Lesson 1

Comparing and Contrasting Patterns of Written Texts across Disciplines

Introduction
Understanding Reading and Writing across Disciplines
Critical reading goes beyond understanding new terminologies and identifying key ideas and minor details that
are presented in reading texts. Critical readers recognize that different authors adopt a variety of style elements in writing
depending on his or her purpose, audience, and genre. As a reader you need to be aware that each discipline or field
of study has its own specific requirements in terms of style, content, and format.

The structure, grammar, and vocabulary of written texts vary depending on why we are writing, who we are
writing for, and what we are writing about. We refer to these
predictable patterns in written language as genres. Becoming a writer and reader involves understanding the patterns
and being able to use them flexibly.
Analyzing a piece of writing involves understanding the said specific requirements or the way a text is written.
In this lesson, you will go through the patterns of written texts that will help you to interpret the meaning of the piece,
which is ultimately the entire point of doing a close evaluation or critical reading of a piece of writing.

Formative Activity
Activity: Guess what!
Would you be able to match the following concepts to their meanings on the right? Write the letter of your answer on
your answer sheet.

A. This is the expression of a writer’s attitude toward subject,

1. Writer’s purpose audience, and self. Is primarily conveyed in writing thru diction, point of
view, syntax, and level of formality.

B. This involves the effects of words as an important element for

2. Writing tone and style understanding the meaning of a text.

C. This pertains to one’s intention and purpose in reading.

3. Specific language
D. This consists of the specific traits within a particular discipline or
the conventions of a discipline’s key genres.
4. Organization
E. This refers to a person's reason for writing, such as to inform,
entertain, explain, or persuade.
5. Reader’s goal
F. It concerns how ideas are presented. Typically, it refers to the
larger parts of a piece of writing, although it also refers to how paragraphs
6.Discipline-specific features and sentences are written. The flow of a piece of writing affects how readers
interpret ideas.

The above phrases you just worked on are the elements or aspects you need to consider in approaching a
piece of writing. You need to ask yourself; how do all of these elements create meaning? What does the passage mean
and how does it contribute to the meaning of the piece of writing?

Again, it is important to remember that each discipline is a distinct discourse community with specific
vocabularies, styles, and modes of communication. Getting familiar with the conventions of a discipline’s key
genres is essential in understanding a written text.

Lesson Proper
By surveying the landscape of various academic disciplines, you can develop further your writing, reading,
and thinking. Let’s study the formats/patterns of texts in selected disciplines in the text map below.
Discipline (subject area or field of study)

Science History Pop Culture

Writer’s purpose Makes claims based on Uses the facts of history to Explains, outlines, and/or
facts. make a logical argument that analyzes current trends in
X, Y, and Z happened as music, fashion, film, literature,
Acknowledges limitations. well as why they happened. etc.
Puts focus on research. Uses logic and intuition to Main purpose is to entertain.
Use concrete evidence and make sense of the facts.
Leans to light, current, and
examples Engages in a larger subjective topics
discussion with other
historians.

Tells what happened.

Explains why it happened

Writing tone and Writing tends to be dense, Avoids first- and second- Writing tends to be less formal
style stiff, and formal. person pronouns, i.e. “I” and and friendlier.
“you”
Objective tone; Uses first- and second person
straightforward and More subjective than pronouns, i.e. “I” and “you.”
informative scientific writing; however,
opinions/interpretations More subjective than history and
Historically has favored the scientific writing
need to be backed by
passive voice; however,
evidence. Addresses the reader.
active voice is now being
used. Can use an informative, Must be attention grabbing
persuasive, or entertaining because there are many options
Avoids first- and second-
tone depending on the writer, (think about the magazines at
person pronouns, i.e. “I” and
reader, and topic the grocery store checkout line)
“you”
and topics change quickly

Reader’s goal Identify how the writer Understand the argument Understand when the pop
reached his/her conclusion. that the author is trying to culture piece was written as the
make. period will influence your
Understand the interpretation. This is true with
methodology. Separate the facts from many types of writing, but pop
the author’s culture writing, like pop music, is
Understand whether interpretation.
it is significant/ reputable. especially of its own time.
Find any flaws in the author’s
Look for the proof.
reasoning.
Understand when it was
Infer and understand the
written so you can determine
logic between relationships.
if it is still significant.
Remember that
history is not static and be
open to new interpretations
of long-known facts.

