained in electric furnaces.
These furnaces consist of small chambers made of highly refractory
materials closely surrounding the incandescent carbon, or the carbon
voltaic arc. Among some of the most curious of these products are
artificially produced diamonds.
Moissan, however, was not the first to produce diamonds artificially.
As soon as Lavoisier had experimentally shown that the chemical
composition of the diamond and carbon are the same, efforts were
made to convert charcoal into diamonds, and Despretz, as early as
1849, by means of the combined influence of a powerful burning
glass, the oxyhydrogen blowpipe, and the carbon voltaic arc
obtained a very high temperature. He claims by this temperature to
have been able to change carbon into a few microscopic diamonds.
It is quite possible, in the light of later investigations, that Despretz
may have been mistaken in his belief that he had actually produced
diamonds; but whether this be so or not, he was certainly one of the
pioneers in this early transformation of charcoal.
Theoretically, all that would be required in order to change the non-
crystalline form of carbon into the diamond, would be to subject the
carbon to a temperature sufficiently high to fuse it and then permit it
slowly to crystallize. Could this be done, there should be no trouble
in transforming any amount of coal into any equal amount of
diamonds. But the transformation is by no means as simple as might
be supposed. It is not that the temperature of the carbon cannot be
raised to its point of fusion, but that as soon as a certain
temperature has been reached, the carbon, instead of fusing or
melting, is suddenly volatilized or turned into vapor. There is no
doubt that this is done. Thousands of feet of carbon rods are
volatilized every night in the arc lamps of our cities, but the trouble
is that this carbon vapor so formed, when cooled, or condensed, is
not converted into the exceedingly hard, clear, crystalline diamond,
but into the soft, dull black graphite or plumbago.
Now the process adopted by Moissan in order to cause volatilized
carbon, or carbon vapor, to condense in the form of crystalline
diamonds was practically as follows: he placed pieces of pure carbon
inside a very strong steel tube, such, for example, as would be
formed by boring a short cylindrical hole in a piece of strong thick
steel, and placing a small quantity of carbon inside the tube so
formed. Closing the open end of the tube by means of a tightly
fitting screw plug, he volatilized the carbon inside the tube. The
steel, tube, and plug formed an electric furnace, for, as soon as he
passed an electric current through it, the temperature at once
became high enough to volatilize the carbon.
Under these circumstances the carbon vapor was subjected to great
pressure owing to the limited space in which it was liberated. As
soon as this mass of dense vapor had been formed, he seized the
steel tube with a pair of furnace tongs, and plunged it below the
surface of cold water in a bucket.
Of course, as the hot tube suddenly chilled, there was a great
shrinking in the walls of the furnace, so that the already compressed
carbon vapor was subjected to a still greater pressure which possibly
liquified it. Of that, however, we cannot speak definitely. This,
however, can safely be asserted, that when the tube was broken
open a confused mass of small crystals was found inside, some of
which, on examination with the microscope, were found to consist of
small crystals of two forms of diamonds, namely, the black diamond,
or carbonado, and the regular crystallized diamond.
Moissan made a great number of experiments for producing
diamonds in this way, and succeeded in forming some very beautiful,
though microscopic, diamonds.
What may be said to characterize especially Moissan's experiments
was the comparatively great number of diamonds, so small as to be
scarcely distinguishable under the microscope. The high temperature
to which the materials inside the tube were exposed resulted in the
production of numerous minute crystals of different minerals. In
order to get rid of as many of these as possible Moissan adopted the
plan of subjecting the material to the action of powerful solvents,
such as sulphuric acid, aqua regia, or a mixture of sulphuric and
nitric acid, and hydrofluoric acid. These acids destroyed most of the
minute crystals of other minerals, but left the minute crystals of
diamonds unaffected.
Now it will be observed that the theory proposed by Prof. Carvill
Lewis as to the probable origin of the diamonds of the Kimberly
mines bears a wonderfully close resemblance to the method adopted
by Moissan for the production of artificial diamonds, since it
supposes the diamonds to have been formed by the sudden cooling
or chilling within the pipe of various molten materials brought up
from great depths by the volcanic forces. If this be true, then
besides the comparatively large crystallized and perfect diamonds
found in the blue ground of the Kimberly mines, there should also be
found large quantities of microscopic diamonds, just as are found in
Moissan's electric furnaces, in which he produced artificial diamonds.
Moissan, considering this, obtained a specimen of the blue ground
from the Kimberly diamond pipe and on subjecting it to the action of
the different solvents before named, found in the mass that was left
undissolved a great number of microscopic diamonds. It would
seem, therefore, that there is no reasonable doubt but that the
Kimberly diamond fields had their diamonds produced by the sudden
chilling in the volcanic pipes of molten materials brought from great
depths by the force of volcanic eruption.
