NOIDA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, GREATER NOIDA

Module - 5
Lasers and applications
Light from a source comes as the sum of total radiations by billions of atoms or molecules in the source. The
phase is different at different times. Therefore, the ordinary light is incoherent. Laser is the phenomenon in
which radiation from different atoms of a given source is made in phase, in direction of emission and same
polarisation i.e. coherence of a given source.
Important features of Laser:
(1) High degree of coherence
(2) Highly directional
(3) Monochromatic
(4) Highly intense
Absorption of radiation:
When the atoms absorb energy by any means in the ground state, the electrons of the atom absorb energy and
reach to higher energy level. Now the atom is said to be in excited state.
Let us consider two energy levels 1 and 2 of an atom with energies E1 and E2. If the atom is initially in the
lower energy state E1 ,it can be raised to energy state E2 by absorbing a photon of energy E2-E1 = h .
This process is called stimulated absorption.

Fig. 1 Absorption phenomenon

Usually the number of excited particles (atoms) in the system is smaller than the non –excited particles. The
time upto which the particle can remain in excited state is known as life time. For Hydrogen atom, it is around
10-8 second.
Spontaneous emission of radiation:
The excited state with higher energy E2 is not a stable state. After a short interval of time, the atom jumps back
to ground state by emitting a photon of frequency υ. This type of emission is called spontaneous emission.

Fig.2 Spontaneous emission

The spontaneous emission is random in character. If there is an assembly of atoms, the radiation emitted
spontaneously by each atom has a random direction and a random phase. Thus the radiation in this case is a
random mixture of quanta having various wavelengths. Thus spontaneous emission is incoherent and has
broad spectrum.

Department of Physics, Physics (KAS-101/201), Modern Physics Page 27

 NOIDA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, GREATER NOIDA

Stimulated (induced) emission of radiation:

In 1917, Einstein proposed this kind of emission. In this phenomenon, an incident photon of energy hυ causes
a transition from E2 to E1. So the radiated light emits an addition photon of same frequency υ. Hence two
photon two photon move together. This phenomenon is called stimulated emission of radiation. The
direction of propagation, phase and energy of the emitted photon is exactly same as that of incident photon.
Thus result is an enhanced beam of coherence light. Emitted photons are in same state of polarisation.

Fig. Stimulated emission of radiation

Einstein Coefficients:
Suppose the rate of transition between the two energy state 1 and 2 having energies E 1 and E2. The probable
rate of occurrence of absorption transition 1→2 depends upon the properties of states 1 and 2. This is
proportional to the energy density u(υ) of the radiation of frequency υ incident on the atom. Energy density is
defined as radiant energy per unit volume in the frequency interval υ and υ+ dυ. Therefore, probable rate of
occurrence of absorption transition is
P12 = B12u( )
Here B12 = proportionality constant known as Einstein’s coefficient of absorption radiation.
The probability of spontaneous emission 2→1 is determined only by the properties of states 2 and 1. This is
denoted by A21 and is known as Einstein’s coefficient of spontaneous emission of radiation. This is
independent of energy density u(υ).
The probability of stimulated emission transition 2→1 is proportional to energy density u(υ) of the stimulating
radiation and is given by
P ' 21 = B21u ( ) (1)
Here B21 is Einstein’s coefficient of stimulated emission of radiation. Total probability for an atom in state 2
to 1 is
P21 = A21 + B21u( ) (2)
Relation between Einstein’s coefficients:
Let us consider an assembly of atoms in thermal equilibrium at temperature T with radiation of frequency υ
and υ+dυ and energy density u(υ). Let N1 and N2 be the number of atoms in lower energy state 1 and higher
energy state 2 respectively. The number of atoms in state 1 that absorbs a photon and rise to state 2 per unit
time is given by
N1 P21 = N1 B12u( ) (3)
The number of atom in state 2 that drop to state 1, either by spontaneous emission or by stimulated emission
is given by
N 2 P21 = N 2 [ A21 + B21u( )] (4)
Under the condition of equilibrium, the number of atoms absorbing radiation per unit time is equal to the
number of emitting radiation per unit time, hence
N1 P12 = N 2 P21
N1 B12u( ) = N 2 [ A21 + B21u( )]

