Atmosphere and Oceanography

Atmosphere and Oceanography

Solar System and Planets: Key Features for UPSC Prelims

Planet/Entity Key Features

- Central star of the Solar System, consists mostly of hydrogen and helium.
Sun - Source of energy via nuclear fusion (H → He).
- Accounts for 99.86% of the Solar System's mass.
- Smallest and closest planet to the Sun.
Mercury - No atmosphere; extreme temperatures.
- Surface features craters and cliffs.
- Earth's "twin" in size.
Venus - Hottest planet due to dense CO₂ atmosphere causing a runaway greenhouse effect.
- Rotates clockwise (retrograde rotation).
- Only planet known to support life.
Earth - Atmosphere contains nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%).
- Hydrosphere (oceans) covers ~71% of the surface.
- Known as the "Red Planet" due to iron oxide (rust) on the surface.

Mars - Thin CO₂ atmosphere.

- Olympus Mons (largest volcano) and Valles Marineris (largest canyon).

- Largest planet in the Solar System.

Jupiter - Composed mostly of hydrogen and helium.
- Has Great Red Spot (a giant storm) and 79+ moons (e.g., Ganymede, Io, Europa).
- Second-largest planet.
- Known for its prominent ring system made of ice and rock particles.
Saturn
- Has 80+ moons, including Titan (has an atmosphere).

- Ice giant; has a bluish-green color due to methane in its atmosphere.

Uranus - Rotates on its side (axial tilt of ~98°).
- Coldest planet in the Solar System.
- Farthest planet from the Sun.
Neptune - Known for its deep blue color (methane-rich atmosphere).
- Has the fastest winds in the Solar System (up to 2,100 km/h).
 Atmosphere and Oceanography

Some Important Celestial Bodies

Entity Key Features

- Located between Mars and Jupiter.

Asteroid Belt
- Contains rocky bodies, including Ceres (a dwarf planet).

Kuiper Belt - Beyond Neptune; contains icy bodies and dwarf planets like Pluto.

Oort Cloud - Hypothetical outermost region; source of long-period comets.

Comets - Icy bodies that release gas and dust when near the Sun (e.g., Halley's Comet).

- Meteoroid: Small rocky body in space.

Meteoroids/Met
- Meteor: Burns in Earth's atmosphere (shooting star).
eors/Meteorites
- Meteorite: Reaches Earth's surface.

Revolution of Earth and Its Effects

Aspect Details
Revolution of Earth The Earth revolves around the Sun in an elliptical
orbit, completing one revolution in 365.25 days.
Tilt of Axis Earth's axis is tilted at an angle of 23.5° from the
perpendicular to the plane of its orbit.
Direction Revolution occurs in a counterclockwise direction
(when viewed from above the North Pole).

Position Date Details

- Sun is directly overhead at the Tropic of Cancer

Summer Solstice Around June 21 (23.5°N).
- Longest day in the Northern Hemisphere.
- Sun is directly overhead at the Tropic of
Capricorn (23.5°S).
Winter Solstice Around December 21
- Shortest day in the Northern Hemisphere.

Around March 21 - Sun is directly overhead at the Equator.

 Atmosphere and Oceanography

Spring (Vernal)
- Equal day and night across the globe.
Equinox
- Sun is directly overhead at the Equator.
Around September
Autumnal Equinox
23 - Equal day and night across the globe.

Effects of Earth's Revolution

Effect Description
The tilt and revolution result in varying solar
Change of Seasons
intensity, causing different seasons.
Length of days and nights changes as the
Variation in Day and
Earth revolves, especially at higher
Night
latitudes.
The Sun appears to move north or south of
Apparent Shift of Sun the equator over the year (declination
changes).

Coriolis Force: A Summary

Aspect Details
An apparent force caused by Earth's rotation, deflecting moving objects to the
Definition
right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.

Cause Earth's rotation about its axis.

Nature Acts perpendicular to the direction of motion and the axis of rotation.

Direction of - Northern Hemisphere: To the right of the motion.

