ENERGY & BUILDINGS MODULE 2

Solar Radiation
Solar Radiation Outside The Earth’s Surface:
Sun is a large sphere of very hot gases, the heat being generated by various kinds of
fusion reactions. It’s diameter is 1.39X106km, while that of the earth is 1.27X104 km.
It subtends an angle of 32minutes at the earth’s surface. This is because it is also at
large distance. Thus the beam radiation received from the sun on the earth is almost
parallel. The brightness of the sun varies from it’s center to it’s edge. However for
engineering calculations. It is customary to assume that the brightness all over the
solar disc uniform.
Solar Constant(Isc):
It is the rate at which energy is received from the sun on a unit area perpendicular to
the ray’s of the sun , at the mean distance of the earth from the sun. Based on the
measurements made up to 1970 a standard value of 1353 W/m2 was adopted in
1971. However based on subsequent measurements, a revised value of 1367 W/m2
has been recommended. The earth revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit
having a very small eccentricity and the sun at the foci. Consequently, the distance
between earth and sun varies a little through the year. Because of this variation, the
extra terrestrial flux also varies. The value on any day can be calculated from the
equation.

DEFINITIONS
Several definitions will be useful in understanding the balance of this chapter.

Air Mass m The ratio of the mass of atmosphere through which beam radiation
passes to the mass it would pass through if the sun were at the zenith. Thus at sea
level m = 1 when the sun is at the zenith and m = 2 for a zenith angle θz of 60◦. For
zenith angles from 0◦ to 70◦ at sea level, to a close approximation,
m = 1 /cos θz
For higher zenith angles, the effect of the earth’s curvature becomes significant and
must be taken into account.

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Beam Radiation The solar radiation received from the sun without having been
scattered by the atmosphere. (Beam radiation is often referred to as direct solar
radiation to avoid confusion between subscripts for direct and diffuse, we use the
term beam radiation.)
Diffuse Radiation The solar radiation received from the sun after its direction has
been changed by scattering by the atmosphere. (Diffuse radiation is referred to in
some meteorological literature as sky radiation or solar sky radiation; the definition
used here will distinguish the diffuse solar radiation from infrared radiation emitted by
the atmosphere.)
Total Solar Radiation The sum of the beam and the diffuse solar radiation on a
surface.4 (The most common measurements of solar radiation are total radiation on
a horizontal surface, often referred to as global radiation on the surface.)
Irradiance, W/m2 The rate at which radiant energy is incident on a surface per unit
area of surface. The symbol G is used for solar irradiance, with appropriate
subscripts for beam, diffuse, or spectral radiation.
Irradiation or Radiant Exposure, J/m2 The incident energy per unit area on a
surface, found by integration of irradiance over a specified time, usually an hour or a
day. Insolation is a term applying specifically to solar energy irradiation. The symbol
H is used for insolation for a day. The symbol I is used for insolation for an hour (or
other period if specified). The symbols H and I can represent beam, diffuse, or total
and can be on surfaces of any orientation.Subscripts on G, H, and I are as follows: o
refers to radiation above the earth’s atmosphere, referred to as extraterrestrial
radiation; b and d refer to beam and diffuse radiation; T and n refer to radiation on a
tilted plane and on a plane normal to the direction of propagation. If neither T nor n
appears, the radiation is on a horizontal plane.
Radiosity or Radiant Exitance, W/m2 The rate at which radiant energy leaves a
surface per unit area by combined emission, reflection, and transmission.
Emissive Power or Radiant Self-Exitance, W/m2 The rate at which radiant energy
leaves a surface per unit area by emission only.
Any of these radiation terms, except insolation, can apply to any specified wave-
length range (such as the solar energy spectrum) or to monochromatic radiation.
Insolation refers only to irradiation in the solar energy spectrum.

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ENERGY & BUILDINGS MODULE 2

Solar Time Time based on the apparent angular motion of the sun across the sky
with solar noon the time the sun crosses the meridian of the observer. Solar time is
the time used in all of the sun-angle relationships; it does not coincide with local
clock time. It is necessary to convert standard time to solar time by applying two
corrections. First, there is a constant correction for the difference in longitude
between the observer’s meridian (longitude) and the meridian on which the local
standard time is based.5 The sun takes 4 min to transverse 1◦ of longitude. The
second correction is from the equation of time, which takes into account the
perturbations in the earth’s rate of rotation which affect the time the sun crosses the
observer’s meridian. The difference in minutes between solar time and standard time
is

where Lst is the standard meridian for the local time zone, Lloc is the longitude of the
location in question, and longitudes are in degrees west, that is, 0◦ < L < 360◦. The
parameter E is the equation of time (in minutes)

