Review

Scientometric Review of Informal Learning Spaces in University

Libraries: A Bibliometric Approach to Design and Trends
Xiao Cui, Jianfeng Liao and Abraham Chiwon Ahn *

Department of Architectural Design, Hanyang University ERICA, 55 Hanyangdaehak-ro, Sangnok-gu,

Ansan 15588, Republic of Korea; [email protected] (X.C.); [email protected] (J.L.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The evolution of university libraries from traditional knowledge bases to dy-
namic, multifunctional learning environments has attracted widespread attention in higher
education research. This study, as a scientometric review, focuses on the combination
of library space design and informal learning space, making up for the fragmented sta-
tus of existing research and proposing specific design recommendations for university
library space design from the perspective of informal learning space. The study used CiteS-
pace6.2r7 software to analyze 1434 articles from 1973 to 2024 in the Web of Science Core
Collection. The analysis identified key research trends, keyword clusters, and thematic
connections, confirming the importance of studying university library space design from
the perspective of informal learning space. The review also explored how libraries should
promote structured academic work and autonomous collaborative learning through space
design by proposing design strategies by studying the symbiotic relationship between
library space design and informal learning. This study provides a structured framework for
the development of future library spaces and provides important reference information for
optimizing learning environments to meet the changing needs of students and educators.

Keywords: academic libraries; informal learning spaces; scientometric review; bibliometric

analysis; CiteSpace; digital transformation; user-centered design

Academic Editor: Antonio P. Gutierrez

de Blume 1. Introduction
Received: 10 January 2025 As technology advances, the transformation of academic libraries has become an
Revised: 17 February 2025
important area of research in higher education [1,2]. Initially, libraries were primarily
Accepted: 24 February 2025
physical repositories of knowledge, but the advent of radio and television expanded the
Published: 12 March 2025
dissemination of information beyond physical spaces [3]. The rise of computers and the
Citation: Cui, X.; Liao, J.; Ahn, A.C.
Internet further transformed libraries into digital platforms, enabling new forms of remote
Scientometric Review of Informal
Learning Spaces in University
access and digital reference services [4,5]. The popularity of smartphones has brought
Libraries: A Bibliometric Approach to about mobile learning, making information accessible anytime, anywhere, and challenging
Design and Trends. Sustainability 2025, libraries to adapt to this new flexible learning environment [6]. More recently, artificial
17, 2480. https://doi.org/10.3390/ intelligence has begun to personalize library services and create dynamic, interactive
su17062480
learning experiences [7]. Together, these technological innovations have redefined libraries,
Copyright: © 2025 by the authors. transforming them from static information repositories to digital-first, multifunctional
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. learning spaces.
This article is an open access article
At the same time, informal learning, characterized by activities outside the formal
distributed under the terms and
classroom and supported by technological advances, has also become an important trend
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license
in higher education, a trend that coincides with the direction of library transformation. This
(https://creativecommons.org/ shift has sparked interest in how academic libraries can serve as informal learning spaces
licenses/by/4.0/). to support collaboration, creativity, and independent learning [8].

Sustainability 2025, 17, 2480 https://doi.org/10.3390/su17062480

Sustainability 2025, 17, 2480 2 of 27

According to Constructivist Learning Theory, learning is an active, experience-based

process of knowledge construction, in which students build knowledge through interaction
with others and the environment [9,10]. Therefore, the design of university libraries should
provide a flexible and interactive space for this knowledge construction. Information
Literacy Theory (Bundy, 2004) further supports this view, arguing that university library
spaces should not only support academic research, but also help students to develop
the ability to identify and use information. Especially in the digital age, libraries should
combine informal learning spaces with information literacy education to enhance students’
academic abilities [11].
Against this background, the concept of informal learning spaces in university li-
braries has gained attention, but existing research remains fragmented. While studies have
explored library space design and informal learning separately, few have systematically
examined their intersections within university libraries [1]. This gap leaves questions about
how libraries can be effectively designed to support informal learning and their value to
the academic community.
This study aims to fill the gap in the research of informal learning spaces in academic
libraries through a literature review. The research team used CiteSpace software for
bibliometric analysis. CiteSpace can visualize research trends, keyword clusters, and
thematic associations, providing a unique perspective for understanding the structure
and development dynamics of the research field. By analyzing the keyword clusters,
trends, and thematic relationships of literature related to library space design and informal
learning, this study hopes to reveal the connection between the two fields and thus prove
the necessity of studying the spatial design of university libraries from the perspective of
informal learning spaces. At the same time, this study also explores the design strategies
of informal learning spaces in academic libraries, with the goal of helping libraries to
better support diverse learning activities. This study focuses on how to achieve a balance
between traditional functions and new needs, especially in terms of collaboration, flexibility,
and digital integration. The results of this study provide useful inspiration for the future
development of academic library spaces.

2. Data Sources and Methodology

The Web of Science Core Collection is the world’s leading citation database, containing
records of articles from journals with the highest impact globally, including open-access
journals, conference proceedings, and books [12]. It includes prestigious core academic
publications in various fields, such as natural sciences, engineering, biology, medicine, etc.
The citation indexes used to ensure comprehensive and accurate sample data include the
Science Citation Index Expanded (SCI-Expanded), the Social Science Citation Index (SSCI),
the Arts and Humanities Citation Index (1975–present), and the Emerging Sources Citation
Index (ESCI).
The purpose of this research is to study the design of informal learning spaces in
university libraries. The search will be conducted in two stages, with the first search
term selected after several trials using Boolean operations: TS = (“university libraries” OR
“university library” OR “academic library” OR “academic libraries” OR “college library”
OR “college libraries” OR “higher education library” OR “higher education libraries”)
AND TS = (“space” OR “spaces” OR “spatial”). The second search term selected was:
TS = (“informal learning”) AND TS = (“university” OR “universities” OR “college” OR
“colleges” OR “higher education” OR “tertiary education”). The search results were fil-
tered for English language, and the type of literature was defined as Articles and Review
articles. Eventually, the two searches yielded 776 and 658 papers from the Web of Science,
respectively.
Sustainability 2025, 17, 2480 3 of 27

After the search was completed, the search results were imported into Citespace for
bibliometric analysis. The search results were analyzed using CiteSpace, a data visualization
analysis software developed by Professor Chen Chaomei. CiteSpace analyzes large data
sets to identify core topics, keywords, and major trends, thereby illustrating research trends
and core keywords [13]. It can also create visual charts to show the connections between
research topics and achieve efficient literature management.
By using CiteSpace, in this study, we were able to conduct visualization studies (in-
cluding keyword clustering, keyword timeline. and keyword citation bursts) on university
library space design and informal learning in higher education settings, respectively. By
analyzing the structure and evolution of the field, the inherent relationship between univer-
sity library space design and informal learning was discovered, and the design strategies
and development trends of university libraries from the perspective of informal learning
spaces were further explored.
In this study, we used a combination of systematic literature search and bibliometric
analysis using CiteSpace software to support a comprehensive exploration of the research
field. Through this approach, research patterns can be systematically identified, trends can
be demonstrated, and future research directions in the design of informal learning spaces
in academic libraries can be discovered.

3. Bibliometric Analysis Results

This chapter systematically explores the development trends and research hotspots of
the two research fields of university library space design and university informal learning
through bibliometric analysis. First, this study shows the changes in the annual publication
volume and citation volume of these two topics from 1973 to 2024. These data reveal the
growth trajectory of research and the driving factors behind it. Then, this study deeply
analyzes the clustering, time evolution, and citation prominence of keywords, revealing the
core themes and emerging trends of current research. Through a comprehensive analysis
of keyword co-occurrence networks, timelines, and citation intensity, this chapter not only
sorts out the main directions and interrelationships of each research field, but also provides
valuable references and guidance for future research.

3.1. Annual Publication Trend

Figures 1 and 2 show the trends in publications and citations for topics in university
library space design and university informal learning from 1973 to 2024, respectively.
Research in both fields has grown significantly since 2000. Research on informal learning
in universities has developed rapidly since 2008, especially since 2010, and peaked in 2020
and 2021. This trend reflects the role of the introduction of digital learning technologies
and new teaching methods in promoting research.
In contrast, research on university library space design has grown more steadily. There
has been a significant increase since 2007, and it peaked in 2019 and 2020. Although research
in both fields has declined since 2020, which may be affected by external factors such as
research saturation or the global epidemic, they still maintain high academic influence.
The rapid growth of research in informal learning in universities is closely related to
the innovation of educational technology. The steady growth of research in library space
design reflects its practical orientation to optimize the physical environment.
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Figure
Figure 1.
Figure 1. Trends
1. Trends in
Trends in the
in the number
the number of
number of publications
of publications and
publications and citations
and citations on
citations on space
on space design
space design of
design of university
of university libraries.
university libraries.
libraries.