Deflection
- Southern Hemisphere: To the left of the motion.
Magnitude Zero at the equator and increases towards the poles.
Dependent
Velocity of the object, latitude (ϕ\phiϕ), and Earth's rotation speed.
Factors

Effects of Coriolis Force

Phenomena Impact
Atmospheric
Influences trade winds, westerlies, and polar easterlies.
Circulation
 Atmosphere and Oceanography

Ocean Currents Causes gyres and the deflection of oceanic currents (e.g., Gulf Stream).

- Responsible for the rotation of cyclones:

Cyclones
Counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern
Hemisphere.
Projectile
Affects long-range missile or aircraft trajectories, requiring adjustments.
Motion
Causes bank erosion in rivers; right bank erosion in the Northern Hemisphere
Rivers
and left bank erosion in the Southern Hemisphere.

Goldilocks Zone (Habitable Zone)

The Goldilocks Zone, also known as the habitable zone, refers to the region around a star where
conditions are just right (not too hot, not too cold) for liquid water to exist on the surface of a planet. This
concept is crucial for the search for extraterrestrial life because liquid water is considered essential for life
as we know it.

Factors Influencing Habitability in the Goldilocks Zone:

1. Distance from Star: Too close = water evaporates; too far = water freezes.
2. Atmosphere: A planet's atmosphere must retain heat and protect against harmful radiation.
3. Planetary Size and Gravity: A planet must have enough gravity to hold an atmosphere.
4. Geological Activity: May contribute to recycling nutrients and stabilizing climate.
NASA's Kepler and TESS missions focus on finding planets in habitable zones of other stars.

Comparison of Solar Flares, Sunspots, and Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs)

Coronal Mass Ejections

Aspects Solar Flares Sunspots
(CMEs)

Sudden, intense bursts Dark, cooler regions on the Massive ejections of plasma
Definition of radiation and energy Sun’s surface caused by and magnetic fields from the
from the Sun’s surface. magnetic field disturbances. Sun’s corona into space.
Triggered by the Formed by intense magnetic Caused by magnetic field
reconnection of activity that reduces disruptions leading to large-
Cause
magnetic field lines in convection, leading to cooler scale ejection of solar
active regions of the Sun. areas. material.
 Atmosphere and Oceanography

Lasts from minutes to Lasts for several hours to a

Duration Can persist for days to weeks.
hours. few days.
No direct effects but are
Can disrupt satellite Can cause geomagnetic
Effect on indicators of solar activity
communications, GPS, storms affecting power
Earth that may lead to flares or
and radio signals. grids, satellites, and auroras.
CMEs.

Composition of Earth's Atmosphere

Component Percentage by Volume Description

The most abundant gas in the atmosphere. Essential for
Nitrogen (N₂) 78.08%
plant growth but inert.
Vital for respiration and combustion. Supports life on
Oxygen (O₂) 20.95%
Earth.
A noble gas, non-reactive, and present in trace
Argon (Ar) 0.93%
amounts.
Carbon Dioxide Important for photosynthesis and regulating Earth’s
0.03%
(CO₂) temperature through the greenhouse effect.
Water Vapor Present in varying amounts, crucial for weather,
0-4% (variable)
(H₂O) climate, and the water cycle.
Trace amounts Concentrated in the ozone layer, absorbs harmful
Ozone (O₃)
(0.000004%) ultraviolet radiation.