Declination(δ):
It is the angle between a line extending from the centre of the Sun and center of the
earth and projection of this on earth‘s equatorial plane.
• Declination is the direct consequence of earth‘s tilt and It would vary between
23.5o on June 22 to – 23.5o on December 22. On equinoxes of March21 &
Sept22declination is zero.
• The declination is given by the formula

DIRECTION OF BEAM RADIATION

The geometric relationships between a plane of any particular orientation relative to
the earth at any time (whether that plane is fixed or moving relative to the earth) and
the incoming beam solar radiation, that is, the position of the sun relative to that
plane, can be described in terms of several angles (Benford and Bock, 1939). Some
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ASSISTANT PROFESSOR,
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING,
JAIN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING. BELGAVI. Page 3
ENERGY & BUILDINGS MODULE 2

of the angles are indicated in Figure 1.6.1. The angles and a set of consistent sign
conventions are as follows:
• φ Latitude, the angular location north or south of the equator, north positive; −90◦
≤ φ ≤ 90◦.
• δ Declination, the angular position of the sun at solar noon (i.e., when the sun is
on the local meridian) with respect to the plane of the equator, north positive;
−23.45◦ ≤ δ ≤ 23.45◦.
• β Slope, the angle between the plane of the surface in question and the
horizontal; 0◦ ≤ β ≤ 180◦. (β > 90◦ means that the surface has a downward-facing
component.)

γ Surface azimuth angle, the deviation of the projection on a horizontal plane of the
normal to the surface from the local meridian, with zero due south, east negative,
and west positive; −180◦ ≤ γ ≤ 180◦.
ω Hour angle, the angular displacement of the sun east or west of the local
meridian due to rotation of the earth on its axis at 15◦ per hour; morning negative,
afternoon positive.

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING,
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ENERGY & BUILDINGS MODULE 2

θ Angle of incidence, the angle between the beam radiation on a surface and the
normal to that surface.Additional angles are defined that describe the position of the
sun in the sky:
θz Zenith angle, the angle between the vertical and the line to the sun, that is, the
angle of incidence of beam radiation on a horizontal surface.
αs Solar altitude angle, the angle between the horizontal and the line to the sun,
that is, the complement of the zenith angle.
γs Solar azimuth angle, the angular displacement from south of the projection of
beam radiation on the horizontal plane, shown in Figure 1.6.1. Displacements east of
south are negative and west of south are positive.

Measurements of Radiation
DEFINITIONS
Figure 2.1.1 shows the primary radiation fluxes on a surface at or near the ground
that are important in connection with solar thermal processes. It is convenient to
consider radiation in two wavelength ranges.1
Solar or short-wave radiation is radiation originating from the sun, in the
wavelength range of 0.3 to 3 μm. In the terminology used throughout this book, solar
radiation includes both beam and diffuse components unless otherwise specified.
Long-wave radiation is radiation originating from sources at temperatures near
ordinary ambient temperatures and thus substantially all at wavelengths greater than
3 μm. Long-wave radiation is emitted by the atmosphere, by a collector, or by any
other body at ordinary temperatures. (This radiation, if originating from the ground, is
referred to in some literature as ‘‘terrestrial’’ radiation.)

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ENERGY & BUILDINGS MODULE 2

Instruments used for measuring solar radiation:

Pyranometer:
A pyranometer is an instrument which measure’s either global or diffuse radiation
falling on a horizontal surface over a hemispherical field of view.A sketch of one type
of pyranometer as installed for measuring global radiation is shown in the following
figure.

Pyranometer consists of a black surface which heats up when exposed to solar

radiation. It’s temperature increases until the rate of heat gain by solar radiation
equals the rate of heat loss by convection, conduction and radiation. The hot
junctions of thermopile are attached to the black surface, while the cold junctions are
located under a guard plate so that they do not receive the radiation directly. As a
result an emf is generated. This emf which is usually in the range of 0 t0 10mv can
be read, recorded or integrated over a period of time and is a measure of global
radiation. The pyranometer can also be used for measurement of diffuse radiation.
This is done by mounting it at the center of a semi circular shading ring. The shading
ring is fixed in such a way that it’s plane is parallel to the plane of path of sun’s daily
movement across the sky and it shades the thermopile element and two galss
domes of pyranometer at all the times from direct sun shine. Consequently the
pyranometer measures only the diffuse radiation received from the sky.
Pyrheliometer:
This is an instrument which measures beam radiation falling on a surface normal to
the sun’s rays. In contrast to a pyranometer, the black absorber plate (with hot
junctions of a thermopile attached to it) is located at the base of a collimating tube.