Trends inthe
Figure 2. Trends
Figure the number of publications and citations on informal learning in colleges
Figure 2.
2. Trends in
in the number
number of
of publications
publications and
and citations
citations on
on informal
informal learning
learning in
in colleges
colleges and
and
and universities.
universities.
universities.
3.2. Keyword Analysis
3.2.
3.2.
3.2.1.Keyword
Keyword
Keyword Analysis
Analysis
Clustering
3.2.1. Keyword
Keyword Clustering
3.2.1.Keywords Clustering
are one of the basic information factors of literature in CiteSpace that reflect
Keywords
Keywords are
research trends. are one
one
The of
of the
the basic
keyword basic information
information
co-occurrence factors
factors of
network of literature
literature
diagram in
in CiteSpace
analyzes CiteSpace that
that re-
the descriptor re-
flect
(DE) research
flect research
and identifiertrends.
trends.(ID)The
The keyword
in the co-occurrence
keyword
fields document andnetwork
co-occurrence network
generates diagram
diagram
a network analyzes
analyzes
view of the de-
thethese
de-
scriptor
variables(DE)
scriptor [13].and
(DE) and identifier
identifier
In the (ID)
(ID) fields
visualization fields in the
in the
chart, document
thecircles
document and
and generates
and sizes representaakeywords
generates network
network view view of
of
and the
these
these variables
variables
frequency [13].
[13]. In
of occurrence.In the visualization
theThevisualization
straight line chart,
chart, the
the circles
between circles and
and sizes
each circle sizes represent
represent
represents the keywords
keywords
academic
and
and the
the frequency
relevance betweenof
frequency occurrence.
ofkeywords;
occurrence.the The
The straight line
line between
straightbetween
distance between
circles each
each circle
circle represents
represents represents
the closenessthe
the aca-
aca-
of
demic
demic relevance
relevance
theoretical between
between
relevance. keywords;
keywords;
CiteSpace the
the distance
distance
automatically between circles
circles represents
betweenclusters
generates represents
based on the the closeness
thekeywords
closeness
of
of theoretical relevance. CiteSpace automatically generates clusters based on the
in theoretical
the literature. relevance.
The CiteSpace
larger the automatically
cluster, the more generates
literature clusters
under the based
research on theofkey-
field key-
the
words
cluster,in
words in the
the literature.
that itThe
literature.
indicating is alarger
The larger
hot areathe
theofcluster,
cluster,
concern the
theformore
more literature
literature under
researchers. under thethe research
research field field
of the cluster, indicating that it is a hot area of concern
of the cluster, indicating that it is a hot area of concern for researchers.
The keyword clustering network diagram (Figure 3)for researchers.
shows five clusters of literature on
The
The keyword
university keyword clustering
clustering
library space design, network
namelydiagram
network diagram
#1 library (Figure
(Figure 3)
3) shows
management, shows#2five five clusters
clusters of
digitalization, of literature
literature
#3 indoor
on
on university library space design, namely #1 library management, #2 digitalization, #3
university
environment library
quality, space
#4 design,
learning namely
activities, #1
and library
#5 usermanagement,
experiences. #2
It digitalization,
can be intuitively#3
indoor
indoor
seen from environment
the figure quality,
environment quality,
that #4
#4 learning
clusters #1 and activities,
learning activities,
#5 and
and #5
are relatively user
user experiences.
#5independent,
experiences. It
It can
can be
and clusters intu-
be#2,
intu-
#3,
itively
and #4seen
itively havefrom
seen from the
the figure
a strong figure that
that clusters
correlation, which#1
clusters is and
#1 also #5
and theare
#5 are relatively
relatively
focus independent,
independent,
of research on universityand
and clusters
clusters
library
#2,
#2,
space#3, and
and #4
#3,design. #4 have
have aa strong
strong correlation,
correlation, which
which is is also
also the
the focus
focus of of research
research on on university
university
library space design.
library space design.
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Figure 3.
Figure Cluster analysis
3. Cluster analysis of
of keywords
keywords in
in the
the literature
literature on
on space
space design
design of
of university
university libraries.
libraries.
The keywords patron services, information services, space utilization, and virtual
The keywords patron services, information services, space utilization, and virtual
learning environment that appear in cluster #1 library management indicate that, in recent
learning environment that appear in cluster #1 library management indicate that, in recent
years, the management of university libraries has not only focused on user-centered services
years, the management of university libraries has not only focused on user-centered ser-
and space utilization, but also the improvement of the level of informatization, and the
vices and space utilization, but also the improvement of the level of informatization, and
application and management of information services and virtual learning spaces have also
the application and management of information services and virtual learning spaces have
been increasingly valued. Cluster #2 digitalization and cluster #4 learning activities have
also been increasingly valued. Cluster #2 digitalization and cluster #4 learning activities
a high correlation, including keywords such as online instruction, information literacy,
have a high correlation, including keywords such as online instruction, information liter-
collaborative learning, and learning satisfaction. This shows that university students’
acy, collaborative learning, and learning satisfaction. This shows that university students’
learning activities are increasingly dependent on digital resources, such as online literature,
learning activities are increasingly dependent on digital resources, such as online litera-
video courses, and online seminars. The use of these resources requires a specific learning
ture, video courses, and online seminars. The use of these resources requires a specific
environment, and the spatial design of the library must consider how to optimize the
learning environment, and the spatial design of the library must consider how to optimize
access to these digital resources. These factors make digitalization and learning activities
the access to these digital resources. These factors make digitalization and learning activ-
closely related research areas. In addition, as a collaborative learning space, how to support
ities closely related research areas. In addition, as a collaborative learning space, how to
students’ collaborative learning through digital technology has become an important
support students’ collaborative learning through digital technology has become an im-
research direction. This further deepens the correlation between the two fields. Under
portant research direction. This further deepens the correlation between the two fields.
this development trend, learners may need to use a combination of physical spaces (such
Under this development trend, learners may need to use a combination of physical spaces
as discussion rooms) and digital spaces (such as virtual classrooms) to complete learning
(such as discussion rooms) and digital spaces (such as virtual classrooms) to complete
tasks. Cluster #3 “indoor environmental quality” includes keywords such as thermal
learning
comfort, tasks.
indoor Cluster #3 “indoor
air quality, environmental
lighting design, andquality” includes
sustainable keywords
lighting. Thissuch
showsas ther-
that
mal
this comfort, indoor on
cluster focuses air how
quality, lighting design,
to improve physical and sustainable lighting.
environmental factors, This
suchshows that
as indoor
this cluster focuses on how to improve physical environmental
thermal environment, optimize air quality, and lighting conditions, so as to improve factors, such as indoor
thermal
students’environment,
experience and optimize
learningairefficiency.
quality, and lighting
Cluster conditions,
#5 “user so as to
experience” improve stu-
emphasizes the
dents’ experience and learning efficiency. Cluster #5 “user experience”
importance of user experience in library space design. This direction focuses on how to emphasizes the
importance of user
ensure that users canexperience
use libraryinresources
library space design. Thisand
in a comfortable direction
efficientfocuses on how to
environment.
ensure that users can use library resources in a comfortable and efficient
The keyword clustering network diagram (Figure 4) shows five clusters of research environment.
The
on informalkeyword clustering
learning in collegesnetwork diagram (Figure
and universities. 4) shows
Cluster fiveinformal
#1 digital clusters of research
learning is
on informal learning in colleges and universities. Cluster #1 digital informal
the largest, indicating that digital informal learning is an important theme in the research learning is
the largest, indicating
on informal learning inthat digitaland
colleges informal learningItiscontains
universities. an important
keywordsthemesuch
in the
as research
#mobile
on
learning, #digital literacy, #academic performance, and #structural equation as
informal learning in colleges and universities. It contains keywords such #mobile
modelling.
learning,
It mainly#digital literacy,
discusses how to #academic performance,
conduct informal and through
learning #structural equation
digital modelling.
platforms, It
online
mainly discusses how to conduct informal learning through digital platforms,
resources, and technical tools, and studies the relationship between students’ digital ca- online re-
pabilitiesand
sources, andtechnical
academic tools, and studies
literacy. the relationship
The statistical method ofbetween
structuralstudents’
equationdigital capa-
modeling
bilities and academic literacy. The statistical method of structural
(SEM) that appears in the keywords can handle the complex relationship between multiple equation modeling
(SEM) that appears in the keywords can handle the complex relationship between
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multiple variables
variables at the same at the
time,same
andtime, and can effectively
can effectively handle thehandle the construction
construction of latent
of latent variables
variables and the analysis of multiple paths. Therefore, it is suitable for research situations
and the analysis of multiple paths. Therefore, it is suitable for research situations with multi-
with multi-factor
factor interactions,interactions,
such as the such as the relationship
relationship between the between the usetechnology,
use of digital of digital technol-
digital
ogy, digital literacy, and academic performance, and helps in quantifying complex high
literacy, and academic performance, and helps in quantifying complex concepts. The con-
cepts. The high
correlation correlation
between clustersbetween clusters #2 #3
#2 self-expression, self-expression, #3 informal
informal education, and #5education, and
collaborative
#5 collaborative learning shows that self-expression is an indispensable component in col-
learning shows that self-expression is an indispensable component in collaborative learning
laborative
in informallearning
learninginenvironments.
informal learning environments.
Informal education Informal
provides education provides
students with stu-
a flexible
dents with a flexible and autonomous learning space, collaborative learning achieves com-
and autonomous learning space, collaborative learning achieves common learning goals
mon learning
through teamworkgoalsand
through teamwork
knowledge andand
sharing, knowledge sharing,promotes
self-expression and self-expression pro-
team interaction
motes team interaction and personal in-depth learning in this process. The close relation-
and personal in-depth learning in this process. The close relationship between the three
ship between
reflects the three
the synergy reflects the
in modern synergy
informal in modern
learning; that informal
is, throughlearning; that is,learning,
autonomous through
autonomous learning, cooperation, and personal expression, students can participate
cooperation, and personal expression, students can participate more deeply in the learning
more deeply
process in the learning
and improve learning process
effects.and improve learning effects.