Layer Altitude Range Key Features Significance

- The lowest layer

contains about 75% - Supports life by providing oxygen and
of the atmosphere's weather patterns.
mass.
- Temperature
Troposphere 0 to 8-15 km - Keeps Earth's surface warm via the
decreases with
greenhouse effect.
altitude.
- Weather
phenomena (clouds,
rain) occur here.
 Atmosphere and Oceanography

- Contains the ozone

layer (O₃) which
- Ozone layer protects Earth from
absorbs and scatters
harmful UV radiation.
ultraviolet (UV)
radiation.
Stratosphere 15 to 50 km
- Temperature
increases with
- Commercial aircraft typically fly here
altitude due to ozone
due to stable air.
absorption of UV
rays.
- Protects Earth's surface from meteoroid
- The coldest layer.
impacts by causing them to burn up.
- Temperature
decreases with - Temperature extremes.
Mesosphere 50 to 85 km
altitude.
- Meteors burn up in
this layer due to
friction.
- Temperature
- Absorbs high-energy UV and X-rays
increases sharply
from the Sun.
with altitude.
- Contains ionized
particles (ions),
Thermosphere 85 to 550 km - Aurora borealis and aurora australis
leading to
occur in this layer.
phenomena like
auroras.
- Very low density of
particles.
- The outermost layer
- Represents the transition between
where particles are
Earth's atmosphere and outer space.
very sparse.
550 km to 10,000
Exosphere - Mostly hydrogen
km - Satellites orbit in this region.
and helium.
- Particles can escape
into space.

Significance of the Ionosphere

Aspect Significance
 Atmosphere and Oceanography

The ionosphere reflects certain radio waves,

Radio Wave Propagation enabling long-range radio communication (e.g.,
AM radio, military communication).

Ionospheric delays can affect the accuracy of GPS

Global Positioning System (GPS)
signals as radio signals pass through this region.

Aurora borealis and aurora australis occur in the

Auroras (Northern and Southern
ionosphere when charged particles from the Sun
Lights)
collide with gases in this region.
Solar flares and Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs)
Solar Activity Impact can increase ionization, causing disruptions in
satellite and communication systems.
Plays a key role in space weather phenomena;
Space Weather variations in ionospheric density affect
communications and satellite operations.

Inversion of Temperature and Its Effects

Aspect Details

Temperature inversion occurs when the normal

Definition temperature gradient is reversed, i.e., the air at higher
altitudes is warmer than the air at lower altitudes.

In the troposphere, temperature generally decreases

Normal Temperature Gradient
with altitude (approximately 6.5°C per km).

- Radiational cooling: During the night, the ground cools

rapidly, and cooler air near the surface gets trapped by
warmer air above.

- Advection: Horizontal movement of warmer air over

Cause of Inversion
cooler air.

- Mountain and valley effects: Cool air in valleys can

become trapped, while mountains shield it from wind.

- Valleys: Cool air gets trapped in low-lying areas.

Common Locations - Coastal areas: Cold ocean air meets warmer land air.

- Urban areas: Due to pollution and human activity.

 Atmosphere and Oceanography

Effects of Inversion of Temperature

Effect Explanation

- Traps pollutants (e.g., smoke, smog) near the surface, leading

Air Pollution
to increased air pollution, which can harm health and visibility.

- Photochemical smog (in cities) and winter smog (in colder

Smog Formation areas) are more intense due to the inversion, as it prevents the
dispersion of pollutants.
- Clear skies: The inversion often leads to clear, calm weather
Weather Conditions conditions at the surface, as the air is stable and prevents cloud
formation.
- Temperature inversion can create turbulence and problems
Disruption in
for aircraft, as warm air above can cause sudden changes in
Aviation
airspeed and altitude.
- Can lead to frost in valleys and agricultural areas when the
Frost Formation
cold air is trapped near the surface.

Pressure Belts of the World

Pressure Belt Location Characteristics

- Characterized by low pressure due to intense

Equatorial Low- Near the Equator (5°N to
heating.
Pressure Belt 5°S)
- Hot air rises, creating a zone of convergence.
- Air descends, creating high pressure.
Subtropical High-
20° to 30° North and South - Causes dry, clear skies (e.g., Sahara, Arabian
Pressure Belts
Desert).
- Low pressure zones where westerlies meet polar
Subpolar Low-
50° to 60° North and South easterlies.
Pressure Belts
- Frequent storms and precipitation.
Polar High- Near the Poles (90° North - Very cold, dense air sinks, creating high pressure.
Pressure Belts and South) - Polar deserts with very little precipitation.

