IC Engines and Recprocating

Machines

1
1. Introduction
An Automobile:- is a land vehicle (a moving machine or system), which
can develop its own power and used to transport passengers, goods or
can be used for other applications.
Automotive engineering:- is that branch of engineering concerned with
the design and construction of automobiles. It combines: mechanical
engineering, vehicle dynamics, drive train design and engine design to
form a subject that deals with all aspects of vehicle design.

Automotive engineers:- are professionals, concerned with the design and

construction of automobiles. 2
1. Introduction…

Automobil
Chassis
e Body

Engine Running Driving Control Electrical Accessories

Gear System System System

Mechanisms Systems
• Starting
• Crank-gear
• Intake
• Valve-gear
• Fuel
• Ignition
• Exhaust
• Charging
• Lubrication
• Cooling 3
1. Introduction…
In the discussion of thermodynamics, machines were classified as:
• work developing (eg:- turbines, engines,…),
• work absorbing (eg:- pumps, compressors, blowers, fans,…),
• non-work developing and absorbing ( eg:- nozzles, heat
exchangers,…).

4
1. Introduction…
A Heat Engine:- is a work developing machine which is used to convert
the chemical energy of a fuel into heat (thermal) energy and then to
mechanical energy.

Heat
Engine
External Combustion (EC) Internal Combustion (IC)

Reciprocating Rotary Gas turbines

Gasoline
Diesel

Two-stroke Four-stroke Two-stroke Four-stroke

1. Introduction…
Historical development of IC engines
The history of IC engines dating back as far as 1600s. Most of these
early vehicles were steam-driven prototypes which never became
practically operating vehicle engines. Major development of modern
steam engine and railroad locomotives occurred in the later half of the
1700s and 1800s. Accordingly,

6
1. Introduction…
Historical development of IC engines…

7
1. Introduction…
Historical development of IC engines…

8
1. Introduction…
Areas of application of IC engines
IC engines are used:
a) to propel a vehicle ( automobiles, trucks, locomotives, ships,
airplanes, etc.).
b) to run stationary engines which are used to drive generators or used
for other applications.
Classification of Reciprocating IC Engines
Reciprocating IC engines can be classified in a number of different ways:
1. Types of Ignition
a) Spark Ignition (SI)
b) Compression Ignition (CI)
2. Engine stroke
a) Four-stroke
b) Two-stroke

9
 Adama University – Melesse Haile (Asst. Professor)

1. Introduction…
Engine classification…
3. Valve train arrangements
a) Over Head Valve (OHV)
b) Over Head Camshaft (OHC)
c) Double Over Head Cam (DOHC)
4. Number of Cylinders
a) Single cylinder
b) Multi-cylinder
5. Cylinder arrangements
a) In-Line
b) V Engine
c) Opposed cylinder engine
d) Opposed piston engine
e) Radial engine
6. Air Intake Process
a) Naturally aspirated
b) Supercharged
c) Crankcase compressed
10
1. Introduction…
Engine classification…
7. Method of Fuel Input for SI Engines
a) Carburetted
b) Throttle Body Fuel Injection
c) Multipoint Port Fuel Injection
8. Fuel used
a) Gasoline
b) Diesel Oil
c) LPG, Natural Gas, Methane
d) Alcohol (Ethyl, Methyl)
e) Dual(mixed) fuel
f) Gasohol
g) Biodiesel fuel(Vegetable oil)
9. Type of cooling
a) Air Cooled
b) Liquid Cooled (Water Cooled)

11
1. Introduction…
Engine Nomenclature (Terminologies)

• Bore(d)
• TDC
• BDC
• Stroke(s)
•Swept
volume(vs)
•Clearance
volume(vc)
•Cylinder
volume(v)
•Compression
ratio(r)

12
 Adama University – Melesse Haile (Asst. Professor)

1. Introduction…
Engine Nomenclature…
Calculation of MEP from the indicator diagram
The area of an indicator diagram can be calculated with sufficient
accuracy by the mid-ordinate rule.
Mid-Ordinate rule
1. Divide the horizontal length of the
indicator diagram into a number of equal
parts (say 10).
2. Mid way between each vertical, erect
parallel mid-ordinate: ab,cd,ef, etc.
3. Then, the mean height is given by,
meanheight

meanheigh

4. Finally, the MEP is given by,

MEP = me

Note:- The unit of mean height should match the units of spring number.13
1. Introduction…
Engine Nomenclature…
Calculation of MEP from the indicator diagram…

Example 1-1
A six-cylinder, four-stroke gasoline engine having a cylinder bore (d) of 75
mm and stroke (s) of 100 mm, running at 4200 rpm and gave an indicator
diagram providing the following mid-ordinates: 3.56, 3.62, 3.1, 2.36, 1.06,
0.53, 0.204, 0.178, 0.13, 0.104 cm. The spring number is ¼ (i.e. each
centimeter of height on the diagram represents 4 bar ). Determine the
MEP (m.e.p.).