Figure 4. Cluster
Figure 4. Cluster analysis
analysisofofkeywords
keywordsininthe literature
the onon
literature informal learning
informal in colleges
learning and and
in colleges universities.
univer-
sities. Keywords Timeline
3.2.2.

3.2.2.Keyword
Keywordstimeline
Timelineanalysis provides a temporal perspective on the evolution of
academic library space design and informal learning research topics in universities.
Keyword timeline analysis provides a temporal perspective on the evolution of aca-
Figures 5 and 6 show the development and emergence of key keywords from 1973 to
demic library space design and informal learning research topics in universities. Figures
2024. These data highlight important shifts and ongoing trends as technology advances
5 and 6 show the development and emergence of key keywords from 1973 to 2024. These
and educational models change. These changes clearly reflect the evolution of research
data highlight important shifts and ongoing trends as technology advances and educa-
priorities.
tional models change. These changes clearly reflect the evolution of research priorities.
Keyword Timeline Analysis of Space Design of University Libraries
Figure 5 shows the timeline analysis of keywords and the hot spots and develop-
ments in the research of “university library space design” in recent years. Through cluster
numbers #1 to #5, five main directions can be seen. #1 “Library management” focuses on
library facilities, management, and information services. #2 “Digitalization” emphasizes
the digitalization process and the application of new technologies, including digital tools,
3D printing, and energy consumption. #3 “Indoor environmental quality” studies indoor
environmental quality, focusing on spatial experience, comfort, and sustainable develop-
ment. #4 “Learning activities” explores learning space and learning behavior, and also
discusses the support provided by libraries to learners and their impact on educational
outcomes. #5 “User experiences” focuses on user satisfaction, service quality, and perceived
experience, emphasizing the importance of library service innovation and user needs.
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Figure
Figure5.
Figure Keyword
Keywordtimeline
5.5.Keyword timelineof
timeline ofspace
of spacedesign
space designof
design ofuniversity
of universitylibraries.
university libraries.
libraries.

Figure
Figure6.
Figure Keyword
Keywordtimeline
6.6.Keyword timelineof
timeline ofinformal
of informallearning
informal learningin
learning inincolleges
collegesand
colleges anduniversities.
and universities.
universities.

In terms of the time dimension, early studies mostly discussed traditional topics
Keyword
KeywordTimeline
TimelineAnalysis
Analysisof ofSpace
SpaceDesign
Designof ofUniversity
UniversityLibraries
Libraries
such as “library buildings” and “library management”. They mainly revolved around
Figure
Figure 55shows
showsthe thetimeline
timeline analysis
analysis of of keywords
keywordsand and thethehot
hotspots
spotsand
and develop-
develop-
physical space transformation, facility planning, and collection management. Over time,
ments
mentsin inthe
theresearch
researchof of“university
“universitylibrary
libraryspace
spacedesign”
design”in inrecent
recentyears.
years.Through
Throughcluster
cluster
new keywords, such as “digital library”, “performance”, “energy consumption”, and “3D
numbers
numbers#1 #1to
to#5,
#5,five
fivemain
maindirections
directionscan canbebeseen.
seen.#1#1“Library
“Librarymanagement”
management”focusesfocusesonon
printing”, have gradually attracted attention. The research focus has also expanded from
library
libraryfacilities,
facilities,management,
management,and andinformation
informationservices.
services.#2 #2“Digitalization”
“Digitalization”emphasizes
emphasizes
traditional management and hardware upgrades to digitalization, energy saving, and user
the
thedigitalization
digitalizationprocess
processand andthe
theapplication
applicationof ofnew
newtechnologies,
technologies,including
includingdigital
digitaltools,
tools,
experience. In recent years, topics such as “learning space”, “learning commons”, and
3D
3Dprinting,
printing, and
andenergy
energy consumption.
consumption. #3
#3“Indoor
“Indoor environmental
environmental quality”
quality” studies indoor
“user experience” have become more active. The academic community has studies
begun toindoor
pay
environmental
environmental quality,
quality, focusing
focusing on
on spatial
spatial experience,
experience, comfort,
comfort, and
and sustainable
sustainable develop-
develop-
more attention to the impact of libraries on learner needs, space utilization efficiency, and
ment.
ment. #4#4 “Learning
“Learning activities”
activities” explores
explores learning
learning space
space andand learning
learning behavior,
behavior, and
and also
also
environmental optimization.
discusses
discusses the
the support
support provided
provided by
by libraries
libraries to
to learners
learners and
and their
their impact
impact on
on educational
educational
Overall, this keyword timeline figure shows the main trends in the research on space
outcomes.
outcomes. #5
#5 “User experiences”
“Userlibraries.
experiences” focuses on on user satisfaction, service quality, and
and per-
design in university On thefocuses
one hand, userresearch
the satisfaction,
topic isservice
changing quality, per-
from “library-
ceived
ceived experience,
experience, emphasizing
emphasizing the
the importance
importance of
of library
library service
service innovation
innovation and
and user
user
centered” construction and management to “user-centered” experience and service. On the
needs.
needs.
other hand, the influence of digitalization and sustainable concepts in the library field is
In
Interms
terms
increasing. of
The the
thetime
timedimension,
offrequent dimension,early
appearance early
of studies
studiesmostly
keywords mostly
such asdiscussed
“learningtraditional
discussed space” andtopics
traditional topics such
such
“learning
as
as“library
“librarybuildings”
buildings”and and“library
“librarymanagement”.
management”.They Theymainly
mainlyrevolved
revolvedaround
aroundphysical
physical
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commons” shows that libraries are no longer limited to the functions of reading and book
collection. Libraries are becoming a key place for collaboration, innovation, and academic
exchanges. In the future, research will pay more attention to user needs, and integrate
digitalization and sustainable development.

Keyword Timeline Analysis of Informal Learning in Colleges and Universities

Figure 6 shows a timeline analysis of keywords for informal learning in colleges and
universities. The five major clusters in the figure reflect different focuses and also show the
multi-level exploration of research content from digital learning to social interaction and
collaborative learning. #1 “Digital informal learning” revolves around digital capabilities
and technology applications, and also emphasizes the relationship between the role of
teachers and technology use. #2 “Self-expression” is closely linked to social interaction,
indicating that researchers focus on learners’ expressions on social platforms or online com-
munities, and also explore the relationship between platform use and learning outcomes.
#3 “Informal education” includes the connection between formal and informal learning,
and also focuses on multiple learning scenarios such as “informal science education”. #4
“Social media” emphasizes the role of social platforms in the learning process, focusing on
learners’ motivation and interaction patterns, and also explores students’ communication
methods and attitudes in virtual communities. #5 “Collaborative learning” focuses on the
impact of teamwork and mobile terminals on learners, as well as the importance of space
and equipment in collaborative learning.
Among the high-frequency keywords, “student”, “education”, “knowledge”, and
“experience” are particularly prominent. Many researchers focus on students’ motivation,
experience, and behavior in informal scenarios. Keywords such as “mobile learning” and
“collaborative learning” also appear frequently, reflecting the flexibility and cooperation of
learning methods. Researchers are not only concerned about learning outcomes, but also
about learning attitudes and learners’ sense of autonomy.
In terms of time, early studies focused on students’ learning motivation and knowledge
acquisition. Mid-term studies gradually turned to social media and mobile learning.
Researchers are more concerned about the impact of online interaction and technology
adoption on the learning process. Recently, digital informal learning has been further
emphasized, as well as how learners can express themselves and collaborate in teams in
new media environments. It can be seen that future research will discuss learners’ diverse
needs in more depth, and how digital technology can help them to learn spontaneously
and collaboratively.

Comparative Insights
The keyword timeline analysis of the above two topics shows a clear overlapping
trend, but each has its own unique development path.
First, digital technology has an important impact in both fields. The spatial design of
university libraries initially focused on integrating digital resources and automated systems,
while informal learning research gradually emphasized the role of digital literacy, online
platforms, and mobile learning. These technological advances have not only improved the
functions of libraries, but also enhanced the flexibility and accessibility of informal learning.
Second, user-centered design concepts have occupied an important position in both fields.
The spatial design of university libraries has continuously optimized the user experience,
focusing on flexibility, collaboration, and sustainability. At the same time, informal learning
research has deeply explored the psychological engagement and acceptance of users with
learning technologies. In addition, collaborative learning is regarded as a key element in
both fields. In order to meet the needs of community interaction and peer collaboration in
 acceptance of users with learning technologies. In addition, collaborative learnin
garded as a key element in both fields. In order to meet the needs of community i
tion and peer collaboration in informal learning, libraries support collaborative ac
Sustainability 2025, 17, 2480 9 of 27
by adjusting physical spaces. Finally, in recent years, library space design has gra
developed toward sustainable and intelligent environments. This trend is consisten
the focuslearning,
informal on adaptability and user
libraries support needs in
collaborative informal
activities learning,
by adjusting reflecting
physical spaces.the
Fi-integra
nally, in recent years, library space design has gradually developed toward sustainable and
environmental and technological factors in supporting diverse learning needs.
intelligent environments. This trend is consistent with the focus on adaptability and user
needs in informal learning, reflecting the integration of environmental and technological
3.2.3.
factorsKeywords with
in supporting the learning
diverse Strongest Citation Bursts
needs.
Keyword emergence can reflect the changes in research topics and hot spots
3.2.3. Keywords with the Strongest Citation Bursts
field. Figures 7 and 8 show the top 25 keywords about university library space desi
Keyword emergence can reflect the changes in research topics and hot spots in the
informal learning in higher education environments from 2004 to 2024, respective
field. Figures 7 and 8 show the top 25 keywords about university library space design
strength value
and informal represents
learning theeducation
in higher intensity of citation.from
environments The2004
begin yearrespectively.
to 2024, and the end year
sent the timevalue
The strength period whenthe
represents theintensity
corresponding
of citation.keyword
The begin has
yearaand
burst of citations.
the end year Bo
ures are arranged in the order of keyword begin time, so it is intuitive to see whic
represent the time period when the corresponding keyword has a burst of citations. Both
figures are arranged in the order of keyword begin time, so it is intuitive to see which
words, that is, research topics, have appeared in recent years and have remained
keywords, that is, research topics, have appeared in recent years and have remained so far,
which canfurther
which can further explore
explore research
research trends.trends.