Understand the author’s

potential biases.
Specific language Likely to have words that Older primary sources Words are specific to both the
might not be in the dictionary
contain archaic language time and the place of the piece.
because science vocabulary that will make understanding,
evolves quickly. more difficult. Language needs to be
interpreted considering when it
Language is precise. Writers Uses words or expressions was written.
choose to use the most that may have only been
specific word rather than used in a particular period. Its Recent events and trends are
use a word that may be use may have died out or quickly included in the
more familiar. changed in meaning. vernacular.

Many words, including the Current sources that discuss

new words, are derived from past events will focus on the
Greek and Latin; when you language of causes and
see an unfamiliar word, you consequences of certain
may be able to events.
piece it together if
you know Greek and Latin
word parts.

Organization Taxonomists use Historians organize by Uses a variety of organizational

classification. categories of action and not strategies including comparison
chronological order; that is and narration.
all events relating to
technology may be grouped Depends heavily on hooks and
together, while education- story-like qualities that create an
related events are grouped interesting and easy flow.
separately.

Within each category of

action, events are arranged
chronologically; uses
narrative.

Overall, historians make an

argument and support it with
evidence.

Disciplines/ Figures, tables, graphs, and Will reference primary Pop culture moves progressively
Specific features charts. sources, that is, texts written from local
at the time you are studying. to national to international levels.
Often requires basic to For example, if you are
advanced levels of studying about the Civil War,
mathematical literacy to a primary text could include
understand. a letter from President
Lincoln from a Union soldier.
Key Points

Writing in the humanities usually seeks to analyze, interpret, argue, and/or explain thoughts, reactions,
ideas, and emotions. The “humanities,” as a discipline, includes not only literature, but also philosophy, economics,
ethics, performing arts, fine arts, history, and aspects of anthropology, cultural studies, foreign languages, and
linguistics.
Writing in business often means explaining a situation, event, or change to compel the reader toward a very
specific action. Business has a special vocabulary (jargon), so first of all you have to learn its jargon, like remit,
obligate, loan, collateral, interest, stocks, etc. Some compound nouns are standard expressions in business, like tax
collection system, company car, price list, bulk buying, etc.
You must also learn some of the conventions, or established practices, of business writing. For example,
business uses a lot of form letters, so you have to be familiar with the standard forms (meaning the parts) of a business
letter, a memo, minutes of a meeting, a proposal, etc. Some standard parts of business communication are date,
inside address, the salutation, the body or main purpose of the communication, the complimentary close, etc.
It is important to remember that business requires cordiality to sustain it, to keep the customer. Hence, even
if the content of a communication is negative—like a complaint or a collection—the communication must be polite.
There is careful use of modal expressions and adverbs. Polite expressions such as the following are part of the ritual
of politeness in business: (Cortes de los Rios, 2010).
In the field of natural science (physics, chemistry, and biology, astronomy, geology, marine science,
mathematics, ecology, computer science, etc.), technical terms, symbols (ph, NaCI, and CO2) and abbreviations are
common. Similar to other disciplines, common words like power, pressure, force, work, and impulse have a technical
meaning. To help yourself understand many of the technical terms, you must know some prefixes (uni, semi, and
multi), root words (bio, geo, vis, and derma), and suffixes. Diagrams and drawings are also characteristic of science
texts.
The typical sentences in science texts are dense; that is, they are information heavy. An example is this:
Each nucleus is packed with information coded in the form of a chemical called Deoxyribonucleic Acici(DNA) and
organized into groups called genes which are arranged on thread-like structures, the chromosomes. The lengthy and
dense sentences found in science texts suggest slow reading for comprehension and retention of facts.
Other disciplines have their own writing conventions that we need to familiarize ourselves with.
 LESSON 2
DISTINGUISHING WRITING PATTERNS:
NARRATION, DESCRIPTION, DEFINITION, EXEMPLIFICATION

INTRODUCTION

Analyzing a text is easier to do if you can identify its structure, parts, and organization. This is
often referred to as its writing pattern. A writing pattern is a specific way of organizing ideas to
convey a certain type of argument. Writing patterns are also sometimes referred to as patterns
of organization, rhetorical modes, or rhetorical styles. In this lesson, we will go over four of the
most common writing patterns: narration, description, definition and exemplification
/classification.

LESSON PROPER

Each writing pattern is uniquely designed with its own special parts that work together to achieve a specific
purpose. The writing pattern an author uses will vary based on the desired purpose. Note, however, that an author might
use more than one writing pattern in the same text depending on the specific purpose of each part of the text.