14
1. Introduction…
Component parts of IC engines – Crank- and Valve-gear mechanisms
1. Valve
2. Cylinder
3. Cylinder head
4. Piston rings
5. Piston
6. Connecting rod
7. Flywheel
8. Cylinder block
9. Crankshaft
10.Main bearings
11.Timing gear

15
1. Introduction…
Component parts of IC engines – Crank- and Valve-gear mechanisms…

16
1. Introduction…
Valve timing diagram
The valve timing diagram:- shows the opening and closing of intake (In.)
and exhaust (Ex.) valves with reference to the crank shaft position or
crank angle.

17
1. Introduction…
Valve timing diagram…

P-  diagram

18
P-v diagram Cam lift diagram
1. Introduction…
Systems of IC engines
1. Starting system
STARTING SYSTEM

• Battery
• Cables
• Ignition Switch
• Starter motor
• Ring gear at flywheel

Group or Peer discussion

• Explain the purpose of the
starting system.
• Name the component parts
in their right order of
energy(current) flow.
• Discuss the principle of
operation.
19
1. Introduction…
Systems of IC engines…
2. Intake system

INTAKE SYSTEM

• Air cleaner (Filter)

• Carburettor (Diesel: no carburettor!)
• Intake manifold
• Intake valve
Group or Peer discussion
• Explain the purpose of the
intake system.
• Name the component parts
in their right order of
a fluid(air) flow.
• Discuss the principle of
operation.
20
1. Introduction…
Systems of IC engines…
3. Fuel system ( for Gasoline engines)
FUEL SYSTEM
( Gasoline – Carburetted)

• Fuel tank with strainer

• Fuel line or pipe
• Fuel pump
• Fuel filter
• Carburettor
Group or Peer discussion
• Explain the purpose of the
fuel system.
• Name the component parts
in their right order of
fluid(fuel) flow.
• Discuss the principle of
operation.
21
1. Introduction…
FUEL SYSTEM
Systems of IC engines…
(Diesel Engine)
3. Fuel system ( for Diesel engines)
• Fuel tank with strainer
• Fuel line or pipe
• Fuel feed pump
• Fuel filter(s)
• Injection pump
• Fuel lines
• Injection nozzles

Group or Peer discussion

• Explain the purpose of the
fuel system.
• Name the component parts
in their right order of
fluid(fuel) flow.
• Discuss the principle of
operation.
22
1. Introduction… IGNITION SYSTEM
Systems of IC engines… ( SI engines - Conventional)

4. Ignition system • Battery

• Cables
• Ignition switch
• Ignition coil
• High tension cable
• Distributor
• High tension cable
• Spark plug
Group or Peer discussion
• Explain the purpose of the
ignition system.
• Name the component parts
in their right order of
energy(current) flow.
• Discuss the principle of
operation.

23
1. Introduction…
Systems of IC engines…
5. Exhaust system EXHAUST SYSTEM

• Exhaust valve
• Exhaust manifold
• Exhaust pipe
• Muffler
• Tail pipe
Group or Peer discussion
• Explain the purpose of the
exhaust system.
• Name the component parts
in their right order of
fluid(exhaust gas) flow.
• Discuss the principle of
operation.

24
1. Introduction…
Systems of IC engines…
CHARGING SYSTEM
6. Charging system
• Battery
• Cables
• Ignition switch
• Alternator
• Regulator

Group or Peer discussion

• Explain the purpose of the
charging system.
• Name the component parts
in their right order of
energy(current) flow.
• Discuss the principle of
operation.

25
1. Introduction…
Systems of IC engines…
LUBRICATION SYSTEM
7. Lubrication system
• Oil sump
• Strainer
• Oil pump
• Oil filter
• Gallery or oil passages
• Lubrication points

Group or Peer discussion

• Explain the purpose of the
lubrication system.
• Name the component parts
in their right order of
fluid(oil) flow.
• Discuss the principle of
operation.

26
1. Introduction…
Systems of IC engines… COOLING SYSTEM
8. Cooling system ( Liquid cooled )
• Radiator
• Lower hose
• Water pump
• Cooling fan
• Water jacket or passages
• Thermostat
• Upper hose
Group or Peer discussion
• Explain the purpose of the
cooling system.
• Name the component parts
in their right order of
fluid(coolant) flow.
• Discuss the principle of
Summary
operation.
27
1. Introduction…
Four-stroke and Two-stroke engines

Four-stroke SI engine cycle of operation

Video ( Operation of a Four-stroke engine)

28
1. Introduction…
Four-stroke and Two-stroke engines…

Four-stroke CI engine cycle of operation

Summary ( Operation of a Four-stroke engine)

29
1. Introduction…
Four-stroke and Two-stroke engines…

Two-stroke SI engine cycle of operation

Video (Operation of a Two-stroke engine)