Figure 7. Keywords bursts about space design of university libraries.

Figure 7. Keywords bursts about space design of university libraries.
Figure 7 shows the research on the space design of universities libraries, among which
“Virtual Design”, “Satisfaction”, “Design”, “Information”, “Performance”, and “Need” are
all keywords that appeared after 2020, and “Design”, “Information”, “Performance”, and
“Need” have continued to this day. This shows that the application of digital technologies,
such as virtual technology, in the space design of university libraries has begun to attract
attention. At the same time, based on the feelings and needs of users, space design guided
by user satisfaction has become a recent research hotspot.
Sustainability 2025, 17, 2480 10 of 27
Figure 7. Keywords bursts about space design of university libraries.

Figure 8. Keywords bursts about informal learning in colleges and universities.

Figure 8. Keywords bursts about informal learning in colleges and universities.
As shown in Figure 8, in the research on informal learning in higher education en-
vironments, “Experience” is the keyword with the highest intensity value, which first
Figure 7 shows the research on the space design of universities libraries,
appeared in 2018 and lasted until 2020. “Satisfaction”, “Performance”, “Gender”, “User Ac-
which “Virtual
ceptance”, Design”,
“Technology “Satisfaction”,
Acceptance “Design”,“Impact”,
Model”, “Self-Efficacy”, “Information”,
and “High “Performance
School”
“Need” areafter
all appeared all 2020,
keywords that appeared
among which after
“Satisfaction” 2020,
has an andvalue
intensity “Design”, “Information”
of 4, second only
formance”, and “Need” have continued to this day. This shows that the applica
to “Experience”, and “Performance” and “Impact” have been cited to this day. And overall,
compared with the research on university library space design, the outbreak of various
digital technologies, such as virtual technology, in the space design of university li
keywords generally appeared relatively late, which means that the research on informal
has begun
learning wastorelatively
attract late.
attention.
But, it isAt the noting
worth same time,
that in based on the
recent years, feelings
more and
attention hasneeds o
space design
been paid to theguided by user
satisfaction satisfaction
and acceptance has
of the become
research a recent research hotspot.
subjects.

4. Correlation Analysis Based on Bibliometric Analysis Results

This section uses the previous visualization analysis results to explore the development
trends of university library space design and informal learning spaces respectively. This
study also aims to discover the potential deep connection between university libraries
and informal learning spaces. These analyses further confirm the importance of studying
informal learning spaces in university libraries and the role of these spaces in promoting
diverse learning opportunities.

4.1. Trends in the Space Design of University Libraries

According to the association of the previous keyword clustering results, combined with
cluster #2 digitalization, clusters #4 learning activities and #5 user experience, and cluster
#3 indoor environmental quality, this study divides the space design of university libraries
into three aspects: the impact of digital transformation on space design, user-centered
design strategies, and the improvement of space quality.
Sustainability 2025, 17, 2480 11 of 27

4.1.1. Digital Transformation on Space Design

With the rapid development of digital technology, university libraries are transforming
from traditional physical spaces to digital ones. This process has brought new opportunities,
as well as many challenges. Digitalization has changed the way information is stored and
accessed, profoundly affecting the design of library space and its role in the academic
environment. Although digitalization provides more possibilities for innovation, issues
such as cost, technological adaptability, and user acceptance also need to be addressed.
First, the need for traditional book storage is reduced, providing more possibilities
for reconfiguring physical space. Many libraries are beginning to transform these spaces
into areas suitable for collaboration, innovation, and learning [14]. This transformation
combines physical space with digital technology to form a hybrid space model that can
meet the needs of face-to-face interaction while taking advantage of the advantages of
virtual technology.
Secondly, technological innovation has significantly improved the libraries’ function-
ality and user experience. For example, the application of augmented reality (AR), virtual
reality (VR), and 5G technologies allows users to interact with library resources more
efficiently [15,16]. These technologies provide an immersive experience for learning and
make digital tools more flexible and usable. For example, the application of 5G technology
enables libraries to provide high-speed and stable network connections to support virtual
classes and remote collaboration [16]. In addition, Lee (2023) used AVR-based 360-degree
spatial visualization technology to optimize the design of the first-floor lobby at the Yonsei
University Library in South Korea. Users can access panoramic videos at any time through
the video-sharing platform and provide feedback. This user-involved design approach not
only improves user experience, but also discovers and solves potential problems in the
early stages of design.
In addition, with the rise of digital humanities, the spatial design of university libraries
is also changing. Digital humanities combines traditional disciplinary research with digital
tools, promoting the expansion of library functions in resource storage, information re-
trieval, and academic activities [17]. These areas provide new directions for library design,
especially in improving the interactivity and usability of academic resources. Libraries
can provide students with dedicated digital humanities areas equipped with data visual-
ization tools, digital text analysis software, etc., to help students to apply these tools in
actual learning, thereby improving their academic research capabilities and information
literacy [18]. In addition, the integration of digital humanities creates more opportunities
for interdisciplinary collaboration in libraries. By setting up digital platforms and virtual
collaborative spaces for multi-party collaboration, libraries enable students and researchers
from different disciplines to share knowledge and resources. This design not only im-
proves the versatility of library space, but also promotes interaction and innovation among
academic communities.
Overall, digital transformation has redefined the role of library spaces. The library is
no longer just a place for knowledge storage, but a diverse environment that integrates
technical support, learning interaction, and social functions. By combining the advantages
of physical and virtual spaces, digitalization makes learning more flexible and diverse,
while providing users with a richer learning experience.

4.1.2. User-Centered Design Strategies

University libraries have increasingly adopted user-centered design strategies to meet
the evolving needs of their users. Designing for user behavior involves creating versatile
spaces that cater to different types of learning, such as individual study, group collaboration,
and social interaction [19]. User-centered design prioritizes flexibility, allowing spaces
Sustainability 2025, 17, 2480 12 of 27

to be quickly adapted to changing demands. For instance, the use of modular furniture
and open floor plans ensures that different learning configurations can be accommodated
efficiently [20]. Additionally, ergonomic considerations, such as the inclusion of comfortable
seating and adjustable tables, contribute to prolonged student engagement and satisfaction.
In addition to information storage and academic support, modern university libraries
also play an important role in social and cultural guarantees. As a “social and cultural
guarantor”, libraries should not only provide support to the academic community, but
also help members of society to access knowledge and cultural resources [21]. This role
change requires libraries to pay more attention to community needs and social interaction
in space design. For example, libraries can set up special areas for students from different
backgrounds and cultures to communicate, collaborate, and share knowledge. These
areas are not only places for learning and research, but also centers for promoting social
integration and cultural exchange.
Furthermore, by gathering and analyzing user feedback, libraries can optimize spatial
configurations to improve user satisfaction and learning outcomes [22,23]. The importance
of integrating user feedback is highlighted by Camille Andrews (2015), who demonstrated
that involving users in the design process leads to higher satisfaction levels and improved
usability. Furthermore, a comparative study conducted by Peng (2022) emphasized the
significant impact of user-centered design elements on academic performance, as students
in optimized library environments showed better concentration and productivity.
The combination of technology and user-centered design not only facilitates access
to information, but also supports diverse learning modalities. Libraries that provide
designated areas for silent study, group collaboration, and digital content creation meet the
varied preferences of students, thus fostering a more inclusive learning environment [24].
This adaptability is essential for modern university libraries aiming to serve as dynamic
learning hubs.

