Week1-2

Scientific Methods in Behavioral and Social Sciences

We get to know things through our own experiences (personal experiences), authority, intuition,
culture.

-How much do you trust this knowledge?

-Is this knowledge true for everyone?

Science is another form of acquiring knowledge

Scientific inquiry
Intuition& authority& rationalism

Science

A set of methods used to collect information about phenomena in a particular topic of interest
and build a reliable base of knowledge about them.

Social scientists use this knowledge to understand the mechanisms underlying human behavior &
social phenomena, and for amelioration of social problems.

The research: Are women more talkative than men?

The beginnings of Behavioral Research

• People have asked questions about the causes of behavior throughout the written history.

• For over two millenia, the approach to answering these questions was entirely speculative

• Based on: Everyday observation, creative insight, religious doctrines.

Behavioral science (scientific psychology) was born during the last quarter of the 19th century.

- Wilhelm Wundt, William James, G. Stanley Hall

- “ basic questions about behavior could be addressed using many of the same methods that were
used in more established sciences, such as biology, chemistry, and physics”

Psychology as a science

• Social scientists use this knowledge to understand the mechanisms underlying human behavior
& social phenomena, and for amelioration of social problems.
• Modern psychology, particularly, study invisible constructs

Early emphasis on behaviorism

-Paradigms of science

Basic assumptions underlying (positivist) scientific research

• Uniformity or regularity in nature

• Social phenomena are orderly enough to be explained and predicted (not random)– just as
physical phenomena

• Reality in nature – the assumption that the things we see, hear, feel, smell, and taste are real

• Social phenomena can be objectively and empirically observed/discovered /determined -

through scientific research

√Not all social scientist employ a strictly positivist approach to science

Scientific knowledge is acquired via research

Research process:

Conceptualization: Conceptualization is the process of defining and clarifying the key concepts
in a research study. It involves breaking down broad or abstract ideas into specific, measurable
terms so that they can be systematically studied. E.g. Unobserved Construct A: gender –
Construct B: being talkative → Reality

Measurement: E.g. Observed/Measured Variable X: male/female (gender as a social role) –

Variable Y B: differences in daily word usage among women and men → Research

Analysis & Conclusion: Reality and Research,

If X » A and Y » B then X → Y implies A → B (Statistics)
STATICS = research to reality

Characteristics of Scientific Thinking

Systematic
Logical/ Rational = statics
Empirical / Observable
Falsifiable / Testable = a claim is falsifiable if there is an observation that would, if it were made,
count as evidence against the claim. (Yanlışlanabilir)
“All crows are black.”
“Parents who were beaten as children are more likely to beat their own children.”
 o Objective (Observer independent)
o Results are generalizable
•Situations, Time, People, Contexts, Different ways of measuring…
• BUT ALSO BOUNDED BY THEM
o Social research seeks to understand aggregate regularities

-Precondition for falsifiability

It is a process:
Scientific knowledge is tentative/cyclic = Falsifiability brings tentativeness
But also cumulative,
• Bilim, kesin doğrular ortaya koymaz; aksine, sürekli olarak gözden geçirilen, test edilen ve
değiştirilebilen bilgiler üretir.
Yeni veriler ve teknolojiler geliştikçe, eski teoriler revize edilebilir, genişletilebilir veya
tamamen değiştirilebilir.
Örneğin: Newton'un yerçekimi teorisi uzun süre geçerli kabul edilmiştir, ancak Einstein’ın genel
görelilik teorisi, Newton’un modelini genişleterek daha doğru bir açıklama sunmuştur.
• Ama bilim, geçmişte elde edilen bilgilerin üzerine inşa edilir. Yeni keşifler, eski bilgilerin
tamamen reddedilmesi yerine, genellikle onları geliştirir veya genişletir.
Yeni teoriler, eski bilgileri çürütebilir ama genellikle onları daha kapsamlı hale getirir.
Örneğin: Atom teorisi zamanla değişmiştir; Dalton'un bölünemez atom modelinden başlayarak,
Rutherford’un çekirdek modeli ve kuantum mekaniğine kadar sürekli olarak gelişmiştir.

Tentative → Bilimsel bilgi kesin değil, değiştirilebilir ve geliştirilebilir.

Cumulative → Bilim, önceki bilgilerin üzerine eklenerek ilerler.

Bu yüzden bilim hem esnektir (yeniliklere açık) hem de sürekli ilerleyen bir süreçtir

Science knowledge is public

Academic audience
General public

Recap:

• Scientific method is one of many different ways of knowing or understanding.