 CHAPTER XXXVII

THE FABLED CONTINENT OF ATLANTIS

Besides the sudden changes of level that frequently occur during

earthquake shocks there are gradual changes of level that take place
very slowly throughout long periods of time.
These are believed to be due to the warpings produced by the
cooling of an originally highly heated globe.
It is not true, therefore, that the earth's surface is fixed, or that its
land and water areas remain always the same. On the contrary, what
is land at one time is water at another time, and so, too, water areas
may become changed into land areas.
For the most part these changes go on so slowly as not to be
noticeable in an ordinary lifetime. Indeed, in some cases, they are so
extremely gradual that Methuselah himself might have gone to his
grave in ignorance of their progress.
Let us briefly note a few well-known gradual changes of level.
One of the most extensive of these is the sinking of an immense
area, over 6,000 miles in diameter, that covers a large part of the
bed or floor of the Pacific Ocean.
It is an easy matter to observe the gradual changes of level on the
coasts, since the old water line can be at once found, but it is very
difficult to detect such changes in the bed of the ocean, hidden as it
is by a covering of water. Yet many things that seem impossible to
the uninitiated are readily solved by those familiar with physical
science. Little signs, meaningless to others, are easily read, and
these prove beyond doubt the gradual sinking of the ocean's bed.
It was once believed that the coral polyps or animalculæ from the
hard, bony skeletons of which coral reefs are formed, could live at
the greatest depths of the ocean. These minute animals were,
therefore, generally credited with filling up the deep ocean, in
certain places, and converting it into dry land, and poetic
philosophers were pleased to point to their indefatigable labors as an
object lesson to the slothful.
But these charming, though fallacious, ideas were rudely overthrown
by the sounding line and the drag-net. It had long been known that
pieces of coral rock were brought up by dredging apparatus from the
bottom of the ocean at all depths, but it was eventually shown that
such pieces of coral rock never contained living animalculæ, when
brought from water at greater depths than from 100 to 120 feet.
It puzzled scientific men no little at first to explain this apparent
inconsistency. If the coral polyp could not live in water at greater
depths than from 100 to 120 feet, how could the presence of coral
rock at a depth of thousands of feet be explained? Happily, however,
this problem was solved by the great naturalist, Charles Darwin, who
showed that coral islands can only be formed in parts of the ocean
whose beds are sinking at the same gradual rate at which the coral
rock is being deposited. The presence, therefore, of coral islands on
the bed of the Pacific, as well as along parts of its coasts, are, to
scientific men, as good indications of its gradual sinking as if such
facts had been written in the clearest language.
But there are other instances of gradual changes of level besides the
bed of the Pacific. About 600 miles along the coast of Greenland,
from Disco Bay, near lat. 69° N., south to the Firth of Igaliko, lat. 60°
43' N., the bed of the ocean has been slowly sinking through 400
years. Old buildings and islands have been covered by the waters, so
that fishermen have been compelled to provide new poles for their
boats. As Sir Charles Lyell remarks:
"In one place the Moravian settlers have been obliged more than
once to move inland the poles upon which their large boats are set,
and the old poles still remain beneath the water as silent witnesses
of the change."
Besides these gradual changes of level there are many others, but
only one more need be cited: the gradual movements of the coasts
of North America between Labrador and New Jersey that are rising
in some places, and sinking in other places.
The evidences of these gradual changes of level are sometimes of
such a character that he who runs may read them. One of the most
interesting is, perhaps, that of the old Roman temple of Jupiter
Serapis, at Pozzuli, on the borders of the Mediterranean. This
temple, when completed, was 124 feet in length and 115 feet in
width. Its roof was supported by forty-six columns, each forty-two
feet in height, and five feet in diameter. Only three of these columns
are now standing. They give, however, unquestionable evidence of
having been submerged for about half their height. Nor, indeed, is
the evidence wanting that this submergence continued a
considerable time; for, while the lower twelve feet of the columns
remain smooth and unaffected, yet, for a distance of nine feet above
this portion, they have been perforated by various stone-boring
mollusks of a species still living in the Mediterranean. This witnesses
that the columns, when submerged, were buried in mud for twelve
feet, and surrounded by water nine feet deep. According to Dana,
the pavement of the temple is still under water. The fact that
another pavement exists below it shows that these changes of level
had occurred before the temple was deserted by the Romans. It
appears, that, prior to 1845, a gradual sinking of this part of the
coast had been going on, but that since then there has ensued a
gradual rising.