4.1.3. Improvement of Space Quality

Space optimization and improvement of learning environment quality play a key
role in the design of university libraries, aiming to improve learning efficiency and user
experience. According to the research, among the key factors considered by students
when using the library, the comfort and functionality of the space are important factors in
determining the use of space [25]. Research shows that, by optimizing space configuration,
improving furniture configuration, increasing private space, optimizing lighting conditions,
etc., the attractiveness of library space can be significantly improved, thereby promoting
students’ frequency of use and learning efficiency.
In the space design of the library, reasonable spatial layout and functional optimiza-
tion are the basis for improving usage efficiency. Some of the literature points out that
the functional configuration of different areas of the library can be effectively analyzed
and optimized through the fuzzy matrix model to ensure the rational use of space and the
satisfaction of students’ learning needs [26]. Research shows that different learning activi-
ties (such as independent learning, group discussions, leisure reading, etc.) have different
space requirements. Therefore, flexible space division and the setting of multi-functional
areas have become particularly important. Open study areas promote communication and
collaboration, while enclosed individual study rooms support students who require a quiet
environment. This diverse spatial configuration can meet the diverse learning styles and
needs of students and improve the overall efficiency of the library.
Lighting conditions are one of the key factors affecting the quality of the learning
environment. The introduction of natural light not only helps to save energy, but also
significantly improves learners’ concentration and emotional state. Proper lighting design,
Sustainability 2025, 17, 2480 13 of 27

combined with natural lighting methods such as windows and skylights, as well as efficient
artificial lighting systems, can create a bright and comfortable learning environment for
users. For example, Zeynep (2015) explored the relationship between students’ seating
choices and daylight in open library spaces. Research shows that students are more likely
to choose seats close to natural light sources, which prompts designers to consider how
to maximize the use of natural light when making space layouts and improve the overall
space quality by optimizing seating arrangements [27]. Fan (2022) focused on analyzing the
use of window seats and found that natural light is an important factor attracting students
to choose specific seats. Their study points out that, by rationally designing window
layouts, increasing the penetration of natural light, and providing comfortable window
seats, space utilization can be effectively improved [28]. Additionally, the improvement
in environmental quality also includes aspects such as air circulation, noise control, and
temperature and humidity adjustment. Research shows that good environmental quality
can effectively improve students’ learning efficiency and satisfaction. For example, by
introducing plants and natural elements, you can not only improve air quality, but also
provide learners with a more pleasant learning atmosphere.
The selection and configuration of furniture and equipment are also very important
in library space design. Ergonomic chairs, adjustable tables, and modern technological
devices such as smart boards and power banks can significantly enhance students’ learning
experience [29]. Many modern libraries have introduced movable and modular furniture
to make the space layout more flexible. This design can not only adapt to different types
of activities, but also can be quickly adjusted to meet new functional needs when space
utilization is low. In addition, modern equipment and technical means make the library’s
learning environment more intelligent and convenient. For example, intelligent systems
can optimize resources and environment to provide users with more efficient services and
comfortable learning experience.
In summary, the design of university libraries in the future will pay more attention to
personalization and flexibility, while combining sustainable development and intelligent
management. Designers need to create multifunctional and modern learning spaces by
studying user needs. These trends will enhance the practicality and comfort of libraries
and provide new ideas for innovation in future educational spaces.

4.2. Characteristics of Informal Learning Spaces

Based on the results of keyword clustering in the previous article, the five clusters
are summarized into two aspects: digitalization and social media (consisting of #1 dig-
ital informal learning cluster and #4 social media cluster), and learners’ and educators’
needs for informal learning spaces (consisting of #2 self-expression cluster, #3 informal
education cluster, and #5 collaborative learning cluster). From these two aspects, the fol-
lowing research is conducted on the development of informal learning spaces in higher
education contexts.

4.2.1. Influence of Digitalization and Social Media

The widespread use of digital technologies and social media has transformed the
concept of informal learning spaces in higher education. Digital tools, learning manage-
ment systems (LMSs), and social media platforms have expanded the scope of informal
learning from traditional library settings to a wider range of online and offline spaces. This
change has made learning more flexible and provided students with more opportunities
for engagement and communication. These platforms enable learners to access educational
resources, engage in discussions, and participate in collaborative learning at any time and
place [30,31]. The integration of LMSs, such as Moodle and Canvas, into informal learning
Sustainability 2025, 17, 2480 14 of 27

environments has provided students with access to resources and communication tools
that extend beyond the confines of the physical library [30].
Social media, in particular, has enhanced learner autonomy and provided opportuni-
ties for informal knowledge sharing, contributing to the increasing importance of informal
learning spaces [32]. For example, platforms like Twitter and YouTube have enabled learn-
ers to follow educational content, participate in academic discussions, and access tutorial
videos that complement formal coursework [31,33]. Such digital tools promote collabora-
tive learning and allow students to construct knowledge through social interaction, which
is a core aspect of informal learning.
However, the benefits of digitalization and social media in informal learning come
with challenges. Issues such as digital distraction, data privacy, and the need for digital
literacy skills must be addressed to optimize the use of these tools in informal learning
settings [34]. Libraries can play a critical role by providing structured environments where
students can engage with digital tools productively, ensuring both access and support for
effective informal learning.
In summary, digitalization and social media have significantly expanded the scope
and impact of informal learning spaces. By integrating these tools effectively while address-
ing potential challenges, libraries and educational institutions can enhance the learning
experience and support student success in both formal and informal contexts.

4.2.2. Perspectives of Educators and Learners on Informal Learning Spaces

From the perspectives of educators and learners, informal learning spaces need to sup-
port flexibility, inclusivity, and collaboration. Educators value spaces that facilitate active
learning, creativity, and problem-solving [35,36], while learners appreciate environments
that offer autonomy, comfort, and social interaction [37,38]. The design of informal learning
spaces should therefore include features that support a wide range of learning activities,
from quiet study areas to spaces for group work and discussions.
Educators have emphasized the importance of creating environments that can be
reconfigured to support various teaching methods, such as group discussions, project-
based learning, and hands-on activities [35]. Informal spaces that allow for such flexibility
enhance the overall learning experience by enabling educators to implement diverse ped-
agogical approaches [36]. For example, Bennett (2020) proposed a model for informal
physics learning environments that includes adaptable spaces to encourage interaction and
experimentation [39], thus fostering a deeper understanding of subject matter.
Learners, on the other hand, seek spaces that are comfortable and conducive to both
focused study and collaborative work. Features like natural lighting, comfortable seating,
and access to technology are consistently highlighted as important for creating effective
informal learning environments [37]. Moreover, students value spaces that facilitate social
learning, as interactions with peers are a key aspect of informal learning networks [40].
Providing such environments ensures that learners can seamlessly transition between indi-
vidual and group learning activities, thereby improving their overall academic experience.
In conclusion, both educators and learners recognize the value of flexible, inclusive,
and comfortable informal learning spaces. By incorporating these elements, educational
institutions can create environments that foster active learning, collaboration, and personal
growth, ultimately enhancing the quality of the learning experience.
The design of informal learning spaces not only provides a flexible and inclusive learn-
ing environment, but also has a direct impact on academic performance. Research shows
that, when informal learning spaces are designed to provide students with an environment
for self-directed learning, collaboration, and innovation, students’ academic performance
and learning efficiency will improve. According to the research, students’ concentration,
Sustainability 2025, 17, 2480 15 of 27

learning engagement, and academic performance are significantly improved in optimally

designed informal learning spaces, especially in environments that provide digital tools
and social interaction support [41]. Beichner, R. J., et al. pointed out that learners are able
to better utilize available resources in such spaces, improve their critical thinking skills and
problem-solving abilities, and thus significantly improve their academic performance.
In addition, research also shows that the interaction between educators and learners
plays a key role in informal learning spaces. Through flexible design, educators are better
able to implement interactive teaching, while students can improve their learning efficiency
in a more engaging and interactive environment [42]. These studies demonstrate the
usefulness of informal learning spaces in supporting academic achievement and further
support the need to design university libraries as informal learning spaces.

4.3. Connections Between University Libraries and Informal Learning Spaces

Based on the previous key keyword results and the analysis of university library
space design and balanced learning, we found that both fields are constantly evolving and
working together to promote learning opportunities in higher education, as follows:
First, university libraries and nonlinear learning spaces have a clear connection in
terms of using technology to enhance learning. For example, tools such as augmented
reality (AR), virtual reality (VR), and learning management systems (LMSs) blur the bound-
aries between formal and nonlinear learning, allowing students to access resources and
participate in learning activities wherever they are [16,30]. The integration of these technolo-
gies not only supports formal academic work, but also promotes nonlinear self-directed
learning, thereby cultivating a culture of continuous education.
Second, the user-centered design of library spaces is highly consistent with the princi-
ples of balanced learning. Both environments focus on flexibility, comfort, and access to
resources that meet different learning preferences. For example, the exquisite furniture and
open spaces in libraries are suitable for both individual and group learning. The design
meets the needs of nonlinear learners for flexible environments that can adapt to various
activities [20,24]. This overlap highlights the importance of academic libraries designing
hybrid spaces that support reconfigured and spontaneous learning.
In addition, both academic libraries and loop learning spaces are committed to pro-
moting accessibility and accessibility. Libraries have historically been open to all students,
providing resources and support, regardless of their background or academic ability. Simi-
larly, loop learning spaces are designed to provide students with a comfortable environment
where they can engage in self-directed learning without the confinement of formal campus.
This shared emphasis on accessibility helps to close the gap in educational opportunity,
ensuring that all students have the tools they need to succeed. Social interaction is an-
other commonality. Both academic libraries and loop learning spaces provide students
with opportunities for social interaction that support learning. In libraries, spaces such as
group study rooms and collaborative workspaces promote peer learning and knowledge
sharing. Formal learning spaces similarly emphasize collaboration, encouraging students
to participate in group discussions and collaborative projects. This emphasis on social
learning helps to build a sense of community, which is essential for academic success and
personal development.
In addition to the above analysis, this study also found that the keywords in the two
research fields have many connections based on the keyword citation burst analysis chart of
the previous two sets of data, which further proves the commonality and similarity between
the two topics. For example, the keyword “Virtual Design” in the research on university
library space design and the keyword “Technology” in the research on informal learning,
the two keywords appeared in the recent years and had a high intensity value (as shown in
 university library space design and the keyword “Technology” in the research on infor-
mal learning, the two keywords appeared in the recent years and had a high intensity
value (as shown in Figures 7 and 8), which reflected that, in recent years, whether it is the
Sustainability 2025, 17, 2480 16 of 27
research on university library space design or informal learning in higher education envi-
ronments, they have paid great a ention to the introduction of intelligent technology. Fig-
ure 9 summarizes and presents
Figures this
7 and 8), correlation
which more
reflected that, intuitively.
in recent In Figure
years, whether 9, the
it is the blueonarea
research university
library space design or informal learning in higher education environments, they have
is the keyword about university library space design, and the red area is the keyword
paid great attention to the introduction of intelligent technology. Figure 9 summarizes and
about informal learning in higher
presents education
this correlation more environment. The keywords
intuitively. In Figure withis similarities
9, the blue area the keyword about
or connections in theuniversity
two research fieldsdesign,
library space are compared
and the redand presented,
area is the keyword and
abouttheinformal
“research
learning in
direction” in the middle is a summary of the research direction of the two groups of in
higher education environment. The keywords with similarities or connections re-the two
lated keywords. It can be seen that in the research directions of “Technology”, “Learning
research fields are compared and presented, and the “research direction” in the middle is a
summary of the research direction of the two groups of related keywords. It can be seen
Related”, “Satisfaction”, “Service Related”, “Design”, “Innovative Space”, “Future Per-
that in the research directions of “Technology”, “Learning Related”, “Satisfaction”, “Service
spective”, and “Study Subjects”,
Related”, the two
“Design”, topics Space”,
“Innovative have certain
“Futurecommonalities
Perspective”, and and “Studysimilari-
Subjects”, the
ties. two topics have certain commonalities and similarities.