Department of Physics, Physics (KAS-101/201), Modern Physics Page 28

 NOIDA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, GREATER NOIDA

[ N1 B12 − N 2 B21 ]u( ) = N 2 A21

N 2 A21 A 1
u ( ) = = 21 
N1 B12 − N 2 B21 B21 N1  B12 
  −1
N 2  B21 
(5)
Thermodynamically it was proved by Einstein that the probability of stimulated absorption is equal to the
probability of stimulated emission i.e.
B12=B21
A 1
u ( ) = 21 
B21 N1
−1
Hence N 2 (6)
Now according to Boltzmann distribution law, the ratio of N1 and N2 is given by
N1  E − E1   h 
= exp  2  = exp  
N2  kT   kT  (7)
Here k is Boltzmann constant. From (6) and (7)
A 1
u ( ) = 21 
B21  h 
exp   −1
 kT  (8)
According to Planck’s radiation law, the energy density of radiation is given by
8h 3 1
u ( ) = 
c 3
 h 
exp   −1
 kT  (9)
From (8) and (9) we have
A21 8h 3
=
B21 c3 (10)
Equation (10) shows the ratio of Einstein’s coefficients of spontaneous emission to stimulated emission is
directly proportional to the cube of frequency. This shows the probability of spontaneous emission increases
rapidly with the increase of energy difference between two states.
Condition for light amplification:
At the thermal equilibrium
stimulated transition B N u ( ) B21
= 21 2 = u ( )
spon tan eous transition A21 N 2 A21 (11)
stimulated transition B21 N 2 u ( ) N 2
= =
absorption transition B12 N1u ( ) N1 since B = B (12)
12 21
From (11) it is concluded that in order to enhance the number of stimulated transitions the radiation density is
to be made larger.
From(12), the stimulated emission will be larger that absorption only when N 2>N1, otherwise N2<N1
absorption phenomenon dominates.

Coherence:
If two light sources are in constant phase different, it is called coherence sources.
Incoherent light Coherent light

Department of Physics, Physics (KAS-101/201), Modern Physics Page 29

 NOIDA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, GREATER NOIDA

Temporal coherence: If the phase difference of waves crossing the two points lying along the direction of
propagation of the beam is time dependent then a beam of light is said to possess temporal , time or longitudinal
coherence.

Fig. Temporal coherence

The average time interval for which the field remains sinusoidal (i.e., a definite phase relationship exists) is
known as the coherence time . The distance for which the field remains sinusoidal is called coherence length,
L=τ c.

Spatial Coherence: In spatial coherence the phase difference of the waves crossing the two points lying on a
plane , perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the beam is time independent. It is also called as
transverse or lateral coherence. Spatial coherence is the measure of the minimum separation between the
wavefront where two waves remain coherent.

Fig. spatial coherence

Laser beam characteristics:
(1) High directionality: Directionality is the characteristic of laser light that causes it to travel in a single
direction with a narrow cone of divergence. It is defined in terms of divergence angle. The angular
spread of beam on one side of the axis : 
 =
d

Divergence angle is twice the angle made by the outer edge with the axis of the beam.
(2) High intensity: In laser the energy is concentrated in a very small region.
(3) Divergence: Light from convection source spread out in the form of spherical wave forms. Hence,
they are divergent but divergence or angular spread of laser is extremely small.
(4) Monochromacity: Light from normal monochromatic source spread over a wavelength range of the
order of 100 A0 to 1000A0. But in case of laser, the spread of wavelength is order of a few angstroms.
(5) Coherence: It is completely coherence and it is easily observed the phenomenon of interference from
two laser light.
Population Inversion:
Normally number of particles N2in high energy level 2 is less than population N1of low energy level 1.
Suppose E1and E2 (E2> E1) are two energy state with population energy N1 and N2, then

Department of Physics, Physics (KAS-101/201), Modern Physics Page 30

 NOIDA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, GREATER NOIDA

N1  E − E1 
= exp  2 
N2  kT 
For laser action to take place the higher energy level should be more populated than the lower energy state i.e.
N2> N1.
The process by which the population of a particular high energy state is made more than that of a specific
lower energy state, this phenomenon is called population inversion and the system in which population
inversion is achieved is called a s active system.
The process of achieving the population inversion is known as pumping of atoms. There are following methods
for pumping-
1. Optical pumping (in Ruby laser)
2. Electric discharge (in He-Ne laser)
3. Direct conversion (in semiconductor diode laser)
4. Chemical reaction(in CO2 laser)

Meta stable state:

In order to achieve the population inversion, there should be an energy state which has a long life time (~10 -3
sec). Such an energy state is called Meta stable state. The Meta stable sate allows accumulation of large
number of excited atoms at this level. Hence population inversion can be achieved.
Process of population inversion:
Suppose an appropriate energy from an external source is applied to the system. As a result some atoms from
lower energy state E1 are excited to higher energy state E3. Most of the atoms from E3 go to E1 but some atoms
transit to E2. Since atom will stay at E2 larger time than E1. Thus after some time, population of atoms in E2
energy state increases than E1 i.e. N2>N1.
Laser Principle:
Let us consider an assembly of atoms of some kind that has Meta-stable. Laser action can be
Step (1) Pumping
Step (2) Population inversion
Step (3) Stimulated emission

Fig. Laser Principle

Main Components of a Laser:
1. Active region: When the active medium is excited, it achieves population inversion. Active medium
may be liquid, solid or gas. Depending upon medium we different types of laser such as Ruby laser
(solid), He-Ne laser (gas).
2. Energy source: The energy source raises the system to an excited state.
3. Optical resonator or resonant cavity: Optical resonator consists of two mirrors facing each other.
The active medium is enclosed by this cavity. One of the mirror is partially silvered and another is
fully silvered. Function of the optical resonator is to increase the intensity of the Laser beam.

