UNIT I: PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

C. The History of Child-rearing:

Lesson I: Child Development
a) Middle Ages (800s-1300s)
A. Why is it important to study about
-Church did not approve of “family planning”,
child development?
so birth rates are high.
For parents to understand their children and
-Women usually gave birth to 12 to 14 children.
for teachers to bring out the best in children,
they should both understand how children -The average life span was around 35 to 45
develop in order to help nurture them. Children years.
go through different stages in the course of
-Mortality rates are high. Three out of five
their childhood and it is important to be able to
children die before reaching adulthood.
take care of them in each of those stages of
growing physically, cognitively, or emotionally. - Children that has Little or no affection die at a
young age.
-Other countries have a grand celebration
B. STAGES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT
when a child survives and reach 5 years of
Development age.
-Progressive, orderly and continuing changes -No health care benefits, vaccines and
over time in a person’s physical and antibiotics.
neurological structure.
-Children who reached the age of 7 and 8
-A series of age-related changes that happen years old were already sent to work like adults.
across the life span.
-Boys and girls worked in the farm
Stages of Child Development
-Girls who started menstruate were already
-Refers to development of children from birth to sent off to be married.
the age of 18 years. Children develop
physically, intellectually, socially, emotionally,
and linguistically through the years with b) Renaissance (1300s-1600s)
different rates of growth for each category.
-Rebirth of learning and culture in society.
1.INFANCY (Birth to 2 years old-“newborn”,
“Infant”, “Toddler”) – During Infancy, the -In 1693, John Locke had his theory of
child is totally dependent on the caregiver for tabula rasa (bank slate), arguing that our
the fulfillment of his/her needs. The child brains are empty at birth and are waiting to
experiences rapid growth during this period. filled with experiences, and that we are
products of our social environment.
2.CHILDHOOD (“early childhood”-2 to 8
years old, and “middle childhood”-9 to 12 -First time the “childhood” was seen as a
years old) – At this time, the child refines seperate developmental stage, Parents, thus,
his/her skills he/she learned in earlier years, started showing affection to their children.
from basic to more complex skills; he/she also
learns new skills. The most rapid period of
growth and development is seen in early c) Industrial Age (Late 1700s to late
childhood. 1800s)

3.ADOLESCENCE (12-18 years old) – This -Rise of industrialization and machinery.

stage is marked by puberty (11 to 14 years old) -People moved from rural to urban areas
when a child undergoes a series of changes in because many jobs could be found in the
the body. cities.
4.ADULTHOOD – This is the period when an -Children aged 7 were already sent off to work
individual has reached his/her maturity. This is to help support the family. This time in factories
usually above 18 years of age. to do jobs that big adults cannot do because of
their size.
  Adaptive

d) Modern Age or the beginning of 20th E. The Three Domains of Child

century (early 1900s) Development
-Enact child labor laws (The laws, dictated that
a) PHYSICAL DOMAIN
children under age of 16 should not be made to
work in factories, although they were still Growth of the body size and proportions,
allowed to work in their family farm). appearance brain development, sensory
capacities (taste, touch, sight, smell, hearing,
-First time that term “CHILDHOOD” became
and proprioception, which is bodily awareness
legal definition (early twentieth century), not
of your orientation in space), motor skills, and
just a developmental phase’
overall physical health.
-Compulsory Education
Measurable, visible changes in the body of a
-Sunday Schools to be moral citizens, subjects child from birth to old age.
for academics were introduced.
Motor Development-increasing amount of
-Around the time of World II, the concept of control that a child has over his/her body.
adulthood was around 18 years of age,
-Includes the different levels of skills that
commonly due to drafting into the army.
he/she can master.
Gross motor skills (major movements of the
e) Early Twentieth century bofy involving large muscles). Fine motor skills
(Movement of fingers and hands).
-Term “childhood” was divided into stages.
Adaptive Development - ability of a child to
-ADOLSCENCE, in terms of biology, begins do age-appropriate life skills.
wth puberty and ends in a cultural recognition
of adulthood by the age 18, a legal age. -How a child adapts to the the environment and
Relationships within the family shift and peers is able to perform things independently.
become more influential at this stage.
-Others define as self-care.
 “DEVELOPMENT” meaning how we
-Drinking, feeding, toileting, dressing, or
“change”, is not defined by age alone;
avoiding common dangers.
although a person’s age can give an
average or a rough estimate to the -Can develop cognitive and socioemotional
various stages. domains like self-sufficiency, personal
responsibility, and social skills.

D. DOMAINS OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT

b) COGNITIVE DOMAIN
CHILD PSCHOLOGISTS CLASSIFY
DIFFERENT AREAS OF A PERSON’S The changes and progression in the thought
DEVELOPMENT processes—thinking abilities of a person from
infancy up to old age.
 Physical Development
 Motor Development Learning, attention, memory, langauage,
 Cognitive Development thinking, reasoning, problem-solving, creativity,
 Social Development imagination, academic knowledge, everyday
 Emotional Development knowledge; and understanding what is
 Social happening around you.
 Emotional
Jean Piaget different stages in cognitive
 Physical
development.
 Cognitive
 Language/Communication  Cognitive Stages of Jean Piaget
 Physical
1. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2yrs)
 Cognitive
2. Preoperational Stage (2-7yrs)
 Communicative
3. Concrete Operational Stage (7-12yrs)
 Socioemotional
 4. Formal Operational Stage (12yrs-above) 4. Parallel Play ( More than 2 years)-
playing with himself but beside other
Language Development or communicative
children
domain- about how a person’s language or
5. Associate Play (3-4 years)- the child
communication skills develop from crying to
plays with the child near him/her,
laughing, to babbling, and then talking.
sometimes engaging with the other
-Involves one’s ability to comprehend, use, and children once in a while, bt not
manipulate language. coordinating efforts.
6. Social Play (4 and 5yrs) -the child starts
 FOUR ASPECTS OF LANGUAGE to interact with others, being interested
DEVELOPMENT in both the activity and in other children.
1. Phonology-Sounds into words
2. Syntax-creating sentences from these
words using language rules and Example of Psychosocial Development
conventions.
• Self awareness develop during infancy.
3. Semantics-understanding meanings and
• Interdependence and Self-control
shades of meaning
Improves in Childhood.
4. Pragmatics-how to apply language to
• Peers become more important to the
communicate in practical and personal
child during Middle Childhood.
use.
• Search for Identity during Adolescence.