Figure 9. CommonalityFigure
and 9.
similarity analysis
Commonality diagram
and similarity baseddiagram
analysis on keywords
based oncitation
keywordsbursts.
citation bursts.

In conclusion, this study, by exploring the connection between academic libraries

In conclusion, this
andstudy,
informalbylearning
exploring thehighlights
spaces, connection between academic
the importance of designinglibraries
academicandlibraries
informal learning spaces,
from thehighlights
perspectivetheofimportance of designing
informal learning academic
spaces. Such learninglibraries from
spaces can not only
the perspective of informal learning
accommodate spaces.
traditional Such activities,
academic learningbut spaces can not
also promote only
new accommo-
learning styles that are
date traditional academic activities, but also promote new learning styles that are The
more interactive, student-centered, and adaptable to technological advances. moreresults of
this discussion provide a basis for developing effective design strategies that can enhance
interactive, student-centered, and adaptable to technological advances. The results of this
the role of academic libraries in supporting informal learning, which will be discussed in
discussion provide adetail
basisinfor
the developing
next chapter. effective design strategies that can enhance the
role of academic libraries in supporting informal learning, which will be discussed in de-
tail in the next chapter.
5. Design Strategies for Informal Learning Spaces in University Libraries
By comparing and analyzing the spatial design of university libraries and informal
learning in higher education environments, we find that designing libraries from the
perspective of informal learning spaces is not only an important direction for academic de-
velopment, but also provides key guidance for developing design strategies (see Figure 10).
This analysis emphasizes that the function of library space should go beyond traditional
knowledge storage, focusing on integrating technology, user-centered approaches, and
optimizing the learning environment to better meet the needs of informal learning. Based
 10). This analysis emphasizes that the function of library space should go beyond tradi-
tional knowledge storage, focusing on integrating technology, user-centered approaches,
Sustainability 2025, 17, 2480 and optimizing the learning environment to be er meet the needs of informal learning.
17 of 27
Based on the above analysis, this chapter proposes three main strategic directions: tech-
nology-driven design, user-oriented approaches, and learning environment optimization.
These strategies
on the are intended
above analysis, to provide
this chapter practical
proposes andstrategic
three main forward-looking
directions: guidance
technology- for the
design and development of university library spaces. They not only meet the
driven design, user-oriented approaches, and learning environment optimization. needs of
These
strategies are intended to provide practical and forward-looking guidance for the design
digital and personalized learning, but also respond to the needs of higher education for
and development of university library spaces. They not only meet the needs of digital and
diversified and flexible learning spaces. The following sections will elaborate on these
personalized learning, but also respond to the needs of higher education for diversified
three aspects.
and flexible learning spaces. The following sections will elaborate on these three aspects.

Figure 10. Design strategies for informal learning spaces in university libraries.
Figure 10. Design strategies for informal learning spaces in university libraries.
5.1. Technology-Driven Design for Informal Learning Spaces in University Libraries
5.1. Technology-Driven Design
In order to meet the for Informal
changing needs ofLearning Spaces intechnology-driven
informal learning, University Libraries
strategies
areInneeded
order when
to meet the changing
designing needs
university of informal
library learning,
spaces. These technology-driven
strategies should focus onstrate-
gies are needed
feasible when designing
and easy-to-implement university
methods library
to integrate spaces.technologies
advanced These strategies
into theshould
spatial focus
layout of the library. These strategies should not only improve the
on feasible and easy-to-implement methods to integrate advanced technologiesfunctionality of the
into the
library, but also ensure that the space is adaptable and interactive. Below, specific design
spatial layout of the library. These strategies should not only improve the functionality of
methods will be proposed and explained in conjunction with the latest research results.
the library, but also ensure that the space is adaptable and interactive. Below, specific de-
sign methods
5.1.1. will
Artificial be proposed
Intelligence (AI) and explained in conjunction with the latest research re-
sults. Artificial intelligence (AI) is driving the transformation of university libraries from
traditional knowledge storage centers to intelligent, personalized learning spaces. AI-
5.1.1. Artificial
enabled Intelligence
informal (AI) break the traditional information acquisition model and
learning spaces
improve the autonomy and interactivity of learning. Overall, AI can optimize library
design through intelligent learning recommendations, interactive learning spaces, and
environmental adaptive systems.

Intelligent Learning Recommendation Systems

First, the intelligent learning recommendation system can dynamically adjust collec-
tion recommendations and learning resource layout based on students’ learning habits
Sustainability 2025, 17, 2480 18 of 27

and needs. For example, AI can analyze students’ search behavior, recommend personal-
ized electronic resources or physical books to them, and automatically adjust the visual
information display of the learning space [43].

Interactive Learning Spaces

A practical approach is to create hybrid spaces that integrate digital and physical
environments. This includes designing modular areas to meet the needs of various activities,
such as individual learning, collaborative projects, and digital exploration. For example,
introducing shared digital whiteboards and interactive desktops in learning areas can
enable the integration of physical notes and digital data, promoting hybrid learning [44]. In
addition, using augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) for space division enables
libraries to provide immersive learning experiences while optimizing the use of physical
space. Lee (2023) demonstrated AR-based spatial visualization that enables students to
preview and customize the layout of a specific academic activity. Libraries can adopt similar
technologies and integrate virtual modeling tools to allow users to interact while planning
projects or studying.
Libraries can also set up dedicated areas for immersive technologies, such as AR/VR
stations. These areas are equipped with head-mounted devices, haptic devices, and gesture
recognition systems. These technologies not only support experiential learning, but also
interactive visualization, which is particularly suitable for disciplines such as medicine,
engineering, and design [45]. Specific implementation methods include appointment-based
immersive labs where students can conduct virtual field trips, simulations, or interactive
tutorials. Libraries can also provide loanable VR kits to enable students to conduct informal
learning outside the library, which meets the flexibility sought by modern students.

Environmental Adaptive Systems

Adaptive environments are essential to support dynamic user needs. A key design
strategy is to embed smart infrastructure, such as lighting, temperature, and noise control
systems supported by the Internet of Things (IoT). These systems adjust environmental
conditions in real time based on user preferences to improve comfort and concentration. For
example, Warwick (2017) noted that dynamic lighting systems can improve attention and
user satisfaction in learning spaces. By adjusting brightness and color temperature to create
an environment more conducive to concentration, simulating natural light for learning,
and providing warm tones for relaxation or informal discussion [46], these systems not
only reduce eyestrain, but also coordinate with the human body clock, thereby improving
attention and overall user satisfaction in learning spaces.
Although the application of AI may partially replace traditional library functions [47],
AI still faces challenges in terms of information transparency, ethics, and algorithmic
fairness [43]. Human librarians are still irreplaceable in critical thinking, interdisciplinary
research, and information literacy education [48]. Therefore, in the future, university
libraries can tend to a human–computer collaborative model, that is, AI enhances the
efficiency of information acquisition, and librarians focus on high-level academic guidance
to ensure the balanced development of digital technology and humanistic values.