30
 Adama University – Melesse Haile (Asst. Professor)

1. Introduction…
Four-stroke and Two-stroke engines…
Two-stroke SI engine cycle of operation

Brainstorming ! 1. What would happen if you refuel a gasoline engine

with diesel oil and vice versa ?
31
1. Introduction…
Comparison of Reciprocating IC engines
Comparison of SI and CI engines
Parameters SI CI
Performance Develops more power and Develops less power and
(Power and Torque) operates over wide speed operates over narrow speed
range due to shorter stroke. range due to longer stroke.
Fuel Consumption 20 – 30%, Relatively higher 30 – 40%, Relatively lower
(Thermal Efficiency) fuel consumption. fuel consumption.
Emission (Pollution) Produces HC, CO and NOx. Produces smoke and
Quieter. Good cold starting. relatively higher NOx. Noisy.
. Poor cold staring.
Cost Lower initial cost, but more Higher initial cost, but less
running cost. running cost.
Reliability Relatively less reliable or Relatively more reliable or
durable and needs frequent durable, needs less
maintenance. maintenance due to more
rugged and accurate
production.
Safety Higher fire risk due to Lower fire risk due to the
ignition system and higher absence of ignition system
volatile fuel. and lower volatile fuel. 32
1. Introduction…
Comparison of Reciprocating IC engines…
Comparison of Two- and Four-stroke IC engines
Parameters Two-stroke Four-stroke
Performance Develops more power ( Develops less power ( half)
(Power and Torque) double) for the same engine for the same engine capacity.
capacity.

Fuel Consumption Lower thermal efficiency due Relatively higher thermal

(Thermal Efficiency) to larger overlapping of the efficiency due to shorter
ports for effective scavenging overlapping of the valves.
and the scavenging process Hence, lower fuel
causes loss of combustible consumption.
mixture. Hence, lower fuel
consumption.
Emission (Pollution) Produces more pollutants due Produces relatively less
to the scavenging process. pollutants.
Noisy due to sudden release of Quieter in operation.
burned gases .
Cost Lower initial cost and lighter Relatively higher initial cost
as it uses less component parts and heavier as it uses more
of valve-gear mechanism. component parts of valve-
gear mechanism. 33
1. Introduction…

Videos
1. Video- 1 (Comparison of Two- and Four-stroke engines)
2. Video-2 (Comparison of Two- and Four-stroke engines)
3. Video-3 (Component parts and operation of SI engines)
4. Video-4 (Component parts and operation of EFI engines)

Summary

34
 Adama University – Melesse Haile (Asst. Professor)

1. Introduction…
Air Standard Cycles
Carnot Cycle P-V and T-s Diagrams

Class work:- Show that the ith,Carnot is given by,

T3 1
ith ,Carnot = 1   1 - -1
Assume : re  rc
T1 ( re ) where: = Cp/Cv
What do you observe and conclude ? 35
 Adama University – Melesse Haile (Asst. Professor)

1. Introduction…
Air Standard Cycles
Otto Cycle P-V and T-s Diagrams

Class work:- Show that the ith,Otto is given by,

1
1-
ith ,Otto = 1 - ( r ) = 1 - -1
(r )
What do you observe and conclude ? 36
1. Introduction…
Air Standard Cycles…
Diesel Cycle P-V and T-s Diagrams

Class work:- Show that the ith,Diesel is given by,

1  r cu - 1 
ith , Diesel = 1 - -1  

(
( r )  r cu - 1) 
What do you observe and conclude ? 37
1. Introduction…
Air Standard Cycles…
Dual Cycle P-V Diagrams

Where, r = P3
Class work:- Show that the ith,Diesel-Dual is given by, p
P2
1  

rp (rcu - 1) V4
 ith , Dual = 1 - 1   rcu 
r  (rp - 1) + rp (rcu - 1)  V3
What do you observe and conclude ? 38
1. Introduction…
Engine Power, Efficiencies and Fuel consumption
Indicated Power (Pi):- is the power transmitted to the piston by the high
pressure burned gases during the power stroke within the engine cylinder.
Brake Power (Pb ):- The power developed by the high pressure gas (Pi)
minus the friction power (Pf).
Thermal efficiency (indicated) (i,th ):- is the measure of conversion of a
fuel energy (Pin ) into useful work (Pi).
Mechanical efficiency (m ):- Due to friction within the engine and its
associated components, differences arise between Pi and Pb . This is due
to: suction of fresh charge and exhaust of burned gases (pumping losses);
friction at cylinder, piston and its rings; friction at bearing surfaces; power
required to operate engine accessories ( water pump, fuel pump, oil pump,
etc.). As a result, these losses are taken into considerations. For a four-
stroke engine m can be taken as 80 to 90%.
Volumetric efficiency:- is the ratio of the amount of the actual mixture
inducted into the cylinder during intake stroke to the swept volume.
Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (bsfc):- is the amount of fuel
consumed by the engine to develop a unit power. 39
1. Introduction…
Engine Performance Curves

IMEP
BMEP and Torque
Indicated power
Brake power
Thermal efficiency
(Indicated)
6. Brake thermal efficiency
7. Brake Specific Fuel
Consumption

40
1. Introduction…

Assignment 1-1

Laboratory (Workshop) 1-1

41
2. Combustion in IC engines
Chemistry of combustion (Chemical thermodynamics)
What is the maximum possible efficiency of an internal combustion engine ?
Desired Outpu
h =
Required Inpu
To determine these, we need to consider the thermodynamics of a chemically
reacting system:
•Combustion chemistry – What is the composition of the products and
reactants ? (Needed to define the thermodynamics states)
•First law of thermodynamics – What is the magnitude of the energy
conversion ? (How much energy is released during combustion ?)
•Second law of thermodynamics – How much of the available energy is
converted to useful work ?