c) PSYCHOSOCIAL DOMAIN Lesson II: Child Development

Includes emotions, personality and social

relationships.
A. WHAT IS THEORY?
Social Development- Child’s relationships
-An organized group of principles that is used
with different kinds of people and his/her
to explain an aspect of child development.
unique way of interacting with them.
B. WHAT IS CHILD DEVELOPMENT
-Includes self-knowledge (self-esteem,
THEORY?
metacognition, sexual identity, and ethnic
identity) and moral reasoning. -Refers to the ideas of pioneers in the field
about how children grow, including their
Emotional Development- how a child’s
physical, cognitive, and emotional development
emotion develop, how he/ she understands
.
and expresses his/her emotions (anger, fear,
anxiety, sorrow, joy, happiness and others) in C. NATURE VS. NURTURE
socially acceptable ways or regulating one’s
There are many intrepretations of how children
emotions, having confrontations without
develop based on certain theories of
violence.
development. There has been a debate as to
Socioemotional Domain - Living at peace what influences development: Nature (our
with oneself in the context of living with others. genes) or nuture (the environment).
According to the developmental systems
-Child learns how to read social cues of other
approach, there is a continous interaction
people to control his or her emotions and
between nurture and nature. This implies that
express them properly. It also includes
the effects of the environment on an organism
understanding others, learning how to
depend on heredity-related characteristics of
symphatize and emphatize with other people.
that person. This also implies that since the
-Includes temperament, interpersonal skills and child’s development can be influenced by the
friendships. environment, we can device interventions or
programs to support a child’s healthy
STAGES OF PLAY development. The challenge is to understand
1. Unoccupied Play (Birth-3 months) how, where, and when it is best to intervene.
2. Solitary Play (Birth- 2 years)
3. Onlooker or spectator behavior (2 years)
Biological Psychoanalysis Cognitive Humanism Behaviorism
Approach Psychology
This focus on Maslow’s theory These theories
Focus on how how innate drives This focuses on the emphasizes believe that all
genetics, of sex and innate mental basic physical behavior is
hormones, and aggression structures needs. It also learned from
neurochemicals (nature) and (perception, believes that the
can influence social upbringing schema, and society environment
behavior during childhood memory) which are influences a through
(nurture) constantly changed person’s self- conditioning
influence by the environment. concept. (stimulus-
behavior. response).

D. MATURATION THEORY First System: Microsystem-consist of

activities and interactions of the child with
-Arnold Gesell (1925)
his/her immediate surroundings or with the
-Children develop individually, at their own closest to the child, and one in which he/sge
pace, but that every child follows the same has direct contact with—parents and family at
sequence. home, teachers and peers at school, or
caregivers at daycare.
-Two major forces that influenced
development: environment (teaches children -Relationship is Bidirectional
how to behave in proper manner) and genetics
-The quality and kind of activities and
(rate of development).
interactions here depend on the characteristics
-believe that children will master tasks when of the child and the characteristics of the adults
their own inner push them to do so (genetics), (parents, teachers, and others) around him/her.
and if they are forced to learn things in
-Most influencial system
advance, they may learn very little about it.
Second System: mesosystem-includes
-Sequential Development
connections or interactions between all the
microsystems related to the child.

E. BIOECOLOGICAL THEORY -Also includes other features of the people in a

child’s immediate surroundings like their
-Urie Bronfenbrenner (1977) socioeconomic status.
-child is affected by everything in his/her Third System: Exosystem – social settings
environment. This includes the varied systems that do not contain the child but still affect
of the environment and the interrelationships his/her experiences in his/her immediate
among the systems that shape a child’s settings.
development.
Fourth System: Macrosystem-includes the
-Aims to highlight multiple layers of influence cultural environment in which a person lives in
on the child. all other systems that affect the child.
-Emphasizes both general trends and -Includez cultural values, customs, traditions,
individual development. laws, resources, or the economy and the
-Believe that hereditary and the environment political system in a child’s country.
acts together to influence child development. Fifth System: Chronosystem- continous
-It is called bioecological theory because it influence of time on all other subsystems and
describes how child development is influenced their interactions.
by a child’s biology, which interacts with -Time Influences child development in terms of
influences from his/her surroundings (ecology) physical, cognitive, and personality
In this theory the child is embedded within a characteristics. Time also influences
complex series of interacting layers that developmental challenges and opportunities
influence or affect development. This model that affect children.
has five subsystems.
 F. BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL MODEL Lesson III: Physical Domain of Growth and
Development
-George L.Engel and Jon Romano (1977)
-The idea of nature plus nurture
A. WHAT IS CHILD’S GROWTH?
-Illustrates that life span development is the
product of tge interaction between biological, Increase in the number and size of cells of the
psychological, and social forces. child, resulting in an increase in body size and
weight.
Biological Forces- one’s organs, physiology,
and genetics—explain the role of genes (DNA) -quantitative changes or increase in size
and hormones in the health care of the
individual.
B. WHAT IS CHILD’S DEVELOPMENT ?
-Include a person’s physical health, genetic
vulnerabilities, disability and IQ, which can be Gradual advancement of skills that the child
affected not by being in a good environment needs to function.
where there is an abundance of books that the
parents read to the child, but ask the nutrition -qualitative changes or functional abilities
that affects the development of the brain.
Psychological Forces – all about cognition, C. WHAT IS DIFFERENTIATION ?
emotion, and motivation.
Process of modification of early cells and
-coping skills, social skills, self-esteem, how we structures to achieve a specific structure that
think, and the way we develop our ideas. has a specific function.
Social Forces – person’s family, community,
and society, including school, peers, and work
environment among others. Physical Growth and Development
SIX STAGES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT

G. PROBABILISTIC EPIGENESIS MODEL 1. Newborn- Birth to One Month

Epigenesis – change in genetic expression as 20 Inches (Height or Length of full-term

a result of environmental influences. newborn)
5-9 pounds (Weight of full-term nnewborn)
-Describes how genetic activity, neutral activity, - Tooth Formation is already in progress.
child behavior, and the environment are all -Tooth buds appear at 11 weeks of fetal
bidirectional related. Development.
-Views development as a product of the
interaction between biological and 2. Infant – One to 12 months (one year)
environmental forces. -Physical Growth is fast
-Includes both the genetic origins of behavior -During first 12 month height increases by 10
and the direct influence of the environment on inches.
the expression of these genes. -5 to 7 ounces weight gain per week. Tripled by
12 months.
-Parents experiences as a child or choices as -Teething begins at six months
adults can affect a child’s own epigenome.
3. Toddler – One to Three Years
-Physical Growth levels off into more gradual
and steady rate up until puberty.
-Increase in height slows down to about 5
inches per year.
-Gain 4.5 to 6.5 pounds per year.
-Bone Development
-20 primary teeth appeared by two years.
 4. Preschooler – Three to Six Years of 2. Myelination-growing a covering called
Age. around the axon part of brain cells up to
18 years old
-Physical Growth is still gradual and steady.
3. Pruning-cutting of brain cells that do not
-Grows 3 inches per year
form connections.
-Gain 4.5 to 6.5 pounds per year
Brain Plasticity (Neuroplasticity) – the ability
5. School Age – Six to 13 years of age of the brain to adapt and change resulting from
experience.
-Child is in primary school, Elementary, or
grade school.
-Growth along developmental maturation spurt
E. BRAIN NETWORKS
during puberty
 Visual Network-Allow us to make sense
-Between Six and 10 years of agr children
of what we see.
grow in height for about 2 inches per year.
 Auditory Network- Allow us to make
-Rapid growth spurtin weight during puberty;
sense of what we hear.
with an average of 30 pounds (Girls) and 52
 Salience Network – help us figure out
pounds (Boys).
what is important in the environment
-Bone Development continues
 Default Mode Network – what we do
-starts to assert independence at home and in
when we’re not thinking or at rest.
school
-Emotional Growth Continues
-Develop good moral values
-Learning to make good decisions F. THE ADOLESCENT BRAIN
Adolescence is a period of rapid brain change.
6. Adolescent – 13 to 18 years During this time with the influx of hormones,
-Teenagers go through drastic physical, the brain becomes very sensitive to new
cognitive, emotional changes during this stage. experiences, like rewards, novelty, and social
-Identity and personality develop experience. In short, they become interested in
-Frontal lobr develop new things and in new people. Their emotions
-cognitively and socioemtional development get very active but the networks involved in
emotion regulation and impulse control are not
9 and 13-girls start puberty yet well developed until later in their 20s. So
11 to 14-boys start puberty we have a situation where there is a lot of
Menarchy-Girls hair growth in the underam, impulsivity and emotional arousal at this stage
breast develop, hip widens, pubic hair, ovaries in life, yet the ability to regulate that arousal is
start to produce eggs and first menstruation. not yet developed. The challenge is the fact
Spermarchy- Boys change voice, grow facial that at this stage, the adolescents are exposed
hair, underarm hair, and pubic hair, testicles to many new things that can potentially lead to
are lower, first ejaculation. negative consequences.