5.1.2. Combining ALFIN with Digital Humanities

An important aspect of modern library design is the integration of ALFIN with digital
humanities, which can greatly enhance informal learning experiences. As mentioned by
Hartsell-Gundy (2020) and Millson-Martula (2020), digital humanities offer great potential
for libraries to make scholarly resources more interactive, accessible, and accessible to
a global audience [18,49]. Incorporating digital humanities tools into informal learning
Sustainability 2025, 17, 2480 19 of 27

spaces can help students to interact with digital collections, develop critical thinking, and
improve data analysis, content creation, and scholarly research skills.
For example, libraries can design interactive digital humanities areas where students
can access and manipulate datasets, create digital projects, and conduct research in real-
time collaboration. These areas can be configured with software tools suitable for digital
text analysis, data visualization, and multimedia creation to support individual and collab-
orative learning. These tools not only provide practical learning opportunities, but also
help students gain a deeper understanding of the academic process, making learning more
immersive and interdisciplinary [18].
In addition, libraries can integrate collaborative digital platforms in these areas to
promote interdisciplinary collaboration among students and interact in real time to promote
the exchange and sharing of ideas. Through such a design, students can participate in vir-
tual academic lectures, peer learning, or community-based research projects, thus adapting
to an educational environment that increasingly values collaboration and interaction.

5.1.3. Information Literacy (ALFIN) and Collaborative Digital Tools

In addition to integrating digital humanities, information literacy (ALFIN) should
also be at the core of the design of informal learning spaces. Libraries should provide
environments that help students to use information critically, including providing tools and
systems that promote information evaluation, data literacy, and the ethical use of digital
resources. For example, libraries can design information literacy training areas equipped
with digital devices for personal learning and research support, such as academic search
tools, citation generators, plagiarism detection systems, etc.
To support personalized learning, libraries can create soundproofed study cubicles
that are equipped with personal screens, wireless charging devices, and AI-driven digital
assistants, designed for students who need a quiet environment for independent tasks.
Libraries that adopt this design have shown improvements in student satisfaction and
productivity, especially among students involved in high-intensity research activities.
In addition, libraries can integrate interactive, gamified platforms to encourage stu-
dents to participate in the learning of information literacy content through challenges,
questions and answers, and reward mechanisms. Some research pointed out that gamifica-
tion elements can increase student engagement, make the learning process more interesting,
and improve learning outcomes [49].

5.1.4. Incorporating 5G-Enhanced Connectivity

5G technology provides a solid foundation for seamless high-speed connectivity.
Libraries can deploy 5G-enabled mobile learning pods to allow students to access cloud
applications and collaborate on and off campus. In addition, live content broadcast rooms
equipped with 5G networks can support virtual guest lectures and cross-institutional
research discussions [15].
By implementing these strategies, academic libraries can develop into hybrid ecosys-
tems that support informal learning, adopting innovative technology-driven designs. This
ensures that libraries can meet the changing needs of students and educators while im-
proving overall learning outcomes. Based on the above research foundation, this paper
summarizes the framework for implementing these technological measures (Figure 11),
which provides theoretical guidance for the subsequent design of informal learning spaces
in libraries.
 proving overall learning outcomes. Based on the above research foundation, this paper
summarizes the framework for implementing these technological measures (Figure 11),
Sustainability 2025, 17, 2480 which provides theoretical guidance for the subsequent design of informal learning
20 of 27
spaces in libraries.

Figure 11. Implementation framework of technology-driven design.

Figure 11. Implementation framework of technology-driven design.
5.2. User-Oriented Design for Informal Learning Spaces in University Libraries
5.2. User-Oriented Design for Informal Learning Spaces in University Libraries
Designing informal learning spaces in academic libraries requires a user-oriented
Designing
approach informal learning
that emphasizes spacesaccessibility,
adaptability, in academic and
libraries requires
inclusion. Byaintegrating
user-oriented ap-
action-
proach
able that emphasizes
strategies adaptability,
and best practices from accessibility,
contemporary and inclusion.
literature, By integrating
libraries can createactiona-
spaces
ble strategies and best practices from contemporary literature, libraries can create
that effectively support diverse learning needs and preferences. This section will focus spaces
on
that effectively
specific, support diverse
evidence-based learning
strategies needs and
and provide preferences.
practical designThis section
guidance towill focusthe
enhance on
specific, evidence-based strategies and provide practical
functionality and user experience of informal learning spaces. design guidance to enhance the
functionality and user experience of informal learning spaces.
5.2.1. Flexibility and Personalization
5.2.1.Flexibility
Flexibilityisand
thePersonalization
cornerstone of effective informal learning spaces. Modular and re-
Flexibility
configurable is the cornerstone
furniture, of effective
such as movable tables informal
and chairslearning spaces.walls,
and partition Modular and re-
are essential
configurable furniture, such as movable tables and chairs and partition
in providing users the ability to adjust the environment according to their immediate walls, are essential
in providing
needs [19]. Theusers the ability
practical to adjust
applications theapproach
of this environmentincludeaccording to their
implementing immediate
zoning strate-
needs [19]. The practical applications of this approach include implementing
gies with adjustable furniture in different areas to support seamless transitions between zoning strat-
egies with learning
individual adjustable andfurniture in different areas
group collaboration. to support
For example, seamless(2022)
Mpungose transitions between
demonstrated,
individual learning and group collaboration. For example, Mpungose
in a case study, that modular workstations with writable surfaces facilitate collaborative (2022) demon-
strated, in a case
brainstorming study,
while that modular
maintaining workstations
the option with writable
of independent surfaces
focus [30]. facilitate
Tampere collab-
University
orative brainstorming while maintaining the option of independent
of Technology in Finland implemented co-designed temporary learning spaces in collabo-focus [30]. Tampere
University
ration with of
itsTechnology in Finland
parent organization. implemented
These spaces notco-designed temporary
only encouraged studentlearning spaces
engagement,
in collaboration
but also providedwith its parent
flexibility organization.
for different learning These spaces
styles. not only
The study encouraged
highlighted student
the positive
engagement,
impact of such but also provided
flexible, flexibility
multifunctional for different
spaces on student learning styles.and
satisfaction Theengagement,
study high-
lighted the positive
demonstrating impact of such
the effectiveness of flexible, multifunctional
user-oriented design in spaces on student
promoting dynamic satisfaction
learning
and engagement,
environments [50].demonstrating the effectiveness of user-oriented design in promoting
dynamic learning
To further environments
support [50]. learning, the use of acoustically isolated cubicles
personalized
To further
equipped support personalizeddevices
with technology-enhanced learning,suchtheasuse of acoustically
personal isolatedcharging
screens, wireless cubicles
equippedand
stations, with technology-enhanced
AI-driven devices
digital assistants such as personal
is recommended [51]. screens, wireless
These cubicles charging
are specifi-
stations,
cally and AI-driven
designed for studentsdigital
whoassistants is recommended
need an undisturbed [51]. These
environment to cubicles
carry outare specifi-
reflective
cally designed
tasks. Libraries for
thatstudents who need
have adopted an undisturbed
this design environment
have observed to carry
an increase in userout reflective
satisfaction
tasks.
and Libraries levels,
productivity that have adopted
especially amongthisstudents
design engaged
have observed an increaseactivities.
in research-intensive in user

5.2.2. Inclusion and Accessibility

Creating inclusive spaces that can accommodate diverse users is essential. The im-
portance of incorporating adjustable furniture and clear navigation paths for users with
physical or cognitive disabilities is emphasized [40]. Libraries can adopt universal design
principles by providing adjustable-height tables, tactile floor guides, and visually distinct
signage. In addition, Indiana University Libraries focused on renovations for their Learning
Commons and Scholars’ Commons. These spaces were designed with a clear focus on sup-
Sustainability 2025, 17, 2480 21 of 27

porting both undergraduate students and graduate students/faculty with distinct needs.
The renovations incorporated user feedback to ensure flexibility and accessibility, aiming
to accommodate the diverse academic and research needs of students across different
academic levels [52].
Language diversity is also a growing concern on university campuses around the
world. The use of multilingual digital interfaces and real-time translation tools in collabora-
tive areas ensures equitable access to resources for international students [24]. Libraries that
have implemented these features report increased engagement and interactivity among
multilingual user groups, especially in team projects.

5.2.3. Open and Collaborative Environments

Open floor plans and dedicated collaborative and quiet study areas are essential to
balancing the needs of diverse users. The advantage of open layouts is that they reduce
physical barriers and promote spontaneous peer interactions [19]. For example, strategically
placed writable whiteboards and glass walls in these areas can help students to visually
present and share ideas. Integrating writable surfaces in group study areas improves
brainstorming efficiency and encourages active participation [35].
For collaborative environments, equipping discussion rooms with interactive touch-
screens and shared document platforms facilitates group work [53]. These rooms can
include virtual whiteboards and collaborative software to help students to seamlessly
integrate digital and physical workflows.
At the University of Nebraska, Lincoln, a study compared the use of informal learning
spaces in both the library and the student union. It found that, while both spaces were
designed to foster collaboration, students often used these spaces for individual study. Key
design features like comfortable furniture and natural lighting played a significant role
in encouraging student engagement. This finding emphasizes the need for designs that
support both individual study and group collaboration within the same space [54].

5.2.4. Digital Integration and User Support

Libraries can adopt digital tools to enhance the user experience. Antasari (2022)
pointed out that mobile applications and self-service terminals play an important role
in resource search, space reservation, and navigation. Integrating these tools can reduce
operational barriers and allow users to focus more on their learning goals. In addition,
Loughborough University, UK, integrated digital tools into its informal learning spaces,
emphasizing the importance of flexibility and adaptability in supporting diverse learning
activities. The university’s design approach showed that students’ learning preferences
varied based on factors such as academic level and campus geography, highlighting the
need for spaces that can evolve with student needs [55].
Furthermore, gamification elements such as leaderboards for collaborative learning
rooms or achievement badges for resource exploration can increase user engagement [24].