Writing Pattern PURPOSE

Narration to tell a story or relate an event.

to sequence or put details and information into logical order, usually chronological.
Description to recreate, invent, or visually present a person, place, event, or action so that the
reader can picture that which is being described.
Definition to deeply examine a word or concept as we actually use and understand it.

Exemplification/ to show the details of a complex problem in a way that’s easy for readers to
Classification understand

Learning how to recognize writing patterns is crucial for helping you improve your reading
comprehension. By recognizing the writing pattern, you will be able to focus your attention on what the author is
trying to say and anticipate how the author will develop a point. It is important, therefore, for you to know the
characteristics of each of the writing patterns.

Writing Pattern CHARATERISTICS

Narration • describes how, when, and where an event or occurrence actually happened - used
to tell a story or focus on a set of related events

Description • has a clear focus and sense of purpose

• uses sensory details and precise words presents details in a logical order
Definition • emphasizes the characteristics or features of the term/ concept, its function/s,
effects and origin
Varieties:
Scientific Definition - defines concepts in the most factual way, which is often used in
scientific, proper, or real-world facts
Subjective Definition - defines the objects in a more personal way - usually derived from
the author's own experiences and opinion - often used by a writer to state something from
the point of view of the characters or in relation to the setting

Exemplification • provides examples and illustrations

• presents the general statement and then provides specific and concrete examples
to expound on the main idea
 LESSON 3
Distinguishing Writing Patterns:

Comparison and Contrast, Cause and Effect, Problem-Solution, Persuasion

Comparison/Contrast
Comparison focuses on similarities between things, and contrast focuses on their differences. We innately make
comparisons all the time, and they appear in many kinds of writings. The goal of comparison and contrast in academic
essays is generally to show that one item is superior to another, based on a set of evaluations included as part of the
writing.

Cause/Effect
If narration offers a sequence of events, cause/effect essays offer an explanation about why that sequence matters.
Cause/effect writing is particularly powerful when the author can provide a cause/effect relationship that the reader
wasn’t expecting, and as a result see the situation in a new light.

Problem/Solution
This type of academic writing has two equally important tasks: clearly identifying a problem, and then providing a
logical, practical solution for that problem. Establishing that a particular situation IS a problem can sometimes be a
challenge–many readers might assume that a given situation is “just the way it is,” for instance.

Persuasion
Convinces readers to agree to an argument or claim about a particular topic

A. Purpose
Comparison and Contrast to explain how two things are similar and different

Cause and Effect to determine how various phenomena are related

Problem-Solution to identify a problem and propose one or more solutions

Persuasion to convince readers to believe in an idea or opinion and to do an action

Signal Words

Comparison and Contrast: on the contrary: on the other hand, however, otherwise, whereas,
Contrast still, yet
Comparison: as well as, both, like, in common with, likewise, also

Cause and Effect Because, Since, Consequently, This led to…, so If…, then, Nevertheless, Accordingly,
Because of, As a result of, In order to, May be due to, Yet, For this reason, Not only…but
also

Problem-Solution Question is…

Dilemma is…
The puzzle is…
To solve this…
One answer is…
One reason for the problem is…
Graphic Organizers

Persuasion

https://jcurrylanguagearts.weebly.com/uploads/5/8/9/2/58921319/expository_short_texts.pdf.pdf
 LESSON 4: Writing an Effective Essay: Cohesion, Coherence and Organization

Introduction

Writing is the process of using symbols (letters of the alphabet, punctuation, and spaces) to communicate
thoughts and ideas in a readable form.
Writing is the primary basis upon which one's learning and intellect will be judged. Writing skill equips us with
communication and thinking skill. It also fosters our ability to explain and refine our ideas to others and ourselves.
Writing skills are an important part of communication and in expressing our thoughts and ideas like an essay.
An essay or paper should be organized logically, flow smoothly, and stick together. In other words, everything
in the writing should make sense to a reader.

Lesson Proper

Before evaluating the properties of a well-written text that is a more complex activity, let us review the
components of a text or a composition.