D. WHAT IS BRAIN DEVELOPMENT ? G. WHAT CAN GO WRONG IN BRAIN

DEVELOPMENT?
Complex Series of dynamic and adaptive
processes that are driven by interactions Individual differences- correlated to
between events in cells in our body as a result differences in intelligence, in coping with
of gene expression and from circumstances in stress, or in Socialization
the environment -Can be brought by genes and experiences.
Brain Connections and Function. What do all these imply to the classroom
Three Process of Brain Development teacher and to parents or caregivers? It is
important to provide optimal experiences for
1. Synaptogenesis-proliferation of dendric children. Adults should help keep the brain
branches forming synapses between well-nourished with healthy food as well as
neurons in the nervous system, where exercise for blood circulation to help supply
brain cells sprout branches to connect oxygen to the brain. Opportunities for repeated
one brain cell to many other brain cells. practice to develop skills should be given to
help strengthen synaptic connections in the
brain. Adults can also emphasize the benefits -Motor development also progresses in a
of learning and of appropriate behavior. Adults proximodistal fashion (from center of the body
can provide early education and early; outward to the extremities).
intervention, especially for the first 10 years of
a) Newborn. In this stage, the newborn
life that are a sensitive period for brain
shows limited amounts of motion. The
development.
newborn learns to develop responses to
The brain is part of the nervous system. The any external stimulus. He/she exhibits
nervous system has two main parts: the the grasp reflex, wherein he/she grasps
central nervous system (brain and spinal any object that is placed on his/her
cord) and the peripheral nervous system hand. You may try to put your finger on
(nerves that branch out from the spinal his/her hand, he/she could reach for it
cord). The part of the brain that has an and grasp it. The newborn also shows
important role in motor control is the the startle reflex, where he/she reacts to
cerebellum (“little brain”). If there is any any loud noise or to sudden
dysfunction in the cerebellum, signs will be movements.
seen in motor development.
b) Infant. The term variation refers to the
variation of movements that infants
In each point in development, adaptive control
produce during motor development. As
of movement is affected by perception and
infants experiment through trial and
cognition to plan and guide one's actions.
error with all different movements, this
Social and cultural factors can promote or
experience provides vital input for the
impede motor behaviors. Consequently, motor
developing nervous system. Variation
behaviors create perceptual information,
helps develop a repertoire of efficient
allowing the child to learn about the world
functional movements and allows for
around him/her and make social interactions.
variability, which is knowing what
So you see, motor development is related to
movement to do in a certain situation.
cognitive and socioemotional development as
Limited variation and variability can be
well.
indications of abnormal motor
development.
H. Motor Development
c) Toddler. By this time, the toddler can
Perception in the brain is the ability to see, walk by himself/herself. His/her
hear, or become aware of omething through language skills develop and is now
our senses (sight, hearing, touch, smell, and capable of communicating his/her
taste)It is an outcome of complex functions of wishes with words. He also learns how
the nervous system to say "no." At this stage, he/she
continues to go through emotional
-The capacity for perception is essential for development and learns to regulate
good motor control. his/her emotions. Learning routines like
-It is dependent on normat brain growth and dinnertime routines and bedtime
the development of the sensory nervous routines would help prepare toddlers for
system. routine tasks they would be learning
when they start school.
-The ability to recognize sensory stimuli is the
basis for understanding, learning, and knowing d) Preschooler. At this stage, most
how to react. children enter schools and receive
Patterns in motor development. Motor formal learning. The teacher plays a big
development moves in a cephalocaudal role in a child's life starting from this
pattern. (from head to foot). stage. This time, many children
transition from home to school, move
-Babies start to be able to control. their eyes to through different preschool levels, and
track an object, then later, are able to move then transition to elementary level. The
their head from side to side. preschooler develops both gross motor
-Babies learn to control the trunk of their body skills and fine motor skills. Gross motor
before they can master their extremities. skills are the movements of large
muscles; like walking, running, or
 jumping. Fine motor skills refer to tiny
muscle movements that are precise, like
3. Gender
writing, drawing, cutting, or sewing.
He/she' shows great interest in arts and -As presented earlier this unit, boys grow up
crafts, drawing, and writing. Also differently that girls, especially during puberty.
continues to develop cognitively, Temperaments and interests may also vary.
developing math skills, language and
learning. 4. Exercise and overall health
e) School age. At this stage, the child -Running, climbing, playing ball, sports, yoga,
starts to assert independence at home dancing, and swimming all promote normal
and in school. Emotional growth healthy physical development.
continues. Both parents and teachers
ideally instill good moral values, -Regular exercise changes the anatomy of the
especially at this age. The child should brain, its physiology, and function as well.
learn to make good choices . Thus, 5. Hormones
while he/she should be protected from
adverse elements in the environment, -When our hormones function well, we would
he/she should also learn to face the have normal growth and development.
consequences of his/her actions. However, when there are imbalances , there
f) Adolescent. Adolescents become could be growth defects, behavior problems
better at moving their bodies as they and diseases.
mature. Boys continue to improve in These diseases are:
gross motor skills even unto their early
twenties. They rapidly gain physical • Addison’s disease
speed, strength in jumping and • Cushing’s syndrome
throwing, and endurance. On the other • Hyperthyroidism
hand, girls make modest gains in gross
and fine motor skills until around the age 6. Nutrition
of 14. Beyond this, not much progress is
seen unless they are specifically trained -Breast milk is best for infants and leads to
for a sport or a hobby that requires higher intelligence and improved health. A
these skills. balanced diet without forgetting about fruits
and vegetables would be ideal for growing
children
Lesson IV: Factors Affecting the Physical of
Learners Development
a) CONDITIONS DEVELOP UNDER THE
FACTOR OF NUTRITION
1. Here are some factors that could
affect the growth and development of  Malnutrition (Wrong nutrition) –
a child: usually associated with undernutrition as
a result of deprivation.
1. Heredity  Undernutrition-develops when the
body is deprived of much needed
-passing on of characteristic genetically from vitamins and minerals, causes stunted
one generation to the next, or from parents to growth, delays puberty, and undermines
children. brain development, but only to a limited
2. Environment extent.
 Goiter – develop due to severe iodine
-Environment in which a child is raised can deficiency in our diet.
affect physical growth and development.  Endemic cretinism –found in
-Clean, healthy and safe physical surroundings mountainous areas or other isolated
promote normal physical environment. areas where pregnant woman can be
Disease, toxic stress, accidents, pandemics, severely iodine deficient because of lack
exposure to alcohol, tobacco and toxins in the of access to seafood or to iodized salt.
environment all affect a child’s physical  Fetal Alcohol Syndrome- found in
development negatively. children born to mothers who were
consuming alcohol while pregnant.
  Overnutrition – due to overeating or UNIT II: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
the consumption of particular nutrients. GROUP 2 - SOCIAL STUDIES 1
-can be lead to obesity, diabetes, and/or
LESSON 1: Behaviorism
heart disease.
 Anorexia and Bulimia – eating Cognitive development refers to the process by
disorders which we acquire knowledge and
 Dehydration – when there are not understanding through thought, experience,
enough fluids in the body, which may and our senses.
eventually disrupt bodily functions and
can lead to death. Cognition includes the following:
 Knowing
7. Sleep
 Remembering
-It is important to get enough sleep because
well-rested children have better and do better  Understanding
in school; having higher academic  Communicating
achievement.
 Learning
Sleeping Hours
Before behaviorism, people studied how
• 11 hours- preschoolers individuals think but relied on subjective
• Daytime naps- 3 to 5 years old interpretations of unconscious thoughts and
dreams, as seen in the works of Freud and
• 11 to 12 hours- 6 years old Jung.
• 8 to 10 hours- Adolescent Behaviorism arose as a countermovement to
Sleep Deprivation-one of the contemporary these approaches. It focuses on measurable,
issues. observable behavior. Behaviorists did not test
for thinking because it was not possible to
Studies shows that 85% of teens do not have measure such things at that time. For them,
enough sleep, while about 7 % have delayed control of behavior is in the environment
sleep, a kind of sleep disorder. (external), and learning (conditioning) occurs
when there is a change in behavior.
8. Familial Influence
Behaviorism assumes that the learner is
-Investing time, energy, and love in the family
essentially passive and, like a blank slate,
can lead to happy children who have normal
simply responds to environmental stimuli.
physical development.
This involves the association or pairing of
9. Geographical Influences
stimuli and involuntary behavior.
-Where a child lives usually influences how the
Ivan Pavlov (1897-1902)
child would turn out to be. Weather, affects
biorhythms, allergies, and other health The work of Ivan Pavlov contributed to the
conditions. behaviorist school of thought, which is an
empirically rigorous science focused on
10. Socioeconomic status
observable behaviors and NOT on
-Children who grow up in deprived unobservable internal mental processes, unlike
environments and into families with low the work of Freud.
socioeconomic status (SES) do not get the
Pavlov was conducting research about the
opportunity that children in well-off families get,
digestive system using dogs as his subjects.
like nutrition, sanitation, medical and health
He noticed that dogs salivate when they smell
services, or schooling. When it comes to
their food. He figured that this is a form of
language development, studies show that
learning.
among families with low SES, there are
variations in language acquisition, depending Learning is defined as the process of acquiring,
on how much language is used toward the via experience, new and enduring information
child. or behaviors. This can be done through
association, observation, or thinking. Learning
allows us to adapt to our environment and
survive.
This is called associative learning, where a ride a car that has a loud sound as a reminder
subject associates or links certain stimuli, for wearing the seatbelt, the sound will only
events, or behaviors together in the process of disappear if you wear the seatbelt.
conditioning. This explains how we are
conditioned by our environment. This was later
known as classical conditioning, which is a Negative reinforcement is not punishment.
type of learning in which one learns to link two Negative reinforcement removes the aversive
or more stimuli and anticipate events. Classical or annoying event to increase desired
conditioning is all about forming associations behavior.
between stimuli.
John B. Watson (1920)
Punishment decreases behavior
Watson conditioned a child (Little Albert) to
fear a white rat. This was done by pairing the Positive punishment is like when the traffic
rat with a loud, scary noise. This fear was later police gives you a speeding ticket, or when you
generalized to include other furry animals and are given a spanking or a scolding when you
objects. do something bad.