• It is different from other ways of knowing, such as insight, divine inspiration, and
acceptance of authoritative dictates
• Scientific knowledge is acquired via research; a process of systematic inquiry that is
designed to collect, analyze, interpret, and use data.

Week3
Goals of Science

• Description –portraying the phenomenon

• Prediction – anticipating the outcome the occurrence of an event

• Finding causes and Explanation – Identifying the cause(s) of the phenomenon

Description:

• Research for describing (depicting) situations and events.

• Systematic observation. Report on the background or context of a situation.

• Addresses the amounts of a single given characteristic (not relationships between
two/more variables)
• Answer questions of what, where, when, how
• Mostly research by clinical psychologists, some developmental psychologists, market
researchers, political scientists...

E.g.
• What is the percentage of athletes on campus.
• How productive is average professor.
• What is the violent- crime rate in NYC (vs. in Istanbul)

Prediction/ association:

• Research for discovering regularities, relations between/ among variables

• 2 or more variables/conditions.
• Series of coordinated observations.
• Strength and direction of relation.

E.g.
• Children’s failure is related to teachers’ behaviors.
• Predict employee performance based on results of employment tests & interviews.

Finding Causes and Explaining behavior

• Research for explaining situations and events.

• Systematic data collection

• Description is the first step
• Determine the causes of behavior and answer questions of why

• Most frequent objective in the real research world

E.g. Children learn less because they are taught less.

Basic/Pure Research

• Description –portraying the phenomenon

• Prediction – anticipating the outcome the occurrence of an event

• Finding causes and Explanation – Identifying the cause(s) of the phenomenon

Applied Research

• Control / influence /application – manipulation of the conditions that determine a phenomenon

Scientific method

• It is systematic, controlled, empirical, public and is guided by theory about the presumed
relations among social phenomena.
• The order researchers follow give them the opportunity to have critical confidence in
their outcomes.
• Scientific findings are not subject to moral evaluation
• results are not consider as bad or good but as valid and reliable.

(Researchers may have differ in their philosophical approach to science)

Major paradigms in research

• Researcher’s perspective, conceptual lens; basic set of beliefs of worldview that guides
research action or an investigation

→ these paradigms influence scientific thinking by primarily guiding how knowledge is

generated, interpreted, and validated in research

Paradigms differ in the basic questions they ask

"What is the nature of reality?" (The ontological question)

Ontology is concerned with the nature of reality and what exists.
• Is reality objective and independent of our minds, or is it constructed through our perceptions
and social interactions?”

"What is the nature of knowledge and the relationship between the knower and the would-be
known?" (The epistemological question)
Epistemology deals with how we acquire knowledge and the relationship between the
researcher and what is being studied.
• How do we know what we know, and what is the relationship between the researcher and what
they're studying?”--
"How can the knower go about obtaining the desired knowledge and understanding?" (The
methodological question)
Methodology is about the strategies, tools, and techniques used to study reality and acquire
knowledge.
• What methods and approaches should we use to gather valid information about our research
subject?

Ontology
Epistemology (Nature Methodology (How to
Paradigm (Nature of
of Knowledge) Obtain Knowledge)
Reality)
Reality exists
independently of
human perception The researcher remains Uses experimental
Positivism/Post- and can be objective and distant methods, quantitative
positivism objectively from what's being measurements, and
measured, though studied. hypothesis testing.
with some
uncertainty.
Reality is socially
Knowledge is co- Uses qualitative methods
constructed
created between the like interviews,
Constructivism through human
researcher and observations, and
interaction and
participants. narrative analysis.
meaning-making.
Reality is
Uses mixed methods
understood through Knowledge is
(combining quantitative
practical instrumental,
and qualitative and
consequences; situational,
Pragmatism prioritizes research
what is 'true'
approaches based on
depends on what and evaluated by its
what best addresses the
works in specific practical consequences.
research question.
situations.
Knowledge is socially
Uses participatory,
Reality is shaped constructed and shaped
action- oriented, and
by social, political, by power dynamics,
critical analysis methods
Critical Theory and historical requiring critical
to uncover power
forces that create examination of
structures and promote
power structures. ideology, oppression,
social change.
and inequality.

Positivism/ Post- Positivism

Ontology: Reality exists independently of human perception and can be objectively measured,
though with some degree of uncertainty.
•E.g. A physicist studying particles assumes these particles have real properties that exist
regardless of observation.

Epistemology: Researcher remains objective and distant from what’s being studied.
• E.g. A medical researcher testing a new drug follows strict protocols to eliminate bias and
subjective influence.

Methodology: Uses experimental methods, quantitative measurements, and hypothesis testing.