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING,
JAIN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING. BELGAVI. Page 6
ENERGY & BUILDINGS MODULE 2

The tube is aligned with the direction of the sun’s rays with the help of a two-axis
tracking mechanism and alignment indicator. Thus the black plate receives only
beam radiation and a small amount of diffuse radiation falling within the acceptance
angle of the instrument. The Following figure shows a pyrheliometer.

Solar collectors:
Solar collectors are the devices used to collect solar radiation. Generally there are
two types of solar collectors. They are 1) Non-conventional type or Flat plate
collector and 2) Concentrating or Focusing collector. In a non-concentrating type the
area of the absorber is equals the area of the collector and since the radiation is not
focused, the maximum temp achieved in this type is about 100° C. on the other hand
in a concentrating type the area of the absorber is very small (50-100 times) as
compared to the collector area. This results in less loss of heat and also since the
radiation is focused to a point or a line the maximum temp achieved is about 350°C.
Flat plate collector (FPC):
The schematic diagram of a FPC is as shown in fig. it consists of a casing either
made up of wood or plastic having an area of about 2m*1m*15cm. in the casing
insulator is provided at the bottom to check conductive heat transfer. Mineral wool,
glass wool, fibre glass, asbestos thermocol etc. are used as insulator. Above the
insulator the absorber plate is fixed. The absorber plate is made of good conducting
material like aluminum or copper. It is coated black to increase its absorption
property. Usually the black coating is done by chemical treatment. Selective coatings
which allow for maximum absorption of radiation and minimum amount of emission
are applied on to the absorber plate. The underside of the plate consists of absorber
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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING,
JAIN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING. BELGAVI. Page 7
ENERGY & BUILDINGS MODULE 2

tubes which run along the length of the plate. These plates are also made of the
same material as that of the absorber plate. Sometimes the plate itself is bent into
the form of tubes. Through these tubes the heat absorbing medium (water) is
circulated. This medium will absorb the heat from the plates and the tubes and its
temp increases. This medium will absorb the heat from the plates and the tubes and
its tempincreases. This way solar energy is collected as heat energy. Above the
absorber plate glass covers are provided. These glass covers help to bring out the
greenhouse effect, thus increasing the η of the collector. More than one cover is
used toprevent the loss of radiation by refraction.

Building Orientation

What is Building Orientation?

Building orientation refers to the way a building is situated on a site and the
positioning of windows, rooflines, and other features. A building oriented for solar
design takes advantage of passive and active solar strategies. Passive solar
strategies use energy from the sun to heat and illuminate buildings. Building
orientation and building materials also facilitate temperature moderation and natural
daylighting. Active solar systems use solar collectors and additional electricity to
power pumps or fans to distribute the sun's energy. Heat is absorbed and transferred
to another location for immediate heating or for storage for use later. Water,
antifreeze or sometimes air circulates to transfer heat.1 Unlike active solar
strategies, a passive design does not involve the use of mechanical and electrical
devices, such as pumps, fans, or electrical controls.

Passive solar heating makes use of the building components to collect, store,
distribute, and control solar heat gains to reduce the demand for fossil fuel-powered
space heating.2 Passive solar heating strategies also provide opportunities for
daylighting and views to the outdoors through well-positioned windows. The goal of
passive design is to maximize solar gain while minimizing conductance.3 Passive
cooling removes or rejects heat from the building, keeping temperatures cool.
Avoiding any mechanical operations to moderate temperature achieves energy and
cost savings by alleviating the cooling load demanded. Shading devices can also

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ASSISTANT PROFESSOR,
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING,
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ENERGY & BUILDINGS MODULE 2

reduce unwanted solar gains by blocking the sun during the summer months, while
natural ventilation, which relies on natural airflow and breezes, can reduce the need
for mechanical cooling when the building is occupied

The following five elements constitute a complete passive solar design. Each
performs a separate function, but all five must work together for the design to be
successful: aperture, absorber, thermal mass, distribution, and control (see Figure
1).