This was a highly unethical experiment. Negative punishment is like when the traffic
Psychologists wonder if adults also have police removes or takes away your driver’s
conditioned emotions, as many adults have license when you did some traffic violation,
phobias of certain things. It is also speculated when an adult takes away your favorite toy,
whether new conditioning can undo old when you go to sleep without dinner, or when
conditioning. your privilege to go out and play is removed
because you broke some rule or did something
Classical conditioning deals with involuntary bad.
behavior—pairing or associating an
unconditioned stimulus that elicits an The term “reinforcement” stands for
unconditioned (involuntary) response with a something that increases desired behavior,
neutral stimulus, until the neutral stimulus and the term “punishment” stands for
elicits the same response. This conditioning something that decreases unwanted behavior.
can also be extinguished by stopping the The term “positive” in both instances means
pairing of the unconditioned and conditioned adding or giving something, while the term
stimuli. “negative” in both instances means removing
or taking away something.
Operant Conditioning
A primary reinforce is an innately reinforcing
This type of conditioning involves voluntary stimulus; it occurs naturally, like salivation in
behavior. the sight of food. This does not have to be
learned. It is something that would satisfy a
Burrhus Frederic Skinner
biological need.
Skinner proposed that children “operate” in
Shaping is a procedure in operant
their environment, seek out rewards, and avoid
conditioning in which reinforces guide
punishment.
behaviors closer and closer to successive
The associative learning he proposed is about approximations of the desired behavior.
associating our own behavior with
Extinction is when the conditioned stimulus
consequences.
and the unconditioned stimulus are repeatedly
Reinforcement increases behavior not paired until the conditioned stimulus no
longer elicits the conditioned response.
Positive reinforcement is a stimulus that,
when presented after a response, strengthens Partial or Intermittent reinforcement is when
the response, like giving food after the rat reinforcement is given only part of the time.
pushes a lever or giving the child a cookie This results in a slower acquisition of a
when he/she says “please.” response or behavior. However, this is also
less susceptible to extinction.
Negative reinforcement is any stimulus that,
when removed after a response, strengthens Lee Canter (1976). Lee Canter speaks of
the response. This means taking away or classroom behavior management. He explains
removing an upsetting stimulus, like when you
how to implement a behavior management motivation), should be used only in training
cycle in the classroom. animals, while humans should learn in other
ways and should have intrinsic motivation to do
things.
The behavior management cycle consists of
Behaviorism is very popular in classrooms like
effectively giving clear directions, sing
getting stars or stickers for accomplishing a
behavioral narration, and taking corrective
school task. This is also used in other walks of
action. Canter explains how to use this in
life, like getting stickers or points for frequently
classroom behavior management, which is
buying from a certain store or café, or
done so teachers can teach and students can
frequently using a particular airline while
learn without any disruptive behavior.
collecting reward points.
According to Canter, teachers can effectively
teach if they use three levels of structure. In gamification of class lessons, there are point
systems in place, badges, or increases in
levels that all act as reinforcements for a game
Level 1 is “Teacher-managed Level” (highly well played or a task well done. Although these
teacher-directed), which is used at the are already combined with some problem-
beginning of the school year, or when trying to solving and critical thinking activities, the
turn around a disruptive classroom. Its primary excitement of getting rewards still motivates
focus is teaching students responsible learners to actively participate in school
behavior. lessons.
Behavior modification operant conditioning
is used to change human behavior.
Level 2 is “Transitioning to Student Self-
Management.” This is done when around 90% Direct Instruction, a method of academic
of the class have mastered the teacher’s teaching, is based on operant conditioning. In
behavioral expectations for appropriate direct instruction, teachers follow a certain
behavior. By this time, teachers can focus on sequence of events starting with
both teaching behavior and academic
(a) stating the goals of the lesson, (b)
achievement.
reviewing the previous topic or prerequisite, (c)
presenting new material in small chunks,
accompanied by drills for practice, (d) giving
Level 3 is “Student Self-Management Level,” clear instructions and explanations, € checking
in other words, self-regulation, which is the for understanding by giving plenty of questions,
ultimate goal of any behavior management and (f) giving feedback to let the students know
program. if they are doing it correctly.
Different schools create their own set of rules. Cognitive Behaviorism. Edward C. Tolman
The way the instructions are in depends on the (1929, 1930, 1948) is best known for cognitive
age level and abilities of the children. For very behaviorism. He suggested that the effect of
young children who still cannot read, symbols reinforcement is not on learning but on the
or drawings can be used. Another example of motivation to engage in a certain behavior,
class rules are those used in whole brain which was learned by other means.
classes.
Intervening variables are like the “invisible
These are the class rules: bridges” that connect what we teach to what
 (1) Follow directions quickly; students learn. They’re the things that happen
inside the student’s mind that we can’t see
 (2) Raise your hand for permission to directly, but that influence their learning.
speak;
Latent learning is learning that shows up later.
 (3) Raise your hand for permission to leave This means you can know things without acting
your seat; upon them. This also means that learning can
 (4) Make smart choices; and happen without reinforcement and learning
does not necessarily mean a change of
 (5) Keep your learning community happy. behavior.
Some people may think that behaviorism, Implications of Behaviorism for Teaching.
which uses external motivation (extrinsic
Teachers can model correct behaviors and information that gets in, and this causes certain
provide extrinsic motivation to increase or outcomes. Cognitivists believe that even more
maintain classroom engagement or important than going through an experience is
participation of students. how people process their experience. You can
have several people go through the same
Teachers could set clear boundaries, offer
experience, but each of them would learn from
incentives, use token economies, tickets, stars,
the same experience in different ways. This
points, and so on for reading books, class
can lead to having very different behaviors
participation, or other desired behaviors.
from each other, since each person has their
Teachers should consistently use
own way of thinking. They say it is our
consequences or corrections when students
thoughts--not external events--that affect how
are not doing tasks or not doing them correctly.
we feel and behave. It is just like saying it is
In language learning. Behaviorism can be used not the situation you are in, but how you
by providing practice, rehearsal, correction perceive the situation, that determines how you