A composition can either be a paragraph or an essay. The group of interrelated sentences that talk about
one main idea is called a paragraph. On the other hand, a group of paragraphs that talk about one central idea is
called an essay. According to Barrot (2016), the following are the primary differences between the two.
Paragraph Essay
Organized around a topic sentence Organized around a thesis
Contains introductory sentence Contains introductory paragraph
Uses sentences to explain major points Uses paragraphs to explain major points
Use a concluding sentence Uses a concluding paragraph
A paragraph is composed of three major parts: the topic sentence, the body which consists of the supporting
details, and the closing sentence.

Source:blog.cengage.com/top-blog/four-types-of-students-you-may-see-in-your
classroom/

Topic Sentence- the central idea of the paragraph; can be a stand or a comment, an objective statement, or a question
Supporting Details- sentences that clarify and prove the main idea
Cohesive Devices- transitional devices, pronouns, or repetition of ideas to link sentences effectively
Closing Sentence - concludes the details that have been presented

What are the Parts of an Essay?

In contrast to a paragraph, an essay has a more elaborate structure. The three general parts are the introduction, the
body, and the conclusion.
Introduction
The first statement in the essay which aims to hook the readers is called the lead or attention-getter. A
composition can have an effective lead by using provocative rhetorical question, statistics, startling statement,
anecdote, quotation, humor, or analogy.

Body
The body is the meat of the essay. It discusses the thesis statement in detail through its paragraphs. This is where the
topic is developed and where the arguments are laid out and discussed.

Conclusion
The concluding paragraph begins with the restatement of the thesis statement using a different structure and
wording to uphold the language style. This part is followed by a transitional statement that talks about the
recommendations, benefits of ideas presented or purpose of writing the essay. Finally, a closing statement is used to
wrap up the essay. One strategy used for ending an essay with a bang is to link it to the attention-getter in the
introduction.

Properties of a Well-written Text

According to Barrot, J. (2016), knowing the parts of a paragraph or an essay will help you form your composition
framework. Moreover, your knowledge of the aspects that make a well written text will ensure the quality of your work.
More importantly, the message you want to communicate will effectively come through.

1. Unity
This is achieved when a composition contains one focused idea. In a unified text, all the supporting ideas
are relevant to the main thought. Without unity, the text will be confusing.
Text without Unity Text with Unity
Computers are essential tools for writers. The use Computers are essential tools for
of pen and paper is also very handy. That is, if someone writers. They provide writers efficient means for
wanted to write about anything, anywhere. But computers revising their works. Because computers allow text to
provide writers efficient means for revising their works. be easily changed and moved. Hence, computers are
Because computers allow text to be easily changed and more efficient for revisions.
moved. Hence, computers are more efficient for revisions.
Source: Barrot,J. (2016)
2. Coherence and Cohesion
Coherence and cohesion are achieved when ideas are logically, clearly, and smoothly linked to one another;
without it, the reader may not be able to comprehend your composition. Although these two concepts are interrelated,
they are distinct.
❖ Coherence- occurs when ideas are connected at the conceptual or idea level. It can be seen through well-
defended arguments and organized points.
❖ Cohesion- is the connection of ideas at the sentence level. It can be readily seen in a text through the smooth
flow of the sentences and the connection of the ideas.

Read and analyze the examples below.

A B
Amelia Earhart was a legendary woman who made her Amelia Earhart was a legendary woman who made
name in aviation by setting various records. In 1928, she her name in aviation by setting various records. In
became famous as the first woman who flew across the 1928, she became famous as the first woman who flew
Atlantic Ocean. She was only a passenger, with pilot Wilmer across the Atlantic Ocean. However, during this trip she
Stultz and co-pilot/mechanic Louis Gordon manning the was only a passenger, with pilot Wilmer Stultz and co-
controls. In 1932, she flew on her own over the Atlantic. She pilot/mechanic Louis Gordon manning the controls. In
flew from Honolulu Hawaii to Oakland California. She 1932, she finally got to fly on her own over the Atlantic.
became the first person to fly over both the Atlantic and She set another record when she flew from Honolulu
Pacific Oceans. Between 1930 and 1935, Earhart set seven Hawaii to Oakland California in 1935, thus becoming
women’s speed and distance aviation through different the first person to fly over both the Atlantic and Pacific
aircrafts. She disappeared in 1937 while attempting to fly Oceans. Between 1930 and 1935, Earhart set seven
around the world. On board her plain was her only crew women’s speed and distance aviation through different
member, Fred Noonan. Extensive search efforts were not aircrafts.
able to find a trace of both aviators.
Source: Barrot,J. (2016)
Guide Questions
1. What do you think is the primary idea in the given paragraphs?
2. Between the two paragraphs, which is coherently and cohesively written? Why do you say so?
3. Enumerate the sentences or thoughts in paragraph A that should be eliminated.
4. What are the signal words that made paragraph B easier to comprehend?