Both 1st and 2nd law analyses need combustion chemistry because you need to
know:
•The mixture components of reactants and products.
•The thermodynamic states of reactants and products (i.e. How much energy
was released during combustion).
42
2. Combustion in IC engines…
Chemistry of combustion (Chemical thermodynamics)…
Combustion is one kind of chemical reaction.
A chemical reaction is the process in which the inter-atomic bonds of the
reactant molecules are broken and arrangement of atoms in new molecular
combination are formed.
In non-reacting mixtures or systems (eg:- mixtures during intake and
compression processes) the chemical composition of the mixture remains
unchanged during the process as there is no chemical reaction.
In this chapter or section, systems or mixtures which involve a chemical
reaction will be discussed.
In a non-reacting system, one has to consider only the sensible internal
energy (energy associated with temperature and pressure) and latent
internal energy (energy associated with phase changes). But, in the case of
reacting systems the chemical internal energy ( energy associated with the
destruction and formation of chemical bonds between atoms ) also has to
be considered.
The energy balance relations developed for non-reacting systems are
equally applicable to reacting systems, but the energy terms should include
the chemical energy of the system. 43
2. Combustion in IC engines…
Chemistry of combustion (Chemical thermodynamics)…
In the discussion of reacting systems; combustion, mass balance, energy
balance, determination of adiabatic temperature ( the highest temperature a
reacting mixture can attain), the second-law aspects of chemical reactions and
other important terms will be examined.

Fuels and Combustion

Fuels are those materials which can be burnt to release thermal (heat) energy.
Most of the commonly used fuels consists primarily of hydrogen and carbon,
hence they are called hydrocarbon fuels, denoted by CnHm . These fuels exist in
all states; for instance, coal(solid), gasoline or diesel oil(liquid), and natural
gas(gas).
Combustion is one kind of chemical reaction, during which a fuel is oxidized
and a large quantity of energy is released.
•Reactants are the components that exists before the reaction of a combustion
process.
•Products are the components that exist after the reaction.
For instance, in the reaction of ; C and O2 are reactants
and CO2 is the product.
44
2. Combustion in IC engines…
Chemistry of combustion (Chemical thermodynamics)…
It is important to note that, a fuel needs oxygen to burn. But, merely bringing
a fuel into contact with oxygen is not a sufficient condition to start
combustion. Hence,
•the proportion of air and fuel (A/F) must be within the proper range.
•the fuel must be brought near (for SI engines) or above (for CI engines) its
self-ignition temperature.

The energy needed to

overcome the repulsions
between the reactants is
called the “Activation Energy
(Ea)”.

Potential energy diagram showing

“Activation Energy (Ea)”. 45
2. Combustion in IC engines…
Chemistry of combustion (Chemical thermodynamics)…
Air is the commonly used oxidizer in combustion processes. Pure oxygen is
used only in specialized applications.
A mole of dry air is composed of 20.9% O2, and 78.1% N2, 0.9% Ar (by
volume) and small amounts of CO2, He, Ne and H2. In combustion analysis,
usually air is approximated as 21% O2 and 79% N2 by mole number or by
volume. Hence, each mole of O2 entering a combustion chamber will be
accompanied by 0.79/0.21 = 3.76 moles of N2. That is,

At lower combustion temperatures, N2 behaves as inert gas and does not

react with other chemical elements. But at higher temperatures (during the
combustion process) it take part in the reaction process and its effect on
engine emission should be considered.
Mass conservation principle
The total mass of each element is conserved during a chemical reaction.
Which means, the total mass of reactants is equal to the total mass of the
products. However, the total number of moles is not conserved during a
chemical reaction. Note:- Consider the reaction .
46
2. Combustion in IC engines…
Air-Fuel Ratio (A/F) or (AF)
For a fuel to burn and release heat (thermal) energy, it requires a proportion
amount of oxygen (air). The engineer’s problem here is that to estimate the
quantity of oxygen (air) required to burn a given quantity or amount of fuel
and the amount of heat energy released.
The air-fuel ratio (A/F) is the ratio of the mass of air to the mass of fuel for a
combustion process.
where, m = N x M
N is the number of moles
M is the molecular mass
Theoretical combustion processes
A combustion process is said to be complete, if all the carbon in the fuel
burns to CO2 and all the hydrogen burns to H2O. If the combustion products
contain any unburned fuel, components such as C, H2, CO, OH,…, will
present and then the combustion process is said to be incomplete.
The minimum amount of air needed for the complete combustion of a fuel is
called the theoretical or stoichiometric air. The ratio of actual amount of air
used to the theoretical amount of air is called the equivalence ratio ( or .
47
2. Combustion in IC engines…
Air-Fuel Ratio (A/F) or (AF)…
( A / F ) actual ( F / A) actual
l = f =
( A / F ) stoich ( F / A) stoich
 < 1 Y fuel rich  < 1 Y fuel lean
 = 1 Y Stoichiometric  = 1 Y Stoichiometric
 > 1 Y fuel lean  > 1 Y fuel rich
Note:-The Orsat gas analyzer is a commonly used device to analyze the
composition of combustion gases.

Class work:-
One kmol of Octane (C8H18) is burned with 100% theoretical air. Assuming that
the temperature within the combustion chamber is in the range of 400 K to 1600
K and products formed are: CO2, H2O and N2. Determine,
a) the mole number of each gas in the products,
b) the air-fuel ratio , the fuel-air ratio and the equivalence ratio ( and ).

