CHAPTER 1

SOME BASIC CONCEPTS

OF CHEMISTRY
Matter
Anything which has mass and occupies space is called matter.
For example, book, pencil, water, air are composed of matter as we know that
they have mass and they occupy space.

• Classification of Matter
There are two ways of classifying the matter:
(A) Physical classification.
(B) Chemical classification.

Matter can exist in three physical states:

1. Solids 2. Liquids 3. Gases

1. Solids: The particles are held very close to each other in an orderly fashion
and there is not much freedom of movement.
Characteristics of solids: Solids have definite volume and definite shape.

2. Liquids: In liquids, the particles are close to each other but can move
around.
Characteristics of liquids: Liquids have definite volume but not definite
shape.

3. Gases: In gases, the particles are far apart as compared to those present
in solid or liquid states. Their movement is easy and fast.
Characteristics of Gases: Gases have neither definite volume nor definite
shape. They completely occupy the container in which they are placed.
Chemical Classification:
Based upon the composition, matter can be divided into two main types:
1. Pure Substances 2. Mixtures.
1. Pure substances: A pure substance may be defined as a single substance
(or matter) which cannot be separated by simple physical methods.
Pure substances can be further classified as
(i) Elements (ii) Compounds

(i) Elements: An element consists of only one type of particles. These

particles may be atoms or molecules.

Compounds: It may be defined as a pure substance containing two or more

elements combined together in a fixed proportion by weight and can be
decomposed into these elements by suitable chemical methods. Moreover, the
properties of a compound are altogether different from the constituting
elements.
The compounds have been classified into two types. These are:

(i) Inorganic Compounds: These are compounds which are obtained from non-
living sources such as rocks and minerals.
A few examples are: Common salt, marble, gypsum, washing soda etc.

(ii) Organic Compounds are the compounds which are present in plants and
animals. All the organic compounds have been found to contain carbon as their
essential constituent. For example, carbohydrates, proteins, oils, fats etc.

Mixture:
Formed by physical combination of two or more pure substances in any ratio.
Chemical identity of the pure components remains maintained in mixtures.
Homogeneous mixtures are those whose composition for each part remains
constant.
Example, Aqueous and gaseous solution.

Heterogeneous mixtures are those whose composition may vary for each and
every part.
Example, Soil and concrete mixtures.

Physical Quantities and Their Measurement:

Fundamental Units:-These units can neither be derived from one another nor
can be further resolved into any other units. Seven fundamental units of the S.I.
System.
Derived Units:- These units are the function of more than one fundamental unit

Measurement of Temperature
Three scales of temperature
Kelvin scale (K) Degree Celsius scale (oC) Degree Fahrenheit scale (oF)

Relations between the scales:

oF = 9/5(oC) + 32
K = oC + 273

0 K temperatures is called absolute zero.

• Dimensional Analysis
Often while calculating, there is a need to convert units from one system to other.
The method used to accomplish this is called factor label method or unit factor
method or dimensional analysis.

• Laws of Chemical Combinations

The combination of elements to form compounds is governed by the following five
basic laws.

(i) Law of Conservation of Mass

(ii) Law of Definite Proportions
(iii) Law of Multiple Proportions
(iv) Law of Gaseous Volume (Gay Lussac’s Law)
(v) Avogadro’s Law
(i) Law of Conservation of Mass
The law was established by a French chemist, A. Lavoisier. The law states: In all
physical and chemical changes, the total mass of the reactants is equal to that
of the products.

(ii) Law of Definite ProportionsA pure chemical compound always consists of

the same elements combined together in a fixed proportion by weight.For
example, Carbon dioxide may be formed in a number of ways .but contain
always 44 u.

(iii) Law of Multiple Proportions

If two elements combine to form two or more compounds, the weight of one of
the elements which combines with a fixed weight of the other in these
compounds, bears simple whole number ratio by weight.
in H20 and H2O2 the Oxygen is presented in the ratio of 1:2.
(iv) Gay Lussac’s Law of Gaseous Volume
The law states that, under similar conditions of temperature and pressure,
whenever gases combine, they do so in volumes which bear simple whole
number ratio with each other and also with the gaseous products. The law may
be illustrated by the following examples.