The following are three techniques on how cohesion can be applied.

1. Use of pronouns to refrain from using a specific word repeatedly
2. Use of transitional devices to connect sentences with linked ideas
3. Repetition of keywords to tie up the paragraphs subtly

Study some of the examples of cohesive or transitional devices presented in the table below.
Additive Adversative Causal Sequential

Moreover • Though Accordingly In the (first, second, third,

What is more In • (And) still As a result etc.) place To begin with
addition (to this) • (And) yet Consequently To start with
Additionally • Either way For this reason Initially

Secondly

Taken from https://www.thoughtco.com/list-of-transition-words-1857002

Below are examples of linking words and phrases to show contrast, to show addition, to show reason or result,
and to introduce an exam[le.
Also because (of) but despite even though furthermore so For example
as a result and however in addition such as therefore

Key Points:
1. Coherence without cohesion has no definite point.
2. Cohesion without coherence is difficult to follow.
3. With both cohesion and coherence, ideas are logically sequenced, and they stay on topic.

3.Organization
Organization is achieved when ideas are logically and accurately arranged. Knowledge of the parts of a composition is
a great help in adhering to the correct organization of ideas.

Text without Organization Text with Organization

Thomas Edison was simply the one who Although it is widely believed that Thomas Edison
created the first commercially viable light bulb. It invented the light bulb, in reality he was simply the
is widely believed that he invented the light bulb. one who created the first commercially viable light
What made Edison’s light bulb successful was bulb. Along with his team, Edison improved the
his use of carbonized bamboo as the filament. previous works of inventors who also worked on the
This made the bulb last longer and it was cheap same project. Compared to previous versions, what
enough to be available for the masses. He only made his light bulb successful was his use of
improved on previous works of inventors who carbonized bamboo as the filament. This made the
also worked on the same projects. bulb last longer and it was cheap enough to be
available for the masses.

Source: Barrot,J. (2016)

 LESSON 5: WRITING EFFECTIVELY: LANGUAGE USE AND MECHANICS

INTRODUCTION:

In the previous module, you have learned about unity, coherence, cohesion, and organization. Unity is evident
if a composition contains a single effect or a sense of wholeness. Coherence and cohesion are utilized to establish a
smooth connection of ideas and sentences in a text using cohesive or transitional devices. Likewise, organization refers
to the logical arrangement of ideas. This module will discuss the two remaining properties of a well-written text which
are language and mechanics to help you craft an effective text or composition.

LESSON PROPER
Properties of a Well-written Text
To be able to produce a quality composition, as a write you need to be equipped with the different aspects that
you need to consider in writing. You came across some of the properties in the previous module on cohesion, coherence
and organization. For this module, you’ll continue learning about the other principles of effective writing, particularly,
language use and mechanics. Barrot (2016) has presented these properties in his book, Academic Reading and Writing.

1. Language Use
The way language is used is one of the clearest indicators of a well-written text. It enables the writer to effectively
communicate ideas without confusing the reader. Effective language use is achieved by observing the following
time-tested principles in writing.

o A. Use clear and concise sentences. On average, a sentence is 18 words long. Note that this does not require
every sentence to be composed of exactly 18 words.
DON’T DO
Image is a very important factor in politics because once Image is a very important factor in politics. Once the
the reputation of a person is smeared by accusations, the reputation of a person is smeared by accusations, the
people’s perception of the person is forever tainted and it people’s perception of the person is forever tainted. The
may cause him to lose credibility and trust even when the person may lose his credibility, even when the
truth behind allegations is not yet verified. allegations are not yet verified.
o B. Avoid redundancies, wordiness, clichés and highfalutin language.
DON’T DO
Although offsprings are taught not to obtain free gifts from Although children are told not to take gifts from strangers,
strangers, at the present moment, many still do. many still do.

o C. Avoid excessive use of “there” and “it” structures. These sentences can be revise
DON’T DO
There are many people walking on this street during Many people walk on this street during Sundays.
Sundays. It is important to keep your valuables close to you. Keeping your valuables close to you is important.

o D. Use precise vocabulary. Be accurate and condense lengthy phrases into fewer words.
DON’T DO
Those who are old people, with the age of 60 years and Senior citizens and teenagers who are 15 and below
above, also the younger ones, with the age of 15 and should stay at home during the General Quarantine
below, should stay at home during the General Period.
Quarantine Period.

o E. Be consistent with your pronoun’s point of view.