Feature Doldrums Horse Latitudes

Near the Equator (5°N to Near 30° North and South latitudes (Subtropical
Location
5°S) Highs)
 Atmosphere and Oceanography

Low-pressure zone due to

High-pressure zone where descending air creates
Pressure intense heat causing air to
calm conditions.
rise.

Wind Light and variable winds,

Calm or light winds, with occasional light breezes.
Characteristics often calm or slow-moving.
Hot, humid, and prone to
Weather thunderstorms, frequent Dry, clear skies with little to no precipitation.
rainfall.
- Rising warm air at the
Equator due to intense solar
heating. - Air descends at the sub-tropical high-pressure
Cause
- Creates a zone of belts, leading to dry conditions.
convergence where the
winds meet.
Historically dangerous for
Historically problematic for sailing vessels; ships
Impact on Sailing sailors; ships could be stuck
could get stranded due to calm winds.
for days due to lack of wind.
Also called the Intertropical
Other Names Sometimes referred to as the Subtropical Highs.
Convergence Zone (ITCZ).

Direction of
Wind Type Location Cause Characteristics
Flow

From
northeast in
the Northern Caused by the - Consistent and strong.
Between 0° Hemisphere Coriolis effect and
Trade and 30° N/S and from descending air at the
Winds (Tropical southeast in subtropical high-
zones) the Southern pressure belts (30°
Hemisphere N/S).
- Blow towards the equator.
towards the
- Responsible for tropical ocean
Equator.
currents.
- Assist in the formation of tropical
cyclones.
 Atmosphere and Oceanography

From
- Strong winds that blow from the
southwest in
the Northern Caused by the subtropical high-pressure areas
Between
Hemisphere Coriolis effect and towards the subpolar low-pressure
30° and 60° areas.
and from the rising of air at
Westerlies N/S
northwest in subpolar low-
(Temperate - Affects weather systems in
the Southern pressure belts (60°
zones) temperate regions.
Hemisphere N/S).
towards the - Influences mid-latitude cyclones.
poles.
From
northeast in
- Cold winds that blow from the
the Northern
Caused by cold, polar high-pressure regions to the
Between Hemisphere
dense air descending low-pressure areas around 60° N/S.
Polar 60° and 90° and from
at the polar high-
Easterlies N/S (Polar southeast in
pressure belts and
zones) the Southern
the Coriolis effect.
Hemisphere - Influence polar weather systems
towards the and ocean currents.
equator.

Indian Monsoon: Overview and Theories

Aspect Details
Seasonal reversal of winds, bringing significant rainfall to the
Definition
Indian subcontinent.
- Southwest Monsoon (June–September): Brings heavy rains.
Seasons - Northeast Monsoon (October–December): Brings rainfall to
southeastern India.
Indian subcontinent, Bay of Bengal, Arabian Sea, and neighboring
Regions Affected
countries.
Importance Crucial for agriculture, water resources, and overall economy.

Theories Explaining the Indian Monsoon

Theory Proposed By Key Points Limitations

 Atmosphere and Oceanography

- Differential heating of land (high Does not explain upper

Thermal pressure) and sea (low pressure) atmospheric circulation or
Halley (1686)
Concept creates winds. variations in monsoon
- Winds reverse direction seasonally. intensity.