when not done correctly, and reinforcement feel and behave. Piaget's Theory of Cognitive
when done correctly. Development Jean Piaget's (1936, 1950)
theory of cognitive development presents how
Reinforcements that are interesting and a wild creates a mental model of the world. He
beneficial to the child can be used. believes that cognitive intelligence not a fixed
Teaching kids to ask for help when they get trait, but rather a process which occurs as a
frustrated in doing homework or other task is child's biological maturation and his/her
also another skill that can be taught using this interaction with the environment. This theory is
method. focused on the development rather than the
process of learning specific information or
specific behaviors. In his observations of
Cognitivism is a theoretical framework for children, Piaget noticed discrete stages of
understanding the mind that gained popularity cognitive development, marked by distinct
in the 1950s. it was a response to differences and not a gradual increase in
Behaviorism's sole emphasis on observable complexity of behaviors or ideas. Piaget
outward behavior without emphasizing focused on mental events, logical reasoning,
cognition. THINK Cognitivism, supported by and knowledge structure. He believed that
Gestalt psychologists, is the acquisition of children are active and motivated learners, and
knowledge and skill by mental or cognitive that children are active processors of
processes. Cognitivists share with behaviorists information. Piaget believes that children
the belief that the study of learning should be organize what they learn from experience, and
objective, and learning theories should be interaction with the physical environment is
developed from empirical research. In contrast critical for cognitive development. Piaget
to behaviorism, Cognitivism is less concerned observed that children think in different ways at
with outward behaviors, and more concerned different age levels, and that cognitive
with inner processes or inner mental activities development occurs in stages controlled by
to understand how people learn. The results of maturation. He believes everyone passes
watching, touching, or experiencing are major through these stages, although there may be
points in cognitive learning. According to the individual differences in the rate at which we go
cognitive theory, learning happens through a through them. He identified four stages of
process of taking in information they receive mental growth, which build on each other. The
through the senses, organizing and storing the age range specified are more or less the
information, and retrieving it to form new average age each child would reach each
meanings when needed, Processes of stage. Sensorimotor stage (0. to 2 years). At
cognitive learning include creating mental this stage, the infant learns about the world
representations of objects and events, as well using its senses (hearing, smell, sight, touch,
as other forms of information processing. taste) and through his her actions; starting with
Cognitivism assumes that knowledge is stored the reflexes, then moving around and exploring
as cognitive symbols or symbolic mental his/her environment. This is why children at
constructions known as schema. The mental this age do not just look at things, but they also
processes therefore try to facilitate symbol touch, smell, listen to, and taste them, most of
connection. Cognitivists consider the mind to the time putting things into their mouth. The
be like a computer, analyzing or processing child begins to use imitation, memory, and
thought. At this stage, they recognize people,
texture, objects, sights, and emotions. By 4
months old, the infant becomes aware of things
Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years)
beyond its own body, then later on learns to do
things intentionally. With an increase in At this stage, children start thinking logically
mobility, there is a consequent increase in about real things they can see and touch. They
cognitive development. During this stage, the understand that just because something looks
infant lives in the present. It seems not to have different, it doesn’t mean it has changed. For
any mental picture in its memory for objects, so example, if you pour water into a different
that to him/her, when he cannot see an object, glass, it’s still the same amount. They can also
that object ceases to exist. This is why when organize objects, put things in order, and solve
you hide a toy even in his/her presence, the simple math problems in their minds. However,
infant will not look for it. This is also why the they still find it hard to think about imaginary or
game of "peek-a-boo" seems very interesting abstract ideas.
to children this age. Later on, at about 8
months, the infant will realize that objects still
exist even when hidden. This cognitive ability is Formal Operational Stage (12 years and up)
called object permanence. The child at this
stage will also move from mere reflex actions When children become teenagers, they can
to goal-oriented activity. Other cognitive think in more advanced ways. They can
abilities that would develop at this stage are imagine different possibilities, understand deep
self-recognition, deferred imitation, and ideas like fairness and love, and solve
representational play. Toward the end of this problems by thinking ahead. They also become
stage, general symbolic function begins to better at seeing different points of view and
appear. Children can be seen making things making decisions based on logic. This stage
stand for something else during their play. helps them understand themselves and the
They realize that words can be used to world around them better.
represent objects and feeling. They begin to be
able to store information about the world as
they know it, show signs of memory, and learn How We Learn: Schemas and Adaptation
how to label it. Children learn by using schemas, which are
Preoperational stage (2 to 7 years). By this mental maps that help them understand things.
stage, the toddler incorporates language in For example, when you go to a restaurant, you
his/her understanding of the world. He/she know what to do—look at the menu, order
acquires the ability to internally represent the food, eat, and pay. These mental maps grow
world through language and mental imagery. and change as children learn more.
Although the child may not see the big picture
of things around him/her at this time, the child
can think in symbolic form. This is the ability to To learn new things, the brain goes through
make one thing, like a certain word or an three steps:
object, stand for something other than itself. At 1. Assimilation– Adding new information to
this stage, the child will have difficulty seeing what we already know. (Example: Calling a
other people's point of view. The child's small dog a “puppy” because it looks like one.)
thinking starts out as "egocentric" or centered
on the child's own view of the world. Later on, 2. Accommodation– Changing what we know
he/she will develop from egocentric speech ("" when something doesn’t fit. (Example:
"me," "myself.," name of child) to "socialized Learning that an airplane isn’t a bird, even
speech." Thinking is categorized into symbolic though it has wings.)
functions and intuitive thoughts. The child has
3. Equilibration– Finding balance in learning.
many fantasies. The child also might think that
When something doesn’t make sense, children
some nonliving things, like toys, can have life
adjust their thinking until it does.
and feelings just like people. This is called
animism. He/she This process helps children understand new
things and grow smarter