The evidences of these gradual changes of level in the land and
water surfaces of the earth cannot be doubted by even the most
skeptical. Again and again has the dry land disappeared below the
surface of the waters of the ocean. Again and again, the ocean's bed
has been raised to the surface and been converted into dry land.
Suppose we attempt to follow one of the latter movements.
We will imagine an extensive area to have slowly appeared above
the ocean. In due process of time this land surface, which we will
assume to have continental dimensions, gradually becomes covered
with plant and animal life. If it remains above the water for a
sufficient length of time, its simple plants and animals acquire more
and more complex forms, so as to make it difficult to detect any
traces of the original species from which they have descended, or,
more correctly, ascended. Moreover, where favorable conditions
exist, the continent becomes peopled with men, who gradually
advance from barbarism to semi-barbarism and eventually become a
most highly civilized nation, sending to different parts of the world
colonies, who carry with them the language and religious customs of
the land of their birth.
But, a sudden or paroxysmal change of level occurs. The highly
developed and densely populated region is suddenly swept out of
existence and completely covered by the waters of the ocean until,
in a few thousand years, all traces of its existence have so
completely disappeared that but few, if any, can be found willing to
acknowledge it ever had an existence.
Such, it is claimed, was the fate of the fabled Continent of Atlantis.
It will, therefore, be interesting to endeavor briefly to review its past
history and to read some of the things that have been written about
this part of the world, which appears in the opinion of some of the
ancients to have actually existed.
References to Atlantis have been made by various early writers.
Solon, the great Athenian lawgiver, who flourished 600 years b. c.,
began a description of this place in verse. This description was never
completed. At a later date one of Solon's descendants, Plato, who
lived about 400 b. c., prepared a description of Atlantis, giving in
detail its location, the general character of its surface, a description
of its principal city, and the civilization of its inhabitants, as well as a
brief reference to its sudden destruction. In another place this record
of Plato will be given in full. It will suffice now to quote briefly what
he says concerning its location.
"There was an island situated in front of the straits which you call
the Columns of Heracles (Straits of Gibraltar). The island was larger
than Libya and Asia put together, and was the way to other islands,
and from the island you might pass through the whole in the
opposite continent, for this sea which is within the Straits of Heracles
is only a harbor, having a narrow entrance, but that other is the real
sea, and the surrounding land may most truly be called a continent.
Now, in the island of Atlantis, there was a great and wonderful
empire, which had ruled over the whole island and several others, as
well as over part of the continents; and, besides these, they
subjected the parts of Libya within the Columns of Heracles as far as
Egypt, and of Europe as far as Tyrrhenia. The vast power, thus
gathered into one, endeavored to subdue at one blow our country
and yours, and the whole of the land which was within the straits,
and then, Solon, your country shone forth, in the excellence of her
virtues and strength, among all mankind, for she was the first in
courage and military skill, and was the leader of the Hellenes. And
when the rest fell off from her, being compelled to stand alone, after
having undergone the very extremity of danger, she defeated and
triumphed over the invaders, and preserved from slavery those who
were not yet subjected, and freely liberated all the others who dwelt
within the limits of Heracles.
"But afterwards, there occurred violent earthquakes and floods, and
in a single day and night of rain, all your warlike men in a body sunk
into the earth, and the island of Atlantis in a like manner
disappeared, and was sunk beneath the sea. And that is the reason
why the sea in those parts is impassable and impenetrable, because
there is such a quantity of shallow mud in the way; and this was
caused by the subsidence of the island." ("Plato's Dialogues," ii, 517,
Timæus).
But besides Solon and Plato there are other ancient writers who
refer to the lost island of Atlantis.
Ælian, in his "Varia Historia," lib. iii, chap. xvii, states that
Theopompos, who flourished 400 b. c., refers to an interview
between Midas, King of Phrygia, and Sielus, in which the latter
speaks of a great continent larger than Asia, Europe, and Libya
together that existed in the Atlantic.
Proclus quotes a statement from an ancient writer, who speaks
about the islands of the sea beyond the Pillars of Hercules (Straits of
Gibraltar).
Marcellus, in a book on the Ethiopians, refers to seven islands in the
Atlantic whose inhabitants preserve legends of a greater island
(possibly Atlantis), that had dominion over the small islands.
Diodorus Siculus asserts that the Phœnicians discovered a large
island in the Atlantic beyond the Pillars of Hercules several days' sail
from the coast of Africa.