- Focuses on the shift of the

Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) Ignores regional factors like
Dynamic
Flohn (1951) northward during summer. topography and local
Concept
circulation patterns.
- ITCZ attracts moist winds from
oceans.
- Monsoon onset is influenced by
upper-level subtropical westerly jet
Jet Stream Findlater streams. Fails to explain monsoon
Theory (1969) - Tibetan Plateau heats up, creating breaks or variability in rainfall.
low pressure, enhancing monsoon
flow.
El Niño-
ENSO does not always
Southern - El Niño weakens monsoon (reduced
Walker and correlate perfectly with
Oscillation rainfall); La Niña strengthens monsoon
others monsoon strength, indicating
(ENSO) (increased rainfall).
other factors at play.
Theory
Equatorial - Positive EQUINOO phase enhances
Still under research and not
Indian Ocean Recent monsoon by increasing moisture flow
widely adopted in forecasting
Oscillation Studies from the Indian Ocean.
models.
(EQUINOO) - Negative phase suppresses monsoon.
- Seasonal variation in solar radiation
Solar creates pressure gradients that drive
Modern Does not fully account for
Radiation monsoon winds.
Meteorology inter-annual variability.
Theory - Strong heating over land pulls in
moist air.
- Heating of the Tibetan Plateau Overemphasis on Tibetan
Tibetan
Koteswaram creates a thermal low-pressure area. Plateau ignores the role of
Plateau
and Others ocean-atmosphere
Theory - This intensifies the monsoon system.
interactions.

Feature Details
Onset Early June in Kerala; gradually advances northwards.
Breaks in
Periods of dry weather within the monsoon season caused by changes in wind patterns.
Monsoon
 Atmosphere and Oceanography

Withdrawal Begins in September from the northwest and gradually retreats.

Monsoon
Low-pressure area running parallel to the Himalayas, influencing rainfall distribution.
Trough
Highly variable in time and space, influenced by ENSO, EQUINOO, and other global
Variability
factors.

Cyclones and Jet streams: Overview for Prelims

Aspect Details
A cyclone is a large-scale air mass that rotates around a strong center of low
Definition
pressure.
Types of 1. Tropical Cyclones: Form in warm tropical oceans.
Cyclones 2. Temperate Cyclones: Occur in mid-latitudes (e.g., extra-tropical cyclones).
1. Warm ocean water (above 26.5°C).
2. Low-pressure system.
Formation
Conditions 3. High humidity.

4. Coriolis effect (to initiate rotation).

1. Eye: Calm center.
Structure 2. Eyewall: Intense thunderstorms.
3. Rainbands: Spiraling bands of heavy rain.
Influenced by trade winds, westerlies, and Coriolis effect. Moves from east to west
Movement
in tropics, and west to east in temperate regions.
1. Heavy rainfall, strong winds, and storm surges.
Impact 2. Coastal flooding and destruction.
3. Severe damage to infrastructure.
Named based on region: Hurricanes (Atlantic, North Pacific), Typhoons (West
Naming
Pacific), Cyclones (Indian Ocean, South Pacific).

Jet Streams

Aspect Details
Jetstreams are fast-flowing, narrow air currents found at
Definition high altitudes, generally between 9-16 km above the
Earth's surface.
1. Polar Jetstream: Occurs at higher latitudes (~60° N/S).
Types of Jetstreams
2. Subtropical Jetstream: Occurs near 30° N/S.
 Atmosphere and Oceanography

1. Temperature contrast between polar and tropical air

masses.
Formation Conditions
2. High-altitude wind patterns caused by the Earth's
rotation and pressure differences.
1. Winds can reach speeds of 200-400 km/h.
Characteristics 2. Influence weather patterns and storm tracks.
3. Can shift north or south with seasonal changes.
1. Affects the development and movement of weather
systems.
Impact on Weather
2. Modifies the temperature and precipitation patterns.
3. Key factor in the formation of mid-latitude cyclones.
1. Polar Jetstream: Found between 50° and 60° N/S.
Location
2. Subtropical Jetstream: Found between 20° and 30° N/S.

World Climate and Its Important Features

Climate Type Regions Key Features

- Amazon Basin, Congo - Hot and wet throughout the year.