Assignment 2-1
48
2. Combustion in IC engines…
Enthalpy of:- Reaction (hR ), Combustion (hc) and Formation (hf)
It has been discussed that the molecules of a system possess energy in various
forms such as sensible and latent energy (energy associated with a change of
state or intermolecular bonding), chemical energy (energy associated with
atomic bonding), and nuclear energy (energy associated with nuclear
bonding) as shown in the figure.

49
2. Combustion in IC engines…
Enthalpy of:- Reaction (hR ), Combustion (hR ) and Formation (hR )…
A process which involves chemical reactions will involve changes in chemical
energy, and which must be accounted for in an energy balance. In the absence
of nuclear reactions, changes in kinetic and potential energies; the energy
change of a system during a chemical reaction will only be due to change of
state and change in chemical reaction. That is,

In thermodynamics, the changes in the energy of a system during a process is

concerned, not the absolute value of energy at a particular state. Hence, any
state can be chosen as the reference state and assigned a value of zero to U
(Internal Energy) or H (Enthalpy) of a substance at that state. To have the
advantage of a common reference state for all substances, it is a common
practice to choose 25 0C and 1 atm as the reference state. This is known as the
standard reference state, and the properties at this state are denoted by a
superscript “0” ( for instance u0, h0).
During a combustion process, a large amount
of sensible energy is released.
50
2. Combustion in IC engines…
Enthalpy of:- Reaction (hR ), Combustion (hR ) and Formation (hR )…
Consider a combustion process shown in the figure.
As this is a steady-flow process (open system) and
the chemical reaction involves no work interactions,
from steady-flow energy balance relation
.
Since both the reactants and the products are at the same state, the enthalpy
change during the process is only due to the changes in the chemical
composition of the system. This enthalpy change is different for different
reactions and it is desirable to have a property to represent the changes in
chemical energy during a reaction. This property is called enthalpy of
reaction (hR ) and is defined as “ the difference between the enthalpy of
the products and reactants at the same state for a complete reaction “.
For a combustion process, the enthalpy of reaction is usually referred to as the
enthalpy of combustion (hC ), which represent the amount of heat
released during a steady-flow combustion process when 1 kmol of fuel is
burned completely at a specified temperature and pressure.
51
2. Combustion in IC engines…
Enthalpy of:- Reaction (hR ), Combustion (hR ) and Formation (hR )…
The enthalpy of combustion represents the amount of energy released as a
fuel is burned during a steady-flow process at a specified state.

The enthalpy of combustion is obviously a very useful property for analyzing

the combustion processes of fuels. However, there are so many different fuels
and fuel mixtures that it is not practical to list hc values for all possible cases.
In addition, the enthalpy of combustion is not of much use when the
combustion is incomplete. Hence, a more practical approach would be to have
a more fundamental property to represent the chemical energy of an element
or a compound at some reference state. This property is called the enthalpy
of formation ( ), which can be viewed as the enthalpy of a substance at a
specified state due to its chemical composition.
The enthalpy of formation of all stable elements ( such as O2, N2, H2, C,…)
assigned a value of zero at the standard reference state 25 0C and 1 atm. That is
for all stable elements. 52
2. Combustion in IC engines…
Enthalpy of Formation (hR ) and Heating Value of a fuel (HV)
Consider the formation of CO2 ( a compound ) from its elements C and O2 at
25 0C and 1 atm during a steady-flow process. The enthalpy change during this
process was determined to be -393,520 kJ/kmol. However, Hreact = 0 since both
reactants and elements at the standard reference state, and the products
consists of 1 kmol of CO2 at the same state.

The negative sign is due to the fact that the enthalpy of 1 kmol of CO2 at 25 0C
and 1 atm is 393,520 kJ less the enthalpy of 1 kmol of C and 1 kmol of O2 at the
same state. In other words, 393,520 kJ of chemical energy is released (leaving
the system as heat) in an exothermic reaction when C and O2 combines to
form 1 kmol of CO2.
Another term used in the combustion of fuels is the heating value of a fuel
(HV or hc ), which is defined as the amount of heat released when a fuel is
burned completely in a steady-flow process and the products are
returned to the reactants. 53
2. Combustion in IC engines…
Enthalpy of Formation (hR ) and Heating Value of a fuel (HV)…
The heating value depends on the phase of the H2O in the products. The
heating value is called the higher heating value (HHV) when the H2O in the
products is in the liquid form, and it is called the lower heating value (LHV)
when the H2O in the products is in the vapor form.