How to Optimize Building Orientation

It is best to incorporate passive solar systems into a building during the initial design.
Passive solar systems utilize basic concepts incorporated into the architectural
design of the building. They usually consist of:
• Rectangular floor plans elongated on an east-west axis

• Glazed south-facing wall

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING,
JAIN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING. BELGAVI. Page 9
ENERGY & BUILDINGS MODULE 2

• Thermal storage medium exposed to the solar radiation

• Light shelves/overhangs or other shading devices which sufficiently shade the

south-facing elevation from the summer sun; south elevation overhangs should
be horizontal while east and west elevations usually require both horizontal and
vertical overhangs

• Windows on the east and west walls, and preferably none on the north walls

In addition to passive solar and energy-conserving strategies, active solar

systems can be integrated into a building's design and systems. Buildings designed
to serve as active solar collectors should not be shaded by nearby trees or buildings
and should have solar arrays or roof area facing south. Both passive and active solar
collectors should be oriented at the angle of your location’s latitude (in New Jersey,
this is approximately 40°N).
Benefits
By relying on solar energy, a renewable, non-polluting energy source, passive
and active solar designs do not generate greenhouse gases and slow fossil fuel
depletion.

Passive solar buildings can respond to changing

weather conditions and connect occupants to the natural environment.

Passive solar buildings provide daylighting, which has been linked to increasing
occupant satisfaction and productivity.

Passive solar buildings use thermal massing to reduce temperature swings and
produce a higher degree of temperature stability and thermal comfort.

Reduced heating and cooling costs through natural heating/cooling cycles and
using materials enhanced for penetrating, absorbing or releasing solar radiation.
Costs
The initial cost of passive design elements depends on the element. Some cost the
same (e.g., light exterior walls for cooling) or only slightly more than conventional
building costs (e.g., light shelves designed to control sun penetration). Some cost
considerably more (e.g., interior thermal mass materials such as stone and brick).

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ENERGY & BUILDINGS MODULE 2

However, these measures can lower operating costs. Compared to passive solar
systems, active solar systems often have a higher initial cost and longer payback
period, which vary widely depending on the size and the specific type of technology
used.6 However, current federal and state tax credits and rising energy costs make
active solar systems an economic alternative to conventional systems.

GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS
The general recommendations based on climatic requirements are discussed in
this section. These are applicable to almost all types of building designs.
Hot and Dry Climate
The hot and dry climate is characterised by very high radiation levels and
ambient temperatures, accompanied by low relative humidity. Therefore, it is
desirable to keep the heat out of the building, and if possible, increase the
humidity level. The design objectives accordingly are:
(A) Resist heat gain by:
• Decreasing the exposed surface
• Increasing the thermal resistance
• Increasing the thermal capacity
• Increasing the buffer spaces
• Decreasing the air-exchange rate during daytime
• Increasing the shading
(B) Promote heat loss by:
• Ventilation of appliances
• Increasing the air exchange rate during cooler parts of the day or night-time
• Evaporative cooling (e.g. roof surface evaporative cooling)
• Earth coupling (e.g. earth-air pipe system)
The general recommendations for the climate are summarised as follows:
(1) Site
(a) Landform: Regions in this zone are generally flat, hence the surrounding areas
tend to heat up uniformly. In case of an undulating site, constructing on the leeward
side of the slope is preferred so that the effect of hot dusty winds is reduced. In case
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ENERGY & BUILDINGS MODULE 2

ventilation is assured, then building in a depression is preferable as cool air tends to

sink in valleys (Fig. 5.7).
(b) Waterbodies: Waterbodies such as ponds and lakes not only act as heat sinks,
but can also be used for evaporative cooling. Hot air blowing over water gets cooled
which can then be allowed to enter the building. Fountains and water cascades in
the vicinity of a building aid this process (Fig.5.8 and 5.9).
(c) Street width and orientation: Streets must be narrow so that they cause mutual
shading of buildings (Fig. 5.10). They need to be oriented in the north-south direction
to block solar radiation.
(d) Open spaces and built form: Open spaces such as courtyards and atria are
beneficial as they promote ventilation. In addition, they can be provided with ponds
and fountains for evaporative cooling. Courtyards act as heat sinks during the day
and radiate the heat back to the ambient at night. The size of the courtyards should
be such that the mid-morning and the hot afternoon sun are avoided. Grass can be
used as ground cover to absorb solar radiation and aid evaporative cooling (Fig.
5.11). Earth-coupled building (e.g. earth berming) can help lower the temperature
and also deflect hot summer winds.