Equatorial Climate Basin, Southeast Asia, - High rainfall (200-400 cm annually).
Indonesia. - Dense tropical rainforests.
- Indian subcontinent, - Distinct wet and dry seasons.
Tropical Monsoon Southeast Asia, parts of - Heavy summer rainfall due to monsoon winds.
West Africa. - Deciduous forests.
- Sahara, Thar, Arabian - Hot and dry with scarce rainfall (<25 cm annually).
Tropical Desert Desert, Kalahari, - Large diurnal temperature range.
Atacama. - Sparse vegetation.
- Distinct wet and dry seasons.
- Central Africa, Brazil,
Tropical Savannah - Grasslands with scattered trees.
Venezuela, Australia.
- Rainfall: 50-150 cm annually.
- Southern Europe, - Wet winters and dry summers.
Mediterranean
California, South Africa, - Rainfall: 40-100 cm annually.
Climate
parts of Australia. - Evergreen shrubs and olive trees.
- Southeastern USA, - Hot, humid summers and mild winters.
Humid
eastern China, Japan,
Subtropical - Rainfall throughout the year (75-150 cm annually).
parts of Brazil.
Temperate - Moderate temperatures with rainfall throughout the
Oceanic year.
 Atmosphere and Oceanography

- Western Europe, New

Zealand, southeastern - Deciduous forests.
Australia.
- Central Asia, Siberia, - Hot summers and cold winters.
Temperate
Canadian Prairies, - Low to moderate rainfall (25-75 cm annually).
Continental
Mongolia. - Grasslands (steppes).
- Canada, Scandinavia, - Long, cold winters and short summers.
Taiga (Sub-Arctic)
Russia. - Coniferous forests (boreal forests).
- Arctic regions, - Extremely cold with permafrost.
Tundra Greenland, northern - Sparse vegetation: mosses, lichens.
Canada, Siberia. - Short growing season.
- Severe cold throughout the year.
- Antarctica, Greenland
Polar - Ice-covered terrain.
interior.
- Negligible vegetation.

Oceanography

Ocean Bottom Relief and Its Features

Feature Description Key Characteristics

Submerged part of the - Gentle slope, depth up to 200 meters.

continental margin - Rich in marine resources (oil, gas, fisheries).
Continental Shelf extending from the
coast to the shelf - Ideal for fishing and navigation.
break.
Steep slope beyond - Depth ranges from 200 to 3,000 meters.
the continental shelf,
Continental Slope marking the boundary
- Features submarine canyons and turbidity currents.
between continental
and oceanic crust.
Gently sloping area at - Depth ranges between 3,000 to 4,000 meters.
the base of the
Continental Rise continental slope, - Accumulates sediments from rivers and submarine
formed by deposition canyons.
of sediments.
Flat, extensive areas of - Depth ranges from 3,000 to 6,000 meters.
Abyssal Plain
the deep ocean floor. - Covered with fine sediments and organic matter.
 Atmosphere and Oceanography

- Among the flattest regions on Earth.

Underwater mountain
ranges formed by - Includes features like ridges, valleys, and fissures.
Mid-Oceanic Ridge tectonic activity at
divergent plate
- Associated with volcanic activity and hydrothermal
boundaries.
vents.
Underwater volcanic - Conical shape, often isolated.
mountains rising from
Seamounts
the ocean floor but not - May become islands if they rise above sea level.
reaching the surface.
Flat-topped - Found in deep ocean basins.
Guyots
seamounts eroded by
(Tablemounts) - Indicate submerged former islands.
wave action.
Deep, narrow - Depth exceeds 6,000 meters; deepest trench is the
Trenches depressions formed at Mariana Trench (~11,022 meters).
subduction zones. - Associated with seismic and volcanic activity.
Islands formed due to
volcanic eruptions or - Can be volcanic (e.g., Hawaii) or coral-based (e.g.,
Oceanic Islands
coral reef Maldives).
accumulation.
Steep-sided valleys - Formed by river erosion or turbidity currents.
cutting through the
Submarine Canyons
continental shelf and - Act as channels for sediment transport to deep oceans.
slope.
Ring-shaped coral - Formed around volcanic islands that have subsided.
Atolls reefs surrounding a
- Common in tropical oceans.
central lagoon.