Class work:-
•Determine the enthalpy of combustion of liquid Octane (C8H18) at 25 0C and 1
atm, using enthalpy of formation data from table. Assume water in the products
is in the liquid form.
Assignment 2-2 54
2. Combustion in IC engines…
First law analysis of a reacting system
Open (Steady-Flow) systems

Hence,

Closed systems

Hence,

For gases, =

55
2. Combustion in IC engines…
Class work:-
A four-cylinder, 1.72 liter, SI automobile engine operates at a Wide Open
Throttle (WOT) on a four-stroke Otto (air-fuel) cycle at 3000 rpm. The engine
has a compression ratio of 9:1, a mechanical efficiency of 85%, and a stroke to
bore ratio of 1.15. Fuel is gasoline (C8H17) with air-fuel ratio (A/F) of 12 and
Lower Heating Value (QLHV ) of 44 kJ/kg. At the beginning of compression
stroke, conditions in the in the engine cylinder are 1 bar and 60 0C. Assuming
exhaust residual of 4%. Determine:
a)The volume (m3), temperatures (K) and pressures (bar) at salient points or
each state.
b)The combustion efficiency in %.
c)The change in entropy during the cycle in kJ/K.
d)The net heat transfer and work done during the cycle in kJ.
e)The indicated thermal efficiency in %.
f)The indicated mean effective pressure (imep) in bar.
g)The indicated power (Pi) in kW.
h)The brake power (Pb) in kW and in Horse Power (HP).
i)The brake torque (Tb) in Nm.
j)The friction power (Pf) in kW.
56
k)The brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc) in kg/kWh.
2. Combustion in IC engines
Ignition and combustion in SI engines
The combustion process in SI engines can be divided into three broad
regions:
•Ignition and flame development.
•Flame propagation.
•Flame termination.
In SI engine a spark ignites the charge in the
combustion chamber near the end of the
compression stroke. The spark, produced
across the spark plug electrodes at the correct
time, must have sufficient energy to raise the
gas temperature between the electrodes at a
point so that the charge burning becomes self-
sustaining. From this point, a flame moves
smoothly across the combustion chamber. The
fame front movement across the combustion
chamber is illustrated in the figure.

57
2. Combustion in IC engines…
Combustion in CI engines
Burning of charge takes place approximately at 150 bTDC. Due to which
maximum force is exerted on the crankshaft. Actual combustion is much
more complex and the combustion gases pass through many phases
during the combustion process.
For better understanding, combustion can be divided into three main
stages:
Ignition and flame development:- During this stage of combustion,
spark is discharged and pre-flame chemical reaction takes place.
Flame propagation:- In this stage of combustion, the flame front moves
out in a modified spherical path. This the period when the bulk mass
of air-fuel mixture (chemical energy) is burned. As a result
temperature and hence pressure within the engine cylinder
increases and a considerable amount of thermal energy (heat) is
released. This energy develops a force on the component parts of
the engine and produces a turning effect on the crankshaft (
mechanical energy).
Flame termination:- During this stage of combustion, as the flame
approaches to the combustion surface and the result is to stop or
terminate the flame propagation. 58
2. Combustion in IC engines…
Ignition and combustion in SI engines…
The normal combustion process inside the combustion chamber and its p
-v diagram are as shown in the figure.

Detonation(Knock) and Surface ignition

Detonation(knock) and surface ignitions are causes abnormal combustion
called auto-ignition.
Detonation(knock):- is the outcome of rapid pre-flame reaction within a
highly stressed end gas. Due to highly rapid reactions, spontaneous
ignition of end gas takes place. This causes too rapid combustion within
59
Adama University – Melesse Haile (Asst. Professor)

2. Combustion in IC engines…
Ignition and combustion in SI engines…
the end gases accompanied by high-frequency pressure waves. These
waves hit the combustion chamber walls and results in vibration, noise
and damage on the engine.
The flame front movement during normal and abnormal combustion
process is as shown in the figure.

60
2. Combustion in IC engines…
Ignition and combustion in SI engines…

Factors causing Detonation(knock)

•Compression ratio.
•Temperature and pressure at the end of compression.
•Temperature of combustion chamber wall.
•Engine speed.
•Fuel mixture strength.
•Combustion chamber shape.
•Type of fuel.
•Ignition timing.
•Position of spark plug.
•Position of exhaust valve.

Peer discussion !
•Discuss and explain,
a) How each of the factor affects detonation(knock) ?
b) Measures to be taken to avoid detonation.
61
2. Combustion in IC engines…
Ignition and combustion in SI engines…
Surface Ignition:- is starts at any source of ignition other than the spark
plug. When surface ignition occurs before firing of the spark plug, it is
called pre-ignition. It may be audible or inaudible. If it occurs after the
ignition key is turned off, it is called run-on or dieseling. Phenomenon of
surface ignition is illustrated in the figure.
Factors causing Surface Ignition
1. Hot spots ( eg:- spark plug electrode,
protruding gasket, sharp valve edge, etc.).
2. Combustion chamber deposits.

Group discussion !
•Discuss and explain,
a) How each of the factor affects surface ignition ?
b) Measures to be taken to avoid surface ignition.

62
2. Combustion in IC engines…
Combustion chambers for SI engines
A good combustion chamber should give high power output combined with
high thermal efficiency and smooth operation of the engine. To achieve
these objectives the combustion chamber should possess the following
characteristics:
1. It should give complete utilization of fuel with minimum excess air.
2. It should ensure complete utilization of air and there should be no dead
pockets of air.
3. It should provide a large area to the inlet and exhaust valves so that the
pressure drop through the valves is small and the volumetric efficiency is
high.
4. It should have a small surface to volume ratio to minimize heat loss.
5. It should possess a compact shape with suitably located spark plug so
that the flame travel is small.
6. It should have high turbulence to ensure quick propagation of flame.