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ENERGY & BUILDINGS MODULE 2

(2) Orientation and planform

An east-west orientation (i.e. longer axis along the east-west), (Fig. 5.12) should be
preferred. This is due to the fact that south and north facing walls are easier to shade
than east and west walls. It may be noted that during summer, it is the north wall
which gets significant exposure to solar radiation in most parts of India, leading to
very high temperatures in north-west rooms. For example, in Jodhpur, rooms facing
north-west can attain a maximum temperature exceeding 38 ºC. Hence, shading of
the north wall is imperative. The surface to volume (S/V) ratio should be kept as
minimum as possible to reduce heat gains (Fig. 5.13). Cross-ventilation must be
ensured at night as ambient temperatures during this period are low.

(3) Building envelope

(a) Roof: The diurnal range of temperature being large, the ambient night
temperatures are about 10 ºC lower than the daytime values and are accompanied
by cool breezes. Hence, flat roofs may be considered in this climate as they can be
used for sleeping at night in summer as well as for daytime activities in winter. The
material of the roof should be massive; a reinforced cement concrete (RCC) slab is
preferred to asbestos cement (AC) sheet roof. External insulation in the form of mud
phuska with inverted earthen pots is also suitable. A false ceiling in rooms having
exposed roofs can help in reducing the discomfort level [6]. Sodha et al. [7] have
reported that the provision of roof insulation yields greater lifecycle savings
compared to walls in this climate. Evaporative cooling of the roof surface and night-
time radiative cooling can also be employed. In case the former is used, it is better to
use a roof having high thermal transmittance (a high U-value roof rather than one
with lower U-value). The larger the roof area, the better is the cooling effect. The

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING,
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ENERGY & BUILDINGS MODULE 2

maximum requirement of water per day for a place like Jodhpur is about 14.0 kg per
square metre of roof area cooled. Spraying of water is preferable to an open roof
pond system [7]. One may also consider of using a vaulted roof (Fig. 5.14) since it
provides a larger surface area for heatloss compared to a flat roof.

(b) Walls: In multi-storeyed buildings, walls and glazing account for most of the heat
gain. It is estimated that they contribute to about 80% of the annual cooling load of
such buildings [6]. So,the control of heat gain through the walls by shading is an
important consideration in building design. One can also use a wall with low U-value
to reduce the heat gain. However, the effectiveness of such walls depends on the
building type. For example, in a non-conditioned building, autoclaved cellular
concrete block wall is not recommended; whereas it is desirable in a conditioned
building.
(c) Fenestration:In hot and dry climates, minimising the window area (in terms of
glazing) can definitely lead to lower indoor temperatures. It is found that providing a
glazing size of 10% of the floor area gives better performance than that of 20% [6].
More windows should be provided in the north facade of the building as compared to
the east, west and south as it receives lesser radiation during the year (Fig. 5.15). All
openings should be protected from the sun by using external shading devices such
as chajjas and fins (Fig. 5.16-5.17). Moveable shading devices such as curtains and
venetian blinds can also be used. Openings are preferred at higher levels
(ventilators) as they help in venting hot air. Since daytime temperatures are high
during summer, the windows should be kept closed to keep the hot air out and
opened during night-time to admit cooler air. The use of ‘jaalis’(lattice work) made of
wood, stone or RCC may be considered as they allow ventilation while blocking solar

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ENERGY & BUILDINGS MODULE 2

radiation. Scheduling air changes (i.e. high air change rate at night and during cooler
periods of the day, and lower ones during daytime) cansignificantly help in reducing
the discomfort. The heat gain through windows can be reduced by using glass with
low transmissivity.

Fig. 5.15 Yearly beam radiation incident on an unshaded window (1.2m x 1.2 m)

(a) Colour and texture: Change of colour is a cheap and effective technique for
lowering Indoor temperatures. Colours having low absorptivity should be used to
paint the external surface. Darker shades should be avoided for surfaces exposed to
direct solar radiation. The surface of the roof can be of white broken glazed tiles
(china mosaic flooring). The surface of the wall should preferably be textured to
facilitate self shading.

Remarks: As the winters in this region are uncomfortably cold, windows should be
designed such that they encourage direct gain during this period. Deciduous trees

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can be used to shade the building during summer and admit sunlight during winter.
There is a general tendency to think that well-insulated and very thick walls give a
good thermal performance. This is true only if the glazing is kept to a minimum and
windows are well-shaded, as is found in traditional architecture.However, in case of
non-conditioned buildings, a combination of insulated walls and high percentage of
glazing will lead to very uncomfortable indoor conditions. This is because the
building will act like a green house or oven, as the insulated walls will prevent the
radiation admitted through windows from escaping back to the environment. Indoor
plants can be provided near the window, as they help in evaporative cooling and in
absorbing solar radiation. Evaporative cooling and earth-air pipe systems can be
used effectively in this climate. Desert coolers are extensively used in this climate,
and if properly sized, they can alleviate discomfort by as much as 90% [7].