• E.g. A psychologist conducts controlled experiments with random assignment to test cognitive
theories.

Constructivism

Ontology: Reality is socially constructed through human interaction and meaning-making. • E.g.
An anthropologist studying cultural rituals recognizes that their meaning exists

because communities construct them.

Epistemology: Knowledge is co-created between the researcher and participants.
• E.g. An educational researcher using interviews acknowledges that conversations with teachers
shape the knowledge created.

Methodology: Uses qualitative methods like interviews, observations, and narrative analysis.
• E.g. An ethnographer lives within a community for extended periods to understand their lived
experiences.

Pragmatism

Ontology: Reality is understood through practical consequences; what is 'true' depends on what
works in specific situations.
• E. g. A design researcher focuses on creating solutions that work in real-world settings rather
than discovering universal truths.

Epistemology: Knowledge is instrumental, situational, and evaluated by its practical

consequences.
• E. g. A clinical psychologist evaluates therapeutic approaches based on their effectiveness
rather than theoretical adherence.

Methodology: Uses mixed methods (combining quantitative and qualitative approaches) and
prioritizes research approaches based on what best addresses the research question.
• E.g: A public health researcher might use surveys (quantitative) to identify broad patterns and
follow up with interviews (qualitative) to explore underlying reasons.

Critical Theory

Ontology : Reality is shaped by social, political, and historical forces that create power
structures.
• E.g. A sociologist studying gender inequality examines how social institutions have historically
constructed and reinforced gender roles.

Epistemology: Knowledge is socially constructed and shaped by power dynamics, requiring a

critical examination of ideology, oppression, and inequality.
• E.g. A feminist researcher examines how traditional research methods may reinforce gender
biases and works to create more equitable approaches.

• Methodology: Uses participatory, action-oriented, and critical analysis methods to uncover

power structures and promote social change.
• E.g. A participatory action researcher works with marginalized communities to identify
problems and develop solutions together.
Technique of data collection

Quantitative (NİCEL) research uses quantifiable data

• Numerical
• Make observations explicit and measurable.
• Allows the use of statistical analysis

Qualitative (NİTEL) research uses qualitative data –

• Non-numerical
• Meaningful within their context
• Able to recognize the spectrum of a concept/construct

Beware: Reality vs. Research

Type I error (false posi)

Type II error (false nega)

Replication Crisis
Replication is crucial for verifying the accuracy and reliability of research findings. When
studies cannot be replicated, it undermines trust in scientific knowledge.
• What methods and approaches should we use to gather valid information about our research
subject?

Pseudoscience, bad science, fake science

How to deal with false information?

Pseudoscience
• Is any body of knowledge, methodology, or practice that is erroneously regarded as scientific.

• Claims to be scientific but is based on methods and practices that violate many tenets of
science.

• Phrenology: determining human personality by reading the bumps on the skull

• Fortune-telling etc.

Characteristics of pseudoscience:

• Hypotheses generated are not typically testable

• If scientific tests are reported, methodology is not scientific and validity of data is
questionable
• Supportive evidence is anecdotal and does not cite scientific references
• Claims ignore conflicting evidence
• Claims tend to be vague, and appeal to pre-conceived ideas
• Claims are never revised

Fake news:

False or misleading information presented as news.

1. Disinformation - spread intentionally by people in bad faith.

E.g. Accusing certain racial groups

2. Misinformation - spread innocently despite being incorrect.

E.g. Drinking water every 15 minutes decreases the risks

IN CONCLUSION

• As consumers: Critical thinking is essential for evaluating scientific claims and ensuring the
reliability of information.

As researchers: It is our professional responsibility to conduct research carefully and to correct

any misrepresentations or errors in the scientific record.
Design of the graphs!
-Graph Crimes

-The replications/ reproducibility/ credibility crises

FRAUD

Replication crisis in psychology

Evidence

Redoing the hypothesis

Experimenter effects (cognitive biases) that contribute to false conclusions

• Apophenia - the tendency to see patterns in random data
• Confirmation bias - the tendency to focus on evidence that is in line with our expectations or
favoured explanation
• Hindsight bias - the tendency to see an event as having been predictable only after it has
occurred

Reactance to scientific information?