63
2. Combustion in IC engines…
Combustion chambers for SI engines…
Some of the combustion chamber designs for SI engines are:
1. T and F type combustion chambers.
2. Overhead Valve type (I type) combustion chambers.
Characteristics of combustion chambers
T-type
• Good turbulence.
• Short cylinder block.
•Long flame travel and greater tendency to
knock. T-type
F-type
• Unsatisfactory air and fuel utilization.
F-type
•Better than T-type but valve operating
mechanism is complicated.
Overhead valve (I-type)
• Very high turbulence.
• Smooth operation.
• High volumetric efficiency.
• High output. I-type 64
2. Combustion in IC engines…
Ignition and combustion in CI engines
Combustion in CI engines is quite different from that of SI engines. In SI
engines mixture is homogeneous. Whereas, in CI engines mixture is
heterogeneous. Unlike that of SI engines, air intake is unthrottled in the
case of CI engines and hence torque and power output is controlled by
the amount of fuel injected per cycle. As only air is contained within the
engine cylinder of CI engines during the compression stroke, much
higher compression ratios (18 to 24) can be used since there is no fear of
detonation. As a result of higher compression ratio, higher thermal
efficiencies (lower fuel consumption) can be obtained. But as it operates
quite lean (with A/F about 16 or more), less brake power output is
obtained as compared to an SI engine having the same displacement.
At the end of compression stroke fuel is injected into the cyliners by
injectors. Injection tome is usually about 200 of crankshaft rotation,
starting about 150 bTDC and ending about 50 aTDC. In order to assure a
proper mixing of air-fuel mixture, high injection velocity, swirl and
turbulence are compulsory.

65
Adama University – Melesse Haile (Asst. Professor)

2. Combustion in IC engines…
Ignition and combustion in CI engines…
After injection the fuel must go though a series of events to assure the
proper combustion process:
•Atomization:- fuel drops break into very small droplets. The smaller the
original drop size injected by the injector, the quicker and more efficient
will be the atomization process.
•Vaporization:- the stage in which the atomized liquid droplets converted
to vapor.
•Mixing:- the stage in which a vaporized fuel gets mixed with aie within the
A/F range to assure combustion.
•Self-ignition:- in this stage of combustion the air-fuel mixture starts to
ignite.
•Combustion:- starts from self-ignition simultaneously at many locations
in the slightly rich zone the fuel jet. When combustion stars, multiple
flame fronts spreading from many self-ignition points quickly. This gives a
quick rise in temperature and pressure within the cylinder as shown in the
figure on the next page.

66
2. Combustion in IC engines…
Ignition and combustion in CI engines…

Figure shows, cylinder pressure as a function of crank angle for a CI

engines.
• Point A is where fuel injection starts.
• Point A to B is ignition delay.
• Point C is the end of fuel injection.

67
2. Combustion in IC engines…
Ignition and combustion in CI engines…
Ignition delay:- is the time interval between the evaporation and mixing
of the fuel in the air and the commencement of combustion. It is generally
of the order of 0.001 second. However, it varies with the property of the
fuel, the rate of air-fuel mixing and temperature at the start of injection.
Ignition delay is divided into two parts:
1. Mixing period:- is the time required for atomization, evaporation and
physical mixing of fuel with air.
2. Interaction period:- is a time required for molecular interaction and
start of actual ignition.
Factors causing ignition delay
•Compression Ratio
•Inlet Air Temperature
•Coolant Temperature
•Engine Speed
•Turbulence

68
2. Combustion in IC engines…
Ignition and combustion in CI engines…

Peer discussion !
•Discuss and explain,
a) How each of the factor affects ignition delay ?
b) Measures to be taken to avoid ignition delay.

Detonation (Diesel) knock

When the engine is running normally, combustion proceeds in three
phases:
Phase-1:- During the first phase (immediately following injection), the
droplets of fuel tend to break up more finely and some vaporization occur.
Phase-2:- The second phase begins when flames appear. Since these
flames are initiated simultaneously at a number of centers throughout the
combustion chamber, mild detonation will occur and it is not considered as
a serious problem in case of CI engines. This phase is characterized by
rapid rise in pressure which finally begins to drop as the piston starts to
descend.
69
2. Combustion in IC engines…
Ignition and combustion in CI engines…
Phase-3:- In the third phase, the piston keeps on descending, the
remaining of the fuel is injected, mixed with air and evaporated and then
burned.

If combustion is taking place abnormally, detonation (diesel knock) would

likely occur.
Detonation (Diesel knock) is usually caused by longer ignition period and
due to accumulation of large quantity of fuel as a result of large quantity
of fuel injection. This may lead to auto-ignition and is called detonation
(diesel knock) in CI engines. In fact, the very combustion mechanism of
diesel engine is based on the auto-ignition of the charge and hence mild
(soft) knock always present. When it exceeds the limit it is said to be
Detonation (Diesel knock).