Warm and Humid Climate

The warm and humid climate is characterised by high temperatures accompanied by
very
high humidity leading to discomfort. Thus, cross ventilation is both desirable and
essential.
Protection from direct solar radiation should also be ensured by shading.
The main objectives of building design in this zone should be:
(A) Resist heat gain by:
(a) Decreasing exposed surface area
(b) Increasing thermal resistance
(c) Increasing buffer spaces
(d) Increasing shading
(e) Increasing reflectivity
(B) To promote heat loss by:
(a) Ventilation of appliances
(b) Increasing air exchange rate (ventilation) throughout the day
(c) Decreasing humidity levels
The general recommendations for building design in the warm and humid climate are
as follows:

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ENERGY & BUILDINGS MODULE 2

(1) Site
(a) Landform: The consideration of landform is immaterial for a flat site. However, if
there are slopes and depressions, then the building should be located on the
windward side or crest to take advantage of cool breezes (Fig. 5.18).
(b) Waterbodies: Since humidity is high in these regions, water bodies are not
essential.
(c) Open spaces and built form: Buildings should be spread out with large open
spaces for unrestricted air movement (Fig. 5.19). In cities, buildings on stilts can
promote ventilation and cause cooling at the ground level.

(d) Street width and orientation: Major streets should be oriented parallel to or
within 30º of the prevailing wind direction during summer months to encourage
ventilation in warm and humid regions. A north-south direction is ideal from the point
of view of blocking solar radiation. The width of the streets should be such that the
intense solar radiation during late morning and early afternoon is avoided in summer.

(2) Orientation and planform

Since the temperatures are not excessive, free plans can be evolved as long as the
house is under protective shade. An unobstructed air path through the interiors is

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ENERGY & BUILDINGS MODULE 2

important. The buildings could be long and narrow to allow cross-ventilation. For
example, a singly loaded corridor plan (i.e. rooms on one side only) can be adopted
instead of a doubly loaded one (Fig. 5.20). Heat and moisture producing areas must
be ventilated and separated from the rest of the structure (Fig. 5.21) [8]. Since
temperatures in the shade are not very high, semiopen spaces such as balconies,
verandahs and porches can be used advantageously for daytime activities. Such
spaces also give protection from rainfall. In multistoreyed buildings a central
courtyard can be provided with vents at higher levels to draw away the rising hot air
(Fig. 5.22).

(3) Building envelope

(a) Roof: In addition to providing shelter from rain and heat, the form of the roof
should be planned to promote air flow. Vents at the roof top effectively induce
ventilation and draw hot air out (Fig. 5.23). As diurnal temperature variation is low,
insulation does not provide any additional benefit for a normal reinforced cement
concrete (RCC) roof in a non-conditioned building [6]. However, very thin roofs
having low thermal mass, such as asbestos cement (AC) sheet roofing, do require
insulation as they tend to rapidly radiate heat into the interiors during daytime. A
double roof with a ventilated space inbetween can also be used to promote air flow.
(a) Walls: As with roofs, the walls must also be designed to promote air flow. Baffle
walls, bothinside and outside the building can help to divert the flow of wind inside
(Fig. 5.24). They should be protected from the heavy rainfall prevalent in such areas.
If adequately sheltered, exposed brick walls and mud plastered walls work very well
by absorbing the humidity and helping the building to breathe. Again, as for roofs,

VIDYASAGAR V. MOOGI,
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR,
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING,
JAIN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING. BELGAVI. Page 18
ENERGY & BUILDINGS MODULE 2

insulation does not significantly improve the performance of a nonconditioned

building [6].

(b) Fenestration: Cross-ventilation is important in the warm and humid regions. All
doors and windows are preferably kept open for maximum ventilation for most of the
year. These must be provided with venetian blinds or louvers to shelter the rooms
from the sun and rain, as well as for the control of air movement [9]. Openings of a
comparatively smaller size can be placed on the windward side, while the
corresponding openings on the leeward side may be bigger for facilitating a plume
effect for natural ventilation (Fig. 5.25). The openings should be shaded by external
overhangs. Outlets at higher levels serve to vent hot air (Fig. 5.26). A few examples
illustrating how the air movement within a room can be better distributed, are shown
in Fig. 5.27 -5.29.