Ocean Temperature and Salinity with Depth

Ocean Temperature

Layer Depth Range Temperature Characteristics

- Warmest layer, influenced by

Surface Zone sunlight.
0–200 meters
(Mixed Layer) - Temperature varies with latitude
and season.
 Atmosphere and Oceanography

- Well-mixed due to waves and

currents.
- Rapid decrease in temperature with
depth.
Thermocline 200–1,000 meters - Acts as a barrier separating warm
surface waters from cold deep
waters.
- Uniformly cold (<4°C) throughout.

Deep Zone Below 1,000 meters - Temperature remains constant

regardless of season or location.

Ocean Salinity

Layer Depth Range Salinity Characteristics

- Highly variable due to evaporation,
precipitation, river input, and
Surface Zone (Mixed
0–200 meters melting ice.
Layer)
- Average salinity is 35 PSU (Practical
Salinity Units).
- Salinity changes rapidly with depth.
Halocline 200–1,000 meters - Significant in areas with high
freshwater inflow or evaporation.
- Salinity becomes nearly uniform
(~34.5–35 PSU).
Deep Zone Below 1,000 meters
- Stable due to lack of mixing and
isolated water masses.

Key Factors Influencing Temperature and Salinity

Factor Effect on Temperature Effect on Salinity

Higher temperatures at Higher salinity in subtropics

Latitude lower latitudes (tropics); due to evaporation; lower
colder at poles. near poles due to melting ice.
Decreases with depth due to More uniform salinity at
Depth
lack of sunlight. greater depths.
Currents can transport salty
Warm currents increase
Ocean Currents or freshwater, influencing
surface temperature.
salinity patterns.
 Atmosphere and Oceanography

Negligible at depth; affects River inflow, ice melting, and

Freshwater Input
only surface layers. precipitation lower salinity.
Evaporation increases
Impacts surface layers
Evaporation/Precipitation salinity; precipitation
significantly.
decreases it.

Tides: Overview, Types, and Significance

Definition of Tides

Tides are the periodic rise and fall of sea levels caused by the gravitational interaction between the
Earth, Moon, and Sun, combined with the Earth's rotation.

Types of Tides

Type Description Cause and Characteristics

- Occurs when the Moon and
The sea level rises to its
High Tide Sun's gravitational pull is
maximum height.
strongest on the Earth's water.
- Occurs when the Moon and
The sea level falls to its lowest
Low Tide Sun's pull is weakest on the
point.
Earth's water.
- Occurs during the new moon
- Exceptionally high and low and full moon phases.
Spring Tide
tides. - Earth, Moon, and Sun are
aligned (syzygy).
- Occurs during the first and
- Tides with minimal height
third quarter moon phases.
Neap Tide difference between high and
- Moon and Sun are at right
low tides.
angles (quadrature).
One high tide and one low tide - Common in Gulf of Mexico,
Diurnal Tide
in a day. South China Sea.
Two high tides and two low
Semi-Diurnal Tide tides of nearly equal height in a - Common in the Atlantic Ocean.
day.
Two high tides and two low
Mixed Tide - Common in the Pacific Ocean.
tides of unequal height in a day.

Significance of Tides
 Atmosphere and Oceanography

Aspect Details
- High tides help ships enter and leave ports
Navigation
safely.
- Tidal movements stir nutrients, attracting
Fishing
fish to coastal areas, boosting fisheries.
- Tides influence erosion and deposition,
Coastal Management
shaping coastlines.
- Tidal energy is harnessed using tidal barrages
Energy Generation
and turbines.
- Coastal tides help flush out waste and
Waste Disposal
maintain water quality.
- Tides aid in understanding Earth's
Scientific Studies
gravitational interactions and ocean behavior.

• India started its efforts to assess and harness tidal power in the early 1980s when it
commissioned a feasibility study for a 900 MW tidal power project at the Gulf of Kutch in
Gujarat. However, the project was shelved due to high cost and environmental concerns.
Later, two more tidal power projects were initiated in West Bengal and Gujarat, but they were
also abandoned for similar reasons. As of now, India does not have any operational tidal
power plant.