Homer, Plutarch, and other ancient writers, refer to several islands in
the Atlantic situated several thousand stadia from the Pillars of
Hercules. (A stadium was a Greek measure of length equal to 600
feet. It was equal to one-eighth of a Roman mile, or 625 Roman
feet.)
Ignatius Donnelly, in his book, called "Atlantis, the Ante-Diluvian
World," claims that Plato's description of Atlantis which has generally
been regarded as imaginary, was, on the contrary, historic; that the
prehistoric continent of Atlantis was the cradle of the human race;
that here man reached his highest civilization; that Atlantis was the
site of the Garden of Eden, the Gardens of the Hesperides, the
Elysian Fields, as well as Olympus; that, under the forms of the gods
and goddesses of the ancient Greeks, the Phœnicians, the Hindoos,
and the Scandinavians, are related the stories of the kings, queens,
and heroes of Atlantis.
Much that has been claimed for the lost continent can hardly be
regarded in any other light save that of imagination. For example, it
has been asserted that it was from Atlantis that the colonies were
sent out that peopled the coast countries of the Gulf of Mexico, of
parts of the valley of the Mississippi, the basin of the Amazon, the
western coasts of South America, parts of Europe, the shore lands of
the Mediterranean Sea, the coasts of Europe, including the Caspian
and the Black Seas, and even of parts of Africa.
It has also been asserted that this mighty nation of Atlantis carried
the worship of the sun to Egypt, which was one of its first colonies,
and, therefore, the civilization of Egypt was but an offshoot of
prehistoric Atlantis.
But it will be reasonably objected that, if such a mass of land ever
existed in the North Atlantic, some evidences should still be found on
the bed of the ocean. Even though great periods of time have
elapsed since the disappearance of Atlantis, some traces of its
former existence should still remain on the floor of the ocean. Are
there any evidences of an old land mass on this part of the floor of
the Atlantic? The answer is unmistakable.
Deep-sea soundings show beyond question that there still exists in
the North Atlantic in the region where Atlantis is said to have been
located a submarine island, the summits of which appear above the
waters in the Azores and the Canary Islands. This submarine island
has been traced southwest over the bed of the ocean for a distance
of several thousand miles with a breadth of fully 1,000 miles. Toward
the south there is connected with it another submarine island, the
summits of which reach above the surface in the islands of
Ascension, St. Helena, and Tristan d'Acunha.
But the testimony of the submarine islands extends further than this.
According to a number of careful soundings it appears that the bed
of these parts of the ocean, instead of being characterized by a
comparatively level surface due to the gradual accumulation of silt,
possesses, to a great extent, the peculiarly sculptured surfaces
which are only produced by exposure for a long time to the
atmosphere.
Other facts might be adduced to show that some time during the
first appearance of man on the earth there was a large land mass
connecting the Eastern and Western Continents. These facts include
the wonderful resemblances existing between the plants and animals
of the Eastern and Western Continents, the close resemblances of
the myths and legends of the races of the Eastern and Western
Continents, as well as the identity of their religious ideas, and the
close similarity of their language so far as relates to certain
fundamental ideas. These facts all point unquestionably to the
existence of some large land mass between the two continents, and
to this extent to throw light on the probable existence of prehistoric
Atlantis.
 CHAPTER XXXVIII

PLATO'S ACCOUNT OF ATLANTIS

The following is a translation of Plato's record in full:

Critias. Then listen, Socrates, to a strange tale, which is, however,
certainly true, as Solon, who was the wisest of the seven sages,
declared. He was a relative and great friend of my great-grandfather,
Dropidas, as he himself says in several of his poems, and Dropidas
told Critias, my grandfather, who remembered, and told us, that
there were of old great and marvellous actions of the Athenians,
which have passed into oblivion through time and the destruction of
the human race—and one in particular, which was the greatest of
them all, the recital of which will be a suitable testimony of our
gratitude to you....
Socrates. Very good; and what is this ancient famous action of which
Critias spoke, not as a mere legend, but as a veritable action of the
Athenian State, which Solon recounted?
Critias. I will tell an old-world story which I heard from an aged
man; for Critias was, as he said, at that time nearly ninety-years of
age, and I was about ten years of age. Now the day was that day of
the Apaturia which is called the registration of youth; at which,
according to custom, our parents gave prizes for recitations, and the
poems of several poets were recited by us boys, and many of us
sung the poems of Solon, which were new at the time. One of our
tribe, either because this was his real opinion, or because he
thought that he would please Critias, said that, in his judgment,
Solon was not only the wisest of men but the noblest of poets. The
old man, I well remember, brightened up at this, and said smiling:
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