We also have a tendency to downplay factual information that is threatening/ limiting .
• No access to the information
• Lack of scientific literacy
• Motivation to reject science
It is a “choice”

The peer review process

Academic Publications
Lit Review

Professional Journals

Scholarly Books → not peer reviewed

Popuşar Science book

Preprints

Publication Process
Decisions after peer-review:
• Desk –reject (indeed before sending to the reviewers)
• Reject
• Major revision
• Minor revision
• Accept
Unless rejected – this process is repeated until the reviewers &/editor
recommends acceptance. (but may still be rejected)

Literature Search
• A literature search is a comprehensive survey of publications and
information on a specific topic. The result produced at the end of a
literature search is usually a list of references.
• Literature search not same as literature review. Literature review is the written section of your
research report that summarizes the literature you studied to develop the research study.

Notes:
• Impact factor: how much people cite articles published in this
journal.
• A numerical assessment of the prestige of the journal.
• In psych usually ranges between 1 – 5
• You can copy APA reference of an article from the website.

Organizing the search

Annotated bibliography

Put it altogether: Synthesize!

"Qualitative Research in Counseling Psychology: A Primer on Research Paradigms and

Philosophy of Science" by Joseph G. Ponterotto

The article provides an overview of research paradigms and the philosophy of science in
counseling psychology, emphasizing the shift from quantitative to a more balanced approach
incorporating qualitative research. Ponterotto explores key philosophical parameters—
ontology, epistemology, axiology, rhetorical structure, and methodology—across different
research paradigms:

• Positivism
• Postpositivism
• Constructivism-Interpretivism
 • Critical-Ideological Perspective

Main Arguments

1. Dominance of Quantitative Methods

o Psychology, especially in North America, has been historically dominated by
positivist and postpositivist paradigms, favoring quantitative methods.
o This focus has limited the field’s ability to fully understand complex human
experiences.
2. Emerging Paradigm Shift Toward Qualitative Research
o A gradual shift is occurring, promoting the use of both qualitative and
quantitative methods.
o Scholars like O’Neill (2002) argue that qualitative research should replace the
dominance of quantitative methods, though the ultimate goal is a balanced
approach.
o Counseling psychology students and professionals increasingly favor qualitative
approaches, which may lead to a transformation in research training.
3. Challenges in Adopting Qualitative Research
o Despite growing interest, qualitative research remains underrepresented in
psychology literature.
o A century-long content analysis (Rennie et al., 2002) revealed that, even in the
1990s, qualitative studies comprised less than 0.5% of research articles in major
psychology databases.
4. Call for Expanded Training in Qualitative Methods
o Ponterotto argues that psychology training programs should broaden their
research paradigms and offer more education on qualitative methodologies.
o Methods like Consensual Qualitative Research (CQR) and Grounded Theory
are highlighted as valuable approaches.
o Researchers are encouraged to reflect on their biases toward qualitative methods
and consider how these approaches can enhance their work.

"A Randomized Clinical Trial of a Brief, Mailed Intervention for Symptoms of

Depression"
Authors: Irene Markman Geisner, Clayton Neighbors, and Mary E. Larimer (University of
Washington)

The study evaluates the effectiveness of a brief, mailed personalized feedback intervention
aimed at reducing depressive symptoms, hopelessness, and ineffective coping strategies in
college students. The intervention is modeled after successful alcohol treatment programs that
use motivational feedback to encourage behavior change.
Key Research Questions

1. Can a brief, mailed intervention reduce depressive symptoms in college students?

2. Does the intervention improve hopelessness and willingness to use coping strategies?
3. Are hopelessness and coping strategies mediators of the intervention’s effectiveness?

Background & Significance

Methodology
Result
Implications & Conclusion

“Are Women Really More Talkative Than Men?”

This study investigates the widely held stereotype that women speak significantly more words
per day than men, often cited as 20,000 vs. 7,000 words. Previous estimates lacked systematic,
real-world conversational data, relying on small or unreliable sources.

Methodology

• Researchers used the Electronically Activated Recorder (EAR), a device that

periodically records snippets of daily conversations unobtrusively.
• Data were collected from 396 university students (210 women, 186 men) across six
samples in the U.S. and Mexico (1998–2004).
• The EAR recorded 30-second snippets every 12.5 minutes during participants’ waking
hours.

Findings

• Women spoke an average of 16,215 words per day (SD = 7,301).

• Men spoke an average of 15,669 words per day (SD = 8,633).
• The difference of 546 words (Cohen’s d = 0.07) was statistically insignificant (p =
0.248).
• Both men and women use about 16,000 words per day, with large individual
variations.

Conclusion

• The stereotype that women talk significantly more than men is unfounded.
• There is no biologically based "female talkativeness" adaptation detectable in the
study.
• While a limitation is that all participants were university students, no evidence supports
the claim that women have a substantially larger "lexical budget" than men.
• Media-perpetuated myths about gender differences in speech should be reconsidered in
light of empirical data.