(a) Combination between hydrogen and chlorine:

(b) Combination between nitrogen and hydrogen: The two gases lead to the
formation of ammonia gas under suitable conditions.

(v) Avogadro’s Law: Avogadro proposed that, equal volumes of gases at the
same temperature and pressure should contain equal number of molecules.
For example,
If we consider the reaction of hydrogen and oxygen to produce water, we see
that two volumes of hydrogen combine with one volume of oxygen to give two
volumes of water without leaving any unreacted oxygen.
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
In 1808, Dalton published ‘A New System of Chemical Philosophy’ in which
he proposed the following:

1. Matter consists of indivisible atoms.

2. All the atoms of a given element have identical properties including
identical mass. Atoms of different elements differ in mass.
3. Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine in a
fixed ratio.
4. Chemical reactions involve reorganisation of atoms. These are neither
created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.

• Atomic Mass
The atomic mass of an element is the number of times an atom of that
element is heavier than an atom of carbon taken as 12. It may be noted
that the atomic masses as obtained above are the relative atomic masses
and not the actual masses of the atoms.
One atomic mass unit (amu) is equal to l/12 th of the mass of an atom of
carbon-12 isotope. It is also known as unified mass.

Average Atomic Mass

Most of the elements exist as isotopes which are different atoms of the same
element with different mass numbers and the same atomic number. Therefore,
the atomic mass of an element must be its average atomic mass and it may be
defined as the average relative mass of an atom of an element as compared
to the mass of carbon atoms (C-12) taken as 12w.

Molecular Mass
Molecular mass is the sum of atomic masses of the elements present in a
molecule. It is obtained by multiplying the atomic mass of each element by
number of its atoms and adding them together.
For example,
Molecular mass of methane (CH4)
= 12.011 u + 4 (1.008 u)
= 16.043 u
Formula Mass
Ionic compounds such as NaCl, KNO3, Na2C03 etc. Do not consist of molecules i.e.,
single entities but exist “as ions closely packed together in a three dimensional
space.

In such cases, the formula is used to calculate the formula mass instead of
molecular mass. Thus, formula mass of NaCl = Atomic mass of sodium + atomic
mass of chlorine
= 23.0 u + 35.5 u = 58.5 u.

The Mole
One mole is the amount of substance that contains as many as entities as number of
atoms in exactly 12.00 g of C-12.

Number of carbon atoms in 12 g of C-12 = 6.022 × 1023

Empirical Formula
An empirical formula represents the simplest whole number ratio of various atoms
present in a compound.

(ii). Molecular Formula The molecular formula shows the exact number of different
types of atoms present in a molecule of a compound.

Relationship between Empirical and Molecular Formula

Molecular formula = (Empirical formula) x n

Measurement of Concentration
The concentration of a solution reflects the relative proportion of solute and
solvent present in the solution. The various concentration terms are

1. weight percent (% w/W) = (Weight of solute / Weight of solution) x 100

2. Volume percent (% V/V) = (Volume of solute / Volume of solution) x 100

3. Molality (m) – It is defined as number of moles of solute present in 1 kg of solvent.

M = {Number of moles of solute/Mass of solvent (in kg)} x 100

4. Molarity (M) – It is defined as number of moles of solute present in 1 L of solution.

M = {Number of moles of solute/Volume of solution (in litre)} x 100

Mole fraction : Suppose, n is the moles of solute and N is the moles of solvent, then,
(i). Mole fraction of solute (Xsolute) = n/N+n
(ii). Mole fraction of solvent (Xsolvent) = N/n+N

Xsolute + Xsolvent = 1

6. Normality : It is defined as gram equivalent of solute dissolved in one litre solution.

N = {Gram equivalent of solute / Volume of solution (litre)} x 100

Limiting Reagent
Limiting reagent is the reactant which is completely consumed
in a reaction. To estimate the amount of product, limiting
reagent should be known.

N2(1 mole) + 3H2(3 mole) ⟶ 2NH3(2 mole)

It means 1 mole of N2 react with 3 mole of H2 to produce 2 mole

of NH3.