VIDYASAGAR V. MOOGI,
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR,
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING,
JAIN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING. BELGAVI. Page 19
ENERGY & BUILDINGS MODULE 2

(c) Colour and texture: The walls should be painted with light pastel shades or
whitewashed, while the surface of the roof can be of broken glazed tile (china mosaic
flooring). Both techniques help to reflect the sunlight back to the ambient, and hence
reduce heat gain of the building. The use of appropriate colours and surface finishes
is a cheap and very effective technique to lower indoor temperatures. It is worth
mentioning that the surface finish should be protected from/ resistant to the effects of
moisture, as this can otherwise lead to growth of mould and result in the decay of
building elements.
Remarks: Ceiling fans are effective in reducing the level of discomfort in this type of
climate. Desiccant cooling techniques can also be employed as they reduce the
humidity level. Careful water proofing and drainage of water are essential
considerations of building design due to heavy rainfall. In case of airconditioned
buildings, dehumidification plays a significant role in the design of the plant.
Moderate Climate
Temperatures are neither too high nor too low in regions with a moderate climate.
Hence, simple techniques are normally adequate to take care of the heating and
VIDYASAGAR V. MOOGI,
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR,
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING,
JAIN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING. BELGAVI. Page 20
ENERGY & BUILDINGS MODULE 2

cooling requirements of the building.Techniques such as shading, cross ventilation,

orientation, reflective glazing, etc. should be incorporated in the building. The
thermal resistance and heat capacity of walls and roofs need not be high. These
simple measures can reduce the number of uncomfortable hours in a building
significantly. For example, in Pune, the ‘uncomfortable’ hours in a year can be
reduced by as much as 89% by incorporating simple techniques in building design
[6]. The room temperature can be brought within the comfort limit (i.e. less than 30
ºC) even in the month of May [6].
The main objectives while designing buildings in this zone should be:
(A) Resist heat gain by:
(a) Decreasing the exposed surface area
(b) Increasing the thermal resistance
(c) Increasing the shading
(B) Promote heat loss by:
(a) Ventilation of appliances
(b) Increasing the air exchange rate (ventilation)
In this region, the general recommendations are as follows:
(1) Site
(a) Landform: Building the structure on the windward slopes is preferable for getting
cool Breezes (Fig. 5.30).
(b) Open spaces and built form: An open and free layout of the buildings is
preferred. Large openspaces in the form of lawns can be provided to reduce
reflected radiation.

(2) Orientation and planform

VIDYASAGAR V. MOOGI,
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR,
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING,
JAIN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING. BELGAVI. Page 21
ENERGY & BUILDINGS MODULE 2

It is preferable to have a building oriented in the north-south direction. Bedrooms

may be located on the eastern side, and an open porch on the south - southeast
side, while the western side should ideally be well-shaded. Humidity producing areas
must be isolated. Sunlight is desirable except in summer, so the depth of the
interiors may not be excessive [10].
(3) Building envelope
(a) Roof: Insulating the roof does not make much of a difference in the moderate
climate [6].
(b) Walls: Insulation of walls does not give significant improvement in the thermal
performance of a building. A brick wall of 230 mm thickness is good enough [6].
(c) Fenestration: The arrangement of windows is important for reducing heat gain.
Windows can be larger in the north, while those on the east, west and south should
be smaller. All the windows should be shaded with chajjas of appropriate lengths.
Glazing of low transmissivity should be used.
(d) Colour and texture: Pale colours are preferable; dark colours may be used only
in recessed places protected from the summer sun.

Cold and Cloudy, and Cold and Sunny Climates

These regions experience very cold winters, hence, trapping and using the sun’s
heat whenever it is available, is of prime concern in building design. The internal
heat should not be lost back to the ambient.The insulation of building elements and
control of infiltration help in retaining the heat. Exposure to cold winds should also be
minimized.
The main objectives while designing buildings in these zones are:
(A) Resist heat loss by:
(a) Decreasing the exposed surface area

VIDYASAGAR V. MOOGI,
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR,
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING,
JAIN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING. BELGAVI. Page 22
ENERGY & BUILDINGS MODULE 2