Children’s thinking changes as they grow,

helping them understand the world better. 2.2 Jerome Bruner (1915-2016)
Jerome Bruner (1915-2016) emphasized that In the classroom, it is important to relate new
children have an innate ability to learn, with lessons to prior knowledge. In the spiral
cognitive development arising from active curriculum, the teachers gradually build up
interaction, influenced more by social factors previously learned material.
than by biological maturation, as suggested by Bruner is also in favor of "Discovery Learning,"
Piaget. Bruner's flexible stages highlight the where students apply their knowledge
gradual development of cognitive skills, immediately. He believes that if students can
focusing on making information meaningful to apply new information to real material or real
students. He proposed a three-step learning situation, their learning will be enhanced. In
process: first, hands-on action; second, discovery
learning through images; and finally,
transforming that knowledge into language.
Throughout this process, previously learned Discovery learning fosters students' natural
topics are continually reviewed, and teachers curiosity by encouraging them to seek answers
provide structured guidance. Bruner advocated to questions, with the satisfaction of finding
for a focus on fewer concepts studied in depth those answers serving as intrinsic motivation
rather than rapidly covering many topics. rather than relying on external rewards like
stars or stickers. This approach helps students
develop a sense of competence as they solve
-Enactive problems, keeping them engaged and
Leam through movement or action motivated to learn. In contrast, students who
Playing with a ball lack meaningful intellectual experiences in the
-Iconic classroom may become bored and
Leam through images or icons disengaged, potentially leading to dropouts.
Looking at the picture Discovery learning environments resemble
-Symbolic laboratories, where students conduct
Leam through abstract symbols experiments and observe scientific phenomena
Writing an essay firsthand, enhancing their interest in learning.
Watching related films becomes more
engaging for students who have actively
Step 1 Enactive Representation. This happens participated in the experiments, as opposed to
during hands-on experiences. It is best when those who haven't had that experiential
this is done with real-world applications. learning opportunity.
Step 2 Iconic Representation. We now link the
memories of the lesson experience to iconic
pictures. 2.3 David Ausubel (1918)
Step 3 Symbolic Representation. We now use David Ausubel (1918) emphasizes that new
the images we internalized earlier and turn learning builds on what learners already know,
them into abstract language such as aligning with Bruner's view that learning
mathematical symbols. This last phase is also materials must be meaningful. He argues that
called language-based because we are information becomes valuable when learners
actually just learning the appropriate symbols can relate it to broader contexts, enabling them
to express our thoughts. The actual math to apply knowledge beyond the classroom
knowledge was acquired much earlier through rather than just recalling facts for tests.
the hands-on experiences. Ausubel focuses on "deeper learning" and
Bruner's educational theories center on two contends that not all discovery learning is
key concepts: the spiral curriculum and meaningful; instead, he believes that learning
scaffolding. should be sequential and contextual. To
facilitate this, Ausubel advocates for well-
The spiral curriculum involves repeatedly organized instruction and the use of advanced
revisiting core concepts, increasing their organizers to enhance understanding.
complexity with each iteration, building upon
prior knowledge. Scaffolding, a teaching
method Bruner also championed, structures An advanced organizer is a brief introductory
learning activities based on students' existing tool presented to learners before a lesson,
knowledge, providing support that gradually designed to connect their prior knowledge with
diminishes as students become more new material. It helps bridge the gap between
proficient. Bruner believed this approach could what students already know and what they
effectively teach any subject to any child at any need to learn, facilitating comprehension. By
developmental level. providing an organizational framework,
advanced organizers encourage active
listening and promote deeper understanding
Discovery Learning during lectures. Teachers can share these
organizers before class, allowing students to Enclosed in parenthesis are the corresponding
complete them during the lesson, which aids in cognitive processes.
recognizing patterns, grasping key concepts,
and improving knowledge retention.
There are three phases in using the advanced Gain attention (to ensure reception of stimuli)
organizer:
Phase 1: Presentation of the advanced Inform the learners of the objectives of the
organizer. lesson (to establish appropriate expectancies)
This phase has three steps:
Step 1. Clarify the aims of the lesson. 3. Stimulate recall of prior learning (for retrieval
Step 2. Present the advanced organizer. from long-term memory)
Step 3. Prompt awareness of relevant
Present the stimulus/material (to ensure
knowledge and experience.
selective perception)
Phase 2: Presentation of the learning task. In Provide learning guidance (by suitable
this phase, the present learning task is semantic encoding)
presented in a systematic order, while
discussing each aspect one by one, with very Elicit performance (responding)
interactive class discussion between the
teacher and the students. Provide feedback (about the
performance/reinforcement/formative)
Phase 3: Strengthening of cognitive Assess performance (additional response
organization. This phase has four steps:
feedback occasions/summative)
Step 1. Compare and contrast key points.
Step 2. Accurate reception Enhance retention and transfer/arranging
Step 3. Elicit critical approach. practice (generalization/to aid future retrieval
Step 4. Clarify. and transfer of learning)
In using the advanced organizer model, the These events are implemented in various
teacher is more active. Sometimes, learning environments and ensure effective
collaboration should take place. Even if the achievement of desired learning outcomes. 2.5
teacher plays a major role in this setup, he/she Benjamin Bloom (1956) Benjamin Bloom, et al.
is a facilitator. The teacher provides the developed a classification of learning levels
learning experiences and clarifies when known as the Bloom's Taxonomy. It is
students have questions.
commonly used as a guide in education when
writing objectives of a lesson, in creating
Robert Gagne (1965) Robert Gagne is known presentations, in learning activities, or in
for the science of instruction. His book The creating assessment. Bloom believes that
Conditions of Learning presented mental there are three main domains of learning:
conditions needed for effective learning. He cognitive (thinking), affective (feeling), and
created a process with nine steps of instruction psychomotor (doing). Cognitivism and its
that detailed each element needed for learning. Implications for Teaching Cognitivism has
He theorized that there are five major found its way into cognitive behavior therapy,
categories of learning: al information, cognitive artificial lligence, online games, and
strategies, motor skills, intellectual skills, and reinforcement activities that present prior
attitudes. Gagne believes that various internal knowledge cherna, creating disequilibrium and
and external conditions are essential or each a need to adapt. Cognitivism is widely used in
type of learning. He also believes that each education from analysis of errors in learning,
type of learning requires different types of prior learning misconceptions, memory, how to
instruction. He believes that when it comes to store new Ideas in long-term memory, to
intellectual skills, learning tasks can be teaching strategies and methods. In the
organized in a hierarchy. This would be classroom or in blended/online classes, for
arranged according to complexity, starting with more student-centered learning, cognitivism is
stimulus recognition, and followed by response used to: make instruction relatively short;
generation, procedure following, the use of understand student's thinking and match
terminology, discriminations, concept instructional strategies to student abilities; use
formation, rule application, and problem- concrete props and visuals; anticipate that
solving. Gagne created a list of nine children may not be consistent in seeing
instructional events that would guide teaching. other's point of view; the consider that children
may have different meanings or prior
knowledge for the same word; provide a wide
range of experiences to build a foundation of
The Nature of Learning in Constructivism
learning: enhance the development of
information processing skills of students; - Learning is Incremental: The brain
encourage Individual learning; practice processes limited information at a time, making
flexibility in the curriculum; allow children to learning occur in chunks.
learn through play; arrange for the effective
use of the environment; use developmentally - Learning is Interpretive: Meaning is not
appropriate (DAP) concepts, teaching directly communicated but understood based
materials, and teaching strategies; allow on prior knowledge and context.
students to actively solve problems for - Learning is Iterative: Learning builds up
assimilation and accommodation to occur; over time, and misconceptions, if not corrected,
allow students to learn from each other through can persist.
collaboration and discussion; use discovery
learning (learning by doing and exploring);
teach from concrete to abstract; use advanced 3.3 How to Change Misconceptions
organizers; use graphic organizers to help
structure and relate content; f ollow the nine Conceptions of people about academic topics
steps of Gagne; and chunk information into are not the same all the time. Students may
digestible parts. The role of the teacher should have alternative conceptions of ideas taught in
be a facilitator of learning instead of being the school. Just as an analogy, have you ever
sole source of information through direct listened to a class of 10 preschoolers sing the
teaching and helping students learn how to national anthem? There could be 10 different
learn. Teachers should focus on the process of versions of the same set of lyrics. In school,
you may teach students in a physics class and
learning, instead of the end. product. Teachers
most people could have different versions of
should use active teaching methods that
how something works. Their thoughts often go
require students to rediscover or reconstruct back to their initial misconceptions. According
"truths." Teachers can use collaborative and to constructivists, there are four dimensions to
individual activities, allowing children to learn changing misconceptions. These are
from each other. acceptance, connectedness, multiplicity, and
implicitness.