Department of Physics, Physics (KAS-101/201), Modern Physics Page 31

 NOIDA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, GREATER NOIDA

Fig. Components of a laser

Action of optical resonator:
Initially active centres are in non-excited state. Using suitable pumping process, the material is taken into
population inversion state. For this purpose energy source is used. At the initial stage, spontaneous photons
are emitted in all directions. The photons that travel in specific direction are selected rest are rejected. The
simulated photons are to be made to pass through the medium a number of times. The mirrors constituting the
resonator cause the directional selectivity. The photons travelling in random directions are lost. On reaching
the partially reflective mirror, some photons are transmitted while remaining are reflected back. The reflected
photons de-excite more and more atoms. At fully reflecting mirror, some photons are absorbed and major
number of photons are reflected. The beam is now amplified. The amplified beams undergo multiple reflection
at the mirrors and gain in strength. When the amount of amplified light becomes equal to the total amount of
light lost (through the sides of the resonator, through the mirrors, through the absorption of the medium), the
laser beams start to oscillate. When the oscillation builds upto enough intensity then they emerge through the
front mirror as a highly collimated intense beam i.e. Laser beam.

Ruby Laser:
The first laser to be operated successfully using ruby crystal was given by T.H. Maiman in 1960. It is
a solid state laser.

Construction:
• Ruby is a crystal of aluminum oxide (Al2O3) in which some of the aluminum ions (Al3+) are replaced
by chromium ions (Cr3+).
• Laser rods are prepared from a single crystal of pink ruby which contains 0.05% (by weight)
chromium.
• The ruby crystal is in the form of cylinder. Length of ruby crystal is usually 2 cm to 30 cm and diameter
0.5 cm to 2 cm. Which is shown in fig 4.9

Department of Physics, Physics (KAS-101/201), Modern Physics Page 32

 NOIDA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, GREATER NOIDA

Fig.

Working:
• In normal state most of the chromium ions in the ground state E1. Light from the flash lamp falls on
the ruby rod.

• Photons are absorbed by chromium ions and raised to the excited state E3.

• The excited ions give up part of its energy to the crystal lattice and decay radiationlessly to metastable
state E2.

• Population inversion is achieved between states E2& E1.

• When an excited ion passes spontaneously from metastable state to ground state by emitting a photon
of wavelength 6943 A0, this photon stimulates the surrounding ions and emits other photons in phase.

• By successive reflections of these photons at the end of the rod, we can obtain an intense, coherent and
unidirectional laser beam. The energy level diagram is shown in fig 4.10.

Fig -Energy Level diagram

Drawbacks:

Department of Physics, Physics (KAS-101/201), Modern Physics Page 33

 NOIDA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, GREATER NOIDA

• The laser requires very high pumping power to achieve the population inversion.
• The ruby laser is a pulsed laser that is it emits the laser light in pulses.
He-Ne Laser:
He-Ne laser is a gas laser and gives the output in the form of continuous wave. The output wavelength
is 6328 A0 in red colour.
Construction:
• It consists of a quartz tube having the size of about 1.5 cm in diameter and about 1 meter in length.
• The both ends of the tube are sealed by optically plane and parallel mirrors, one is fully reflecting and
other is partially silvered.
• The tube filled with a mixture of helium and neon gases in the ratio 10:1 at a pressure of 1mm of
mercury. The mixture acts as active medium. Which is shown in fig-4.11

Fig.
Working:
• The electrons from the discharge tube collide and excite the He-Ne atoms to metastable states. The
energy level diagram of He-Ne laser is shown in fig. 4.12
• The excited helium atom can return to the ground state by transferring their energy to neon atoms
through collisions. Thus helium atoms help in achieving population inversion to neon atoms.
• An excited neon atoms passes spontaneously from metastable state at 20.66eV to the excited state at
18.70eV by emitting a photon of wavelength 6328A0.
• This photon stimulates the surrounding ions presents in the metastable state and emits other photons
in phase.
• These photons are reflected back and forth by the silvered ends until it becomes sufficiently intense
and pass through the partially silvered end.

Fig

Department of Physics, Physics (KAS-101/201), Modern Physics Page 34

 NOIDA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, GREATER NOIDA

Applications of laser:
1. It is used to measure long distances.
2. Lasers are suitable for communication.
3. Lasers (such that CO2 laser, which carries high power) are used for welding, cutting of materials etc..
4. Used in eye surgery, in skin disease and other medical field.
5. Used in 3D holography.
6. Used as bar code scanner and laser printer.

Department of Physics, Physics (KAS-101/201), Modern Physics Page 35