(b) Increasing the thermal resistance

(c) Increasing the thermal capacity
(d) Increasing the buffer spaces
(e) Decreasing the air exchange rate
(B) Promote heat gain by:
(a) Avoiding excessive shading
(b) Utilising the heat from appliances
(c) Trapping the heat of the sun.
The general recommendations for regions with a cold and cloudy, or cold and sunny
climate are given
below.
(1) Site
(a) Landform: In cold climates, heat gain is desirable. Hence, buildings should be
located on the south slope of a hill or mountain for better access to solar radiation
(Fig. 5.31). At the same time, the exposure to cold winds can be minimised by
locating the building on the leeward side. Parts ofthe site which offer natural wind
barrier can be chosen for constructing a building.
(b) Open spaces and built forms: Buildings in cold climates should be clustered
together to minimise exposure to cold winds (Fig. 5.32). Open spaces must be such
that they allow maximum south sun. They should be treated with a hard and
reflective surface so that they reflect solar radiation onto the building (Fig. 5.33).

(c) Street width and orientation: In cold climates, the street orientation should be
east-west to allow for maximum south sun to enter the building. The street should be
wide enough to ensure that the buildings on one side do not shade those on the
other side (i.e. solar access should be ensured) (Fig. 5.34).

VIDYASAGAR V. MOOGI,
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR,
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING,
JAIN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING. BELGAVI. Page 23
ENERGY & BUILDINGS MODULE 2

(2) Orientation and planform

In the cold zones, the buildings must be compact with small S/V ratios (Fig. 5.35).
This is because the lesser the surface area, the lower is the heat loss from the
building. Windows should preferably face south to encourage direct gain. The north
side of the building should be well-insulated. Living areas can be located on the
southern side while utility areas such as stores can be on the northern side. Air-lock
lobbies at the entrance and exit points of the building reduce heat loss. The heat
generated by appliances in rooms such as kitchens may be recycled to heat the
other parts of the building.

(3) Building envelope

(a) Roof: False ceilings are a regular roof feature of houses in cold climates. One
can also use internal insulation such as polyurethane foam (PUF), thermocol, wood
wool, etc. An aluminium foil is generally used between the insulation layer and the
roof to reduce heat loss to the exterior. A sufficiently sloping roof enables quick
drainage of rain water and snow. A solar air collector can be incorporated on the
south facing slope of the roof and hot air from it can be used for space heating
purposes. Skylights on the roofs admit heat as well as light in winters (Fig. 5.36). The
skylights can be provided with shutters to avoid over heating in summers.

VIDYASAGAR V. MOOGI,
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR,
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING,
JAIN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING. BELGAVI. Page 24
ENERGY & BUILDINGS MODULE 2

(b) Walls: Walls should be of low U-value to resist heat loss. The south-facing walls
(exposed to solar radiation) could be of high thermal capacity (such as Trombe wall)
to store day time heat for later use. The walls should also be insulated. The
insulation should have sufficient vapour barrier (such as two coats of bitumen, 300 to
600 gauge polyethylene sheet or aluminium foil) on the warm side to avoid
condensation. Hollow and lightweight concrete blocks are also quite suitable [11]. On
the windward or north side, a cavity wall type of construction may be adopted.
(c) Fenestration: It is advisable to have the maximum window area on the southern
side of the building to facilitate direct heat gain. They should be sealed and
preferably double glazed. Double glazing helps to avoid heat losses during winter
nights. However, care should be taken to prevent condensation in the air space
between the panes. Movable shades should be provided to prevent overheating in
summers.
(d)Colour and texture: The external surfaces of the walls should be dark in colour
for highabsorptivity to facilitate heat gains.

Composite Climate
The composite climate displays the characteristics of hot and dry, warm and humid
as well as cold climates. Designs here are guided by longer prevailing climatic
conditions. The duration of ‘uncomfortable’ periods in each season has to be
compared to derive an order of priorities. India being a tropical country, most of the
design decisions would pertain to cooling. For example, the general
recommendations for hot and dry climates would be applicable for New Delhi for
most of the year except monsoon, when ventilation is essential.

As per IS code No.SP-41 (S&T) – 1987, types of climatic conditions is mainly found
in India:
1.Hot and dry
2.Hot and humid
3.Warm and humid
4. Cold

VIDYASAGAR V. MOOGI,
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR,
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING,
JAIN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING. BELGAVI. Page 25
ENERGY & BUILDINGS MODULE 2

5.Composite
6.Moderate Climate

VIDYASAGAR V. MOOGI,
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR,
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING,
JAIN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING. BELGAVI. Page 26
ENERGY & BUILDINGS MODULE 2

VIDYASAGAR V. MOOGI,
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR,
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING,
JAIN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING. BELGAVI. Page 27