5.2.5. Continuous Improvement Through Feedback

A user-oriented design process must include iterative improvement based on user
feedback. Libraries can implement a framework for continuous evaluation through periodic
surveys, workshops, and suggestion platforms [30]. For instance, rapid prototyping of new
layouts or furniture arrangements followed by user testing enables libraries to identify and
address evolving needs effectively.
By implementing modular and reconfigurable layouts, inclusive design features, and
collaborative tools, libraries can create informal learning spaces that are flexible, open, and
user-centered. Integrating advanced digital systems and maintaining an iterative design
process further ensures that these spaces can evolve in sync with user expectations. The
Sustainability 2025, 17, 2480 22 of 27

combination of these strategies provides libraries with a solid framework that supports
diverse learning practices while fostering innovation and creativity.

5.3. Learning Environment Optimization for Informal Learning Spaces in University Libraries
5.3.1. Spatial Design and Layout
Spatial layout plays a key role in supporting diverse learning activities in informal
learning spaces. A well-organized layout promotes both individual and collaborative
learning, while flexible design enables the space to adapt as user needs change. The
following strategies focus on creating layouts that are adaptable, versatile, and conducive
to a variety of learning styles.

Zone Layout for Task-Specific Spaces

Different learning tasks require different spatial layouts and atmospheres. For example,
quiet, focused learning areas need to minimize distractions, while collaborative areas are
suitable for more open and dynamic layouts. Chen et al. (2022) emphasized the importance
of dividing different areas to meet these needs, including focused learning areas, group
collaboration areas, and social interaction areas [56].
When designing spatial layouts, the spatial layout of academic libraries is optimized
through user feedback, with a focus on clarifying functional areas for quiet, autonomous,
collaborative, and multifunctional activities, and using simulation models to determine
zoning requirements by collecting quantitative and qualitative data on user preferences [19].
Through these methods, spaces with clearly divided areas for different activities are de-
signed. For example, quiet study areas should be isolated from group work areas to reduce
distractions. Collaborative areas should have large tables, flexible seating arrangements,
and open layouts to promote communication and teamwork. However, it is undeniable
that there are also studies that have shown that the hybrid integration of flexible and fixed
layouts can promote both dynamic group work and uninterrupted individual learning [57].

Modular and Flexible Furniture Systems

Flexible furniture systems are essential to creating adaptable spaces that can easily
accommodate different sizes and activities. For example, the University of Iowa Learning
Commons integrates modular furniture that allows users to configure the space to suit
their needs—whether studying alone or collaborating in groups [58]. Additionally, Wuhan
University Library uses flexible and movable seating in its space renovation, integrating
space design with user learning experience, allowing the library to meet the different needs
of students while maintaining visual and physical accessibility.
For specific strategies, lightweight, movable furniture can be used that can be easily
rearranged to support individual and group work. Furniture should be ergonomic and
provide comfort for long periods of use. Include a variety of seating options, such as single
chairs, sofas, and larger tables to ensure flexibility and responsiveness. In addition, when
it is necessary to balance the relationship between privacy and social interaction in the
learning space, cluster seating areas can be used for collaboration near high-traffic areas [59]
to achieve both privacy and social interaction in the same space.

Acoustic Considerations in Layout Design

Acoustic performance is a key factor in optimizing spatial functionality. Open layouts
are common in informal learning environments and often result in noise-related distractions.
Strategic furniture placement and acoustic treatments can mitigate these issues.
When designing, flexibility can be gained through the use of acoustic materials such as
sound-absorbing panels, partitions, and furniture designed to reduce noise. For example,
modular partitions can be used to separate noisy group work areas from quiet learning
 Sustainability 2025, 17, 2480 23 of 27

spaces, creating acoustically balanced areas. Additionally, furniture can be arranged in a

way that creates visual and auditory separation, helping to manage sound levels [60].

5.3.2. Environmental Comfort and Well-Being

The comfort of the physical environment is a key element in designing informal
learning spaces as it directly impacts cognitive performance, emotional well-being, and
user engagement. Key strategies include integrating natural light through large windows
and skylights, complemented by adaptive artificial lighting systems that cater to different
zone functions [27]. Thermal and acoustic comfort can be achieved through smart climate
control systems, sound-absorbing materials, and clear spatial zoning to separate high-
activity and quiet areas [38]. Additionally, biophilic design elements, such as green walls,
natural materials, and nature-inspired aesthetics, enhance the overall ambiance, reduce
stress, and promote cognitive benefits [34]. These measures create a comfortable and
productive environment for diverse learning activities.
For a detailed breakdown of these strategies, including specific design measures
and their benefits, please refer to the above table (Figure 12). It outlines actionable steps
such as employing zoned lighting designs [27], introducing soundproof study pods, and
incorporating nature-inspired elements, supported by case studies and evidence from
Sustainability 2025, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 24 of 28
research [34,38]. These practices ensure that library spaces are not only functional and
adaptable, but also inviting and conducive to sustained learning and collaboration.

Figure 12. Design strategies of environmental comfort and well-being.

Figure 12. Design strategies of environmental comfort and well-being.
6. Conclusions
6. Conclusions
In this study, we conducted a scientometric review of informal learning spaces in
Inuniversity
this study, we conducted
libraries, a the
analyzing scientometric review
relationship of informal
between learning
library space designspaces in
and informal
university libraries,
learning analyzing
in higher the relationship
education. between
Using CiteSpace library space
software, design and analysis
the bibliometric informalof the
learning in higher education. Using CiteSpace software, the bibliometric analysis of the
Web of Science Core Collection revealed that digital technologies, such as augmented re-
ality (AR), virtual reality (VR), and 5G, are reshaping library spaces to support hybrid
learning environments. This study emphasized user-centered design strategies, including
Sustainability 2025, 17, 2480 24 of 27

Web of Science Core Collection revealed that digital technologies, such as augmented
reality (AR), virtual reality (VR), and 5G, are reshaping library spaces to support hybrid
learning environments. This study emphasized user-centered design strategies, including
flexibility, comfort, and inclusion, as key factors in promoting diverse learning activities.
University libraries are moving beyond traditional roles to become dynamic learning
centers, enhancing student experiences through collaborative and flexible spaces. The
importance of this study lies in that it provides a structured approach to understand the
relationship between space design and informal learning and provides valuable insights
for future library development and optimization of learning environments.
However, the evolving functions of academic libraries raise a critical question about
the definition of the term “library” itself. Traditionally, libraries have focused on physical
collections of books and multimedia resources [7]. With the rise of digital resources and
repurposed spaces for collaborative, informal, and tech-enhanced learning, one must ask:
are these spaces still libraries in the traditional sense, or do they represent a new category
of educational space? This shift necessitates a reassessment of libraries in the digital
age. Libraries are increasingly being seen as adaptable, multifunctional spaces that foster
learning and innovation, a view critical to their continued relevance in modern education.
In line with this shift, university libraries are increasingly recognized as “third
spaces” [61], not only serving as repositories of knowledge, but also fostering collabo-
ration and social interaction. These spaces support engagement and community-building,
highlighting the library’s evolving role as a hub for academic and social activity. Fur-
thermore, university libraries also play a significant role in supporting the achievement
of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly in quality education and social
inclusion. By providing equitable access to information and promoting open knowledge,
libraries contribute to SDGs, fostering social change and ensuring that knowledge is acces-
sible to all [62,63].
Despite the wide scope of this review, this study has some limitations. It relied only
on the Web of Science Core Collection, potentially overlooking relevant studies in other
databases like Scopus or Google Scholar, as well as non-English literature. Furthermore,
some of the latest digital innovations, particularly in AI, machine learning, and immersive
technologies, may not be fully reflected. This review mainly focused on bibliometric
analysis, lacking qualitative exploration of user experience and specific cases, which could
further enrich our understanding of informal learning spaces.
Future research should integrate cutting-edge technologies and new methods to
enhance the design of informal learning spaces in academic libraries. Big data and machine
learning can help to understand spatial behavior, leading to data-driven design strategies.
AI can optimize library environments in real-time, adapting to users’ needs for quiet
learning, collaboration, or tech-enhanced learning. Additionally, immersive technologies
like VR and AR can complement physical spaces to create a seamless hybrid learning
experience.
Generational shifts are also crucial in future library design. While Baby Boomers
and Gen X saw libraries as quiet, resource-based spaces [7], Millennials and Gen Z have
embraced digital tools, collaborative spaces, and mobile access [4,6]. Gen Alphas, growing
up with AI-driven education, may further shift libraries toward adaptive, AI-powered
learning environments [4]. These changes require ongoing reassessment of library design to
balance traditional functions with evolving digital needs, ensuring that libraries evolve into
dynamic learning environments supporting diverse academic and informal learning needs.
Sustainability 2025, 17, 2480 25 of 27

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, X.C.; methodology, X.C.; software, X.C.; validation, X.C.
and A.C.A.; formal analysis, X.C. and A.C.A.; investigation, X.C. and J.L.; resources, X.C. and A.C.A.;
data curation, X.C. and J.L.; writing—original draft preparation, X.C.; writing—review and editing,
X.C., A.C.A. and J.L.; visualization, X.C.; supervision, A.C.A.; project administration, X.C. and A.C.A.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement: The data used to support the findings of this study are available from
the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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