Factors Responsible for Ocean Currents

Ocean currents are large-scale movements of water in the ocean that flow in a definite direction.
They are influenced by various factors:

Factor Description Effect on Ocean Currents

- Trade winds cause
westward movement near
- Major winds like trade winds and
Planetary Winds the equator.
westerlies drive surface ocean currents.
- Westerlies drive currents in
mid-latitudes.
- Currents are deflected to
the right in the Northern
Earth's Rotation (Coriolis - Earth's rotation causes deflection of
Hemisphere and to the left
Force) ocean currents due to the Coriolis effect.
in the Southern
Hemisphere.
- Unequal heating of Earth's surface - Warm water moves from
Temperature Differences
creates differences in water temperature. the equator to poles, and
 Atmosphere and Oceanography

cold water flows from poles

to the equator.
- High salinity water sinks
- Variations in salinity cause differences in
and flows towards regions
Salinity Differences water density, driving vertical and
of lower salinity, forming
horizontal movements.
deep currents.
- Helps maintain oceanic
- Gravitational pull causes water to flow
Gravity circulation and balances sea
downhill from higher to lower levels.
levels.
- Currents are deflected or
- The configuration of coastlines and
intensified along narrow
Shape of Coastlines ocean basins affects the direction and
straits, bays, and
speed of currents.
continental margins.

Important Warm and Cold Ocean Currents and Their Locations

• Warm Currents: Move from equatorial regions toward higher latitudes, carrying warm water.
• Cold Currents: Move from polar regions toward equator, carrying cold water.
• Warm and cold currents significantly influence climate, marine life, and weather patterns in
adjacent coastal areas.

Type Ocean Current Location

North Atlantic Ocean, along the eastern coast of

Warm Currents Gulf Stream
North America (from Florida to Europe).
North Pacific Ocean, along the eastern coast of
Kuroshio Current
Japan.
South Atlantic Ocean, along the eastern coast of
Brazil Current
South America.
South Pacific Ocean, along the eastern coast of
East Australian Current
Australia.
Agulhas Current Indian Ocean, along the southeastern coast of Africa.
North Atlantic Ocean, extension of the Gulf Stream
North Atlantic Drift
towards Europe.
Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans, flowing
Equatorial Currents
westward near the equator.
 Atmosphere and Oceanography

Counter Equatorial Current: Short Overview

• Definition: A current that flows eastward along the equator, opposite to the westward equatorial
currents (e.g., North and South Equatorial Currents).
• Causes:
o Trade Winds: Push surface waters westward, creating an eastward counter current.
o Coriolis Effect: Deflects water, causing the counter current to move east.
o Pressure Gradient: Difference in pressure between eastern and western ocean basins
drives eastward flow.
o Ocean Basin Shape: Narrow regions enhance counter current flow.
• Location: Found between 10°N and 10°S latitudes in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.
• Significance: Helps balance ocean circulation and aids in nutrient redistribution in the ocean.

Cold Ocean Current

Ocean Current Ocean Location

North Atlantic Flows southward along the eastern coast of Canada,
Labrador Current
Ocean meeting the Gulf Stream near Newfoundland.
North Pacific Flows southward along the western coast of North
California Current
Ocean America.
North Atlantic Flows southward along the northwestern coast of
Canary Current
Ocean Africa.
South Atlantic Flows northward along the southwestern coast of
Benguela Current
Ocean Africa.
Peru (Humboldt) South Pacific Flows northward along the western coast of South
Current Ocean America.
North Pacific Flows southward along the eastern coast of Siberia and
Oyashio Current
Ocean Japan, meeting the Kuroshio Current.
West Australian
Indian Ocean Flows northward along the western coast of Australia.
Current
South Atlantic Flows northward along the southeastern coast of
Falkland Current
Ocean South America.
North Atlantic Flows southward along the eastern coast of
East Greenland Current
Ocean Greenland.
Somali Current (Cold During the winter monsoon, flows southward along
Indian Ocean
Phase) the eastern coast of Africa.