CONSTRUCTIVISM Acceptance

- Constructivism is a learning theory that says Connectedness

learners construct knowledge instead of just
receiving information passively. Multiplicity
- People create meaning from experience by Implicitness
incorporating new information with what they
already know.
Constructivism Types and Theorists 1.4.1
- Learning is influenced by prior knowledge,
Cognitive Constructivism
biases, feelings, misconceptions, and
interpretations. Cognitive constructivism states that knowledge
is actively constructed by learners based on
their cognitive capacities, relative to their stage
Constructivism and Other Learning of cognitive development. Learning is an active
Theories process of assimilation and accommodation.
Learning is an active, contextual, personal
- Behaviorism: Learning is about stimuli and process of constructing knowledge rather than
responses, focusing on behavior changes a passive acquisition of knowledge. This
without emphasizing thinking. means that each person has a different
interpretation or knowledge construction based
- Cognitivism: Learning is a mental activity, but
on past experiences.
constructivism emphasizes how learners
personally interpret and build knowledge.
- Constructivism: Highlights personal meaning- John Dewey (1933/1998).
making and active learning.
John Dewey is known as the philosophical they are required to draw from past
founder of cognitive constructivism. He did not experiences and current knowledge to discover
believe in repetitive, rote memorization of facts. facts, relationships, and new knowledge.

He thinks learning should be "directed living" Jerome Bruner was influenced by Lev
where learners engage in real-world, practical Vygotsky's theory, recognizing the importance
experience where they can demonstrate what of the teacher, language, and social interaction
they know through creativity and collaboration. in learning. He believes that each student
experiences different problem-solving
Learners should be given the opportunity to processes, facilitated by reflection. Curriculum
think for themselves and express their planning should be designed to build upon
thoughts, and learn by doing. He believed that each area, promoting discovery and knowledge
learning should be student-directed, with construction through active dialogue with
teachers serving as guides for resources. teachers.
Jean Piaget (1972).