70
2. Combustion in IC engines…
Ignition and combustion in CI engines…
Combustion chambers for CI engines
The combustion chamber characteristics have to satisfy the following
objectives in view of the mechanism of combustion in CI engines.
i) Mixing of fuel and air takes place in the combustion space in CI engines
when the fuel is injected unlike the SI engine where the same occurs
outside the engine in the carburetor . Thus Combustion chamber must
provide adequate mixing of fuel and air (i.e. short physical delay period).
Also, the combustion chamber design should assure proper air ‘swirl’ and
high ‘relative velocity ‘ to get the required air-fuel mixture.
ii) Combustion process in CI engines should be controlled to avoid very
high maximum cylinder pressure.
iii) Combustion process should be controlled to avoid excessive rate of
pressure rise per degree of crank interval.
iv) Combustion should be rapid enough to burn all fuel very earlier during
the expansion stroke.
In order to attain these objectives, it is convenient to divide combustion
chambers into two broad classifications:
71
2. Combustion in IC engines…
Ignition and combustion in CI engines…
Combustion chambers for CI engines…
1. Open combustion chamber
2. Divided combustion chamber
1. Open combustion chamber
In these types of combustion
chambers, the combustion space is
essentially one single cavity without
any restrictions which are so small as
to cause pressure differences between
different parts of the combustion
chamber during combustion process.
In these type of combustion chambers,
mixing of fuel and air is dependent
only on the spray characteristics and
on air motion or air swirl. Hence, it is
not affected by the combustion
process. 72
2. Combustion in IC engines…
Ignition and combustion in CI engines…
Combustion chambers for CI engines…
1. Open combustion chamber…
For a selected value of compression
ratio and maximum operating
temperature, the ignition delay is angle
is mainly determined by the
characteristics of the fuel. Thus, for
these type of combustion chambers
fuels of high ignition quality or high
cetene rating or short ignition delay
period are used particularly when
higher speeds are desired. In case of
high speed and small cylinder engines,
mixing is assisted by ‘swirl’.
Note:- M.A.N. combustion chamber
differs from other types of open
chambers is that fuel spray impinges
tangentially on to the piston bowl. 73
2. Combustion in IC engines…
Ignition and combustion in CI engines…
Combustion chambers for CI engines…
2. Divided combustion chamber
Some of the limitation in associated with
open combustion chambers are: poor
starting, poor ignition quality (high
noise), poor fuel economy. In order to
overcome some of these shortcomings,
the divided combustion chambers are
developed mainly for use in high speed
small engines.
A divided combustion chamber (pre-
combustion chamber) is on in which the
combustion space is divided in two or
more compartments between which
there are restrictions or throats which are
small enough so that substantial
pressure difference occurs between
them during the combustion process. 74
2. Combustion in IC engines…
Ignition and combustion in CI engines…
Combustion chambers for CI engines…
2. Divided combustion chamber…
Some of the characteristics of such
combustion chambers are:
i) Extremely high air velocity through the
throat during compression stroke with
turbulence and swirl in the pre-
combustion chamber greatly assist the
rapid mixing of fuel and air.
ii)The firs and the second stage of
combustion take place within the pre-
chamber whose structure is strong
enough to withstand very high pressure.

iii)The pre-chamber can run at very high temperatures. It usually has a

high heat resistant inserts of stainless steel and loose fitted so that the
thermal connection with the cylinder body is poor. As a result, fuels with
poor quality can also burn. 75
2. Combustion in IC engines…
Ignition and combustion in CI engines…
Combustion chambers for CI engines…
Comparisons of Open and Divided combustion chambers
Open combustion chamber Divided combustion chamber
i) Consumes fuels of good ignition i) Consumes also fuels of poor
quality (i.e. fuels of shorter ignition ignition quality (i.e. fuels of larger
delay or higher cetene number). ignition delay or lower cetene
ii)Requires higher injection pressure number).
and multiple hole injection nozzle ii)Requires moderate injection
for proper mixing of fuel and air. pressure and uses single hole
iii)Sensitive to fuel spray injection nozzle. It also tolerate
characteristics. greater degree of nozzle fouling.
iv)Mixing of fuel and air is not so iii)Insensitive to fuel spray
efficient and hence high A/F ratio is characteristics.
not feasible without smoke. iv)Ability to use higher A/F ratio
without considerable smoke.

76
2. Combustion in IC engines…
Ignition and combustion in CI engines…
Combustion chambers for CI engines…
Comparisons of Open and Divided combustion chambers…
Open combustion chamber Divided combustion chamber
v)Cylinder construction is simple v)Cylinder construction is not simple
and relatively cheaper. and is expensive.
vi)Poor cold starting. vi)Good cold starting.

77
2. Combustion in IC engines…

Reading Assignment
Reference-1,2 and 3

Assignment 2-1
Assignment 2-2

78
3. Supercharging and Scavenging
Chemistry of combustion (Chemical thermodynamics)
What is the maximum possible efficiency of an internal combustion engine ?

To determine these, we need to consider the thermodynamics of a chemically

reacting system:
•Combustion chemistry – What is the composition of the products and
reactants ? (Needed to define the thermodynamics states)
•First law of thermodynamics – What is the magnitude of the energy
conversion ? (How much energy is released during combustion ?)
•Second law of thermodynamics – How much of the available energy is
converted to useful work ?

Both 1st and 2nd law analyses need combustion chemistry because you need to
know:
•The mixture components of reactants and products.
•The thermodynamic states of reactants and products (i.e. How much energy
was released during combustion).
79