Jean Piaget is known for his Theory of Instruction should therefore be

Cognitive Development and Developmentally (1) concerned with experiences that would
Appropriate Practice, discussed in the previous make the students motivated and ready to
lesson. learn;
(2) structured in a spiral organization, so new
Another implication of his theory of cognitive knowledge is easily understood; and
development is the Constructivist Teaching. (3) designed so students can easily extrapolate
Recall that Piaget proposed that children to go beyond the basic information given.
progress through a sequence of four stages in
cognitive abilities as they grow. He also
proposed that learners cannot be forced to Albert Bandura (1961, 1963, 1965). Albert
learn key cognitive tasks if they are not yet Bandura is well-known for the "Social Cognitive
ready, or if they have not reached particular Theory," his modeling behavior experiment on
stages in cognitive development. aggression known as the Bobo Doll, as well as
Vicarious Learning.
He also says that "if a child is prematurely
taught something he could have discovered by Albert Bandura did experiments exposing
himself, that child is kept from inventing it and patients with snake phobias who observed
consequently from understanding it completely" former patients handling snakes, and found out
(Piaget, 1970). He says that if a child acts on that this was an effective therapy to get rid of
his/her own, he/she forms permanent mental phobias. Bandura stresses the importance of
models, as opposed to when a child is told the observational learning, imitation, and modeling.
facts, he/she may just memorize them in a
superficial way. These integrate a continuous, dynamic,
reciprocal interaction between behaviors (B),
In constructivist teaching, teachers minimize personal (P) factors, and the environment (E).
but not completely eliminate the role of the The B (behavior) refers to complexity, duration,
adult. Teachers provide experiences, ask skill, and others. The E (environment) is
questions, provoke discussions, facilitate composed of situation, roles, models, and
experimentation, encourage reflection, and relationships.
minimize any lecturing of facts. Many teaching
methods are based on constructivism, like The P (person) refers to cognition, self-
project-based learning, problem-based efficacy, motives, and, personality. In the Bobo
learning, inquiry-based learning, experiential Doll Study (1961), Albert Bandura made a
learning, discovery learning, transformational video of a woman being aggressive to a Bobo
approach, teaching for understanding, and so doll by hitting it and shouting violent words.
on. The implications for teaching using This was shown to a group of children.
constructivism are listed in a later part of this Afterward, the children were allowed to play in
lesson. the room with the same doll. The children
started beating up the doll, imitating what they
watched in the video. This shows that not all
Jerome Bruner (1990).
behavior is redirected by reinforcement or
Jerome Bruner is the theorist behind Discovery rewards. The children did not receive any
Learning. This is where a student is given encouragement or incentives to beat up the
opportunities for problem-solving, and where doll. An example of strengthening or
weakening restraints is when the child sees where he/she can make progress if he/she is
another child punished for misbehaving. The given sufficient support or scaffolding.
observer's restraints against imitating the bad
This is done by scaffolding, which is providing
behavior is strengthened in this case. On the
support and adjusting the support needed
other hand, if there is lack of consistency in the
depending on the child’s current level of
consequence of a misbehavior, the observer's
performance. Implications to teaching using
restraints to imitate bad behavior is weakened.
Vygotsky’s theory will be presented toward the
And when the child who is supposed to be
end of this lesson. He says it is here in the
punished fights back and the adult allows it, the
ZPD where learning actually occurs.
observer's restraints to imitate bad behavior is
also weakened. This promotes the use of
violence as a solution. Unfortunately, with the
rampant viewing of violence on TV and other Zone of proximal development (Learner can do
social media, a child's restraints for violent with guidance)
behavior is weakened. Learner can do unaided
Learner cannot do
Social Constructivism
Lev Vygotsky (1978). Vygotsky is responsible Constructivism and Connectivism in
for the sociocultural theory. The key Education
contribution of his theory is the emphasis on
the role of social interactions in cognitive Key Influences and Knowledge Transfer
development. His other contributions are the Constructivism:
concept of Zone of Proximal Development
(ZPD), and the use of scaffolding, language, - Influenced by engagement, participation,
and private speech. social interactions, and culture
- Knowledge transfer occurs through social
interactions
Lev Vygotsky emphasized the role of social
and cultural influences on cognitive
development. He believes social interaction Connectivism:
with others contributes to constructivism.
- Influenced by network diversity and strength
of ties
Vygotsky (1987) proposed that private speech - Knowledge transfer occurs through
in children correlates with rates of social connections and expanding networks
interaction. He said that when children are
raised in mentally stimulating and language
stimulating environments, the earlier these Technology Integration in Learning
children engage in private speech. He
observed this in children from higher - Enables global collaboration beyond the
socioeconomic status (SES) compared to classroom
those in low SES.
- Supports blended, online, and distance
learning
Vygotsky says private speech in young - Tools for collaborative work (online docs,
children is often spoken out loud. This presentations)
becomes more silent and internal as they grow
- Enhances activities that were difficult in face-
up. However, sometimes, even teens or adults
to-face settings
speak out loud to themselves when trying to
solve problems.
Learner-Centered Teaching
(Constructivism)
Vygotsky talked about the Zone of Proximal
Development (ZPD), or the zone of the next - Students build knowledge based on prior
development. This is outside the leaner’s experiences
current proficiency to work alone, but an area
- Teachers provide guidance and scaffolding (3) it encourages learners to respect diverse
viewpoints, to reflect, to adapt to the real world,
- Focus on authentic tasks and goal-oriented
and to evaluate their work; and
environments
(4) learners would be able to learn to apply
- Emphasis on intrinsic motivation
their knowledge under appropriate conditions.
Examples: The use of scaffolding by the teacher, and by
the group. Can help in problem-solving. In
- Project-based, inquiry-based, and constructivist learning, learners can develop
cooperative learning metacognition.
- Hands-on activities and open-ended
questioning
LESSON 4
Constructivist Classroom Practices
Factors Affecting Cognitive Development
- Diagnostic assessment to consider prior
knowledge
- Real-world tasks and authentic learning Objectives
contexts
•After studying this lesson, you will be able to:
- Encourage reflection and collaborative
•Describe factors that affect cognitive
problem-solving
development;
- Scaffold learning with cues, prompts, and
•Discuss factors that can promote children’s
guides
cognitive development; and
- Promote apprenticeships and research
•Prepare a list of materials that could promote
projects
cognitive development in children.

Conclusion
Introduction
-Constructivism emphasizes knowledge
Our purpose for trying to understand the
building through social interactions and
factors that affect cognitive development would
experiences
be to be able to understand ourselves, to
- Connectivism highlights learning through understand the children we work with or the
networks and connections children in our families, to be able to detect if
anything is wrong or if a child is at risk for
- Both approaches stress learner-centered, developmental delays, to be able to minimize
meaningful, and collaborative learning exposure to detrimental factors, and to provide
experiences environments, materials and experiences that
could promote cognitive development.

Constructivist approaches can also be used

in blended or purely online leaming. This can Cognitive development is said to encompass
be seen in threaded discussion forums, both mental and emotional growth. There are
chatbots, blogs, online cloud storage, online many factors that could affect the progress of
word processors and presentation programs, cognitive development in children.
image and video hosting sites, social
networking forums, and other apps that allow 4.1 Biological Factors
online collaboration among students.
Biological factors that could affect cognitive
development include the condition of our sense
organs, our intelligence, heredity, maturation,
Advantages of the constructivist are given as and presence of genetic health problems.
follows: Many times, the biological factors are things
(1) it is active we cannot control.

(2) it promotes skills, like critical thinking,

problem-solving, analysis, evaluation, creation,
and cooperative learning.
Sense organs - Are the point of entry of does not have to spend time looking for love
information we receive from the environment. and approval.
They allow us to recognize and make sense of
things and events easily. Children with
disabilities in sense organs can have slower Socioeconomic status - Usually, a child born
cognitive development compared to children to a family of middle to high socioeconomic
who have normal sense organs. If there is status (SES) is given more access to
anything wrong with our sense organs, this opportunities to learn. Children in higher SES
could affect the input of information, and that families may be exposed to more training and
affects our cognitive development. hobbies that could affect cognitive
development. These children usually have
more nutritional meals compared to those in
Intelligence - In terms of intelligence, usually poor families.
children born with higher Intelligence learn
- Children born in poverty could have
things faster. Higher IQ affects mental
lower test and school outcome. They
capacities, like understanding information
may also experience growth problems,
given and problem-solving. Children with lower
like stunted growth, poor hygiene,
intelligence quotient may not be able to absorb
intestinal disease, and depression
concepts or sufficient stimuli from the
among others.
environment even if there is nothing wrong with
their senses.

Nutrition.- Poverty, especially malnutrition,

can be detrimental to cognitive development.
Heredity - Genetics play an important role in
Although malnutrition can also be found in
cognitive development. Intelligence is inherited
children in high SES families, as in the case of
from the parents.
obesity.
If and when a child inherits a hereditary
disease from his/her parents, this may affect
his/her health, and thus, his/her opportunities
for cognitive development might be affected.

Maturation -As the child grows up, he/she

matures cognitively. At the same time, as
his/her motor development also continues,
his/her ability to interact and learn from the
environment also increases.

4.2 Environmental Factors

Environmental factors that could affect
cognitive development include family and
society, socioeconomic status, play,
learning opportunities. These factors may
be enumerated as individual factors, but in
reality, these are interrelated to one another. At
times, the environmental factors that affect
cognitive development can be controlled.

Family and society - A loving environment is

very important for cognitive development.
Providing a child with both physical and verbal
expressions of love boosts a child’s self-
confidence. This allows him/her to focus on
other aspects of development because he/she