DON’T DO
We should accept that fate is simply an illusion; you must We should accept that fate is simply an illusion; we must
not leave our decisions to something that does not exist. not leave our decisions to something that does not exist.

o F. Avoid sexist language. This issue can be addressed by using articles (a, an, and the), using plural pronouns,
using his or her instead of his, writing through a second person point of view, or using gender-neutral nouns (e.g.
chairperson instead of chairman). Make sure not to overuse his or her technique as it breaks up the flow of your
composition.
DON’T DO
Every employee should submit his credentials. All employees should submit their credentials.

o G. Use the appropriate level of formality. The more formal texts use an academic tone while the less formal ones
usually use a personal or colloquial tone.
DON’T DO
Yes, diskettes are like things of the past, but they’re Diskettes may be outdated, but they are still fascinating.
totally cool.
2. Mechanics
This is the technical aspect of writing. It should not be overlooked when writing. It is one of the properties of a
well-written text and is characterized as a set of conventions on how to spell, abbreviate, punctuate, and capitalize
a composition. In academic and more formal texts, the following should be observed.
a. Always use Standard English.
b. Avoid contractions (e.g. shouldn’t).
c. Avoid exclamation marks unless they are part of a direct quotation.
d. Mention the full name of an institution or organization with the abbreviation in parenthesis, in first mention.
Thereafter, use the abbreviation.
e. Numbers from zero to ten should be spelled out while numbers higher than ten should be written in figures.
f. Generally, citations are used in academic and formal texts. However, they are sparingly used in business texts.
Text without Mechanics Text with Mechanics
Pluto was demoted to a dwarf planet in 2006 after the Pluto was demoted to a dwarf planet in 2006 after the
General Assembly of the IAU, as it only met 2 out of the general assembly of the International Astronomical Union
association’s three requirements to qualify as a Planet (IAU), as it only met two out of the association’s three
(Library of Congress). The dispute started when Caltech requirements to qualify as a planet (Library of Congress).
astronomy prof Mike Brown discovered an Asteroid The dispute started when Mike Brown, a professor of
bigger than Pluto in 2005 (Cain, 2012). The science astronomy at the California Institute of Technology
community went wild! Brown’s findings sparked a debate (Caltech), discovered an asteroid bigger than Pluto in
on whether this new planet, which he named eris, should 2005 (Cain, 2012). Brown’s findings sparked a debate on
be added to the roster of 9 Planets. The controversy whether this new planet, which he named Eris, should be
prompted the International Astronomical Union to meet added to the roster of nine planets. The controversy
up and delineate what a ‘planet’ is. They came up with prompted the IAU to meet up and delineate what a
three requirements to classify a celestial body as a planet ‘planet’ is. They came up with three requirements for
and removed the Planet Status of Pluto based on the new classifying celestial bodies as planets and removed the
definition. planet status of Pluto based on the new definition.
 LESSON 6: IDENTIFYING CLAIMS
Lesson Proper:
A claim is something debatable/arguable and it must offer an assertion about an issue. The claim in
your paper defines your goal, direction, scope, and necessity. Your claims must be supported with pieces of
evidence to make them stronger and believable.

A claim should be specific, concrete, and focused. This will help you discuss and present your pieces of
evidence thoroughly. It should also be clear so that your readers will understand where your argument is leading
them. A claim is the main argument in your essay though it may not always appear in your thesis statement or
topic sentence.
A claim is not always right and acceptable to many. Rather, it is a provocation, analysis, explication, or
application of a concept, theory or idea. It aims to persuade, argue, convince, prove, or provocatively suggest
something to a reader who may or may not initially agree with the given claim.

The following are the most common types of claims.

1. Claim of fact
A claim of fact is something that can be proven or disproven with factual evidence. This could be
something factual, relational-causal or predictive and to make a claim of fact convincing, it must be proven with
sufficient, accurate and appropriate data from reliable sources.

Study the following examples:

• Benjamin Magalong is the mayor of Baguio City. (This is a fact and it can be proven or disproven but it
is not a claim because it is not arguable.)
• The mayor is doing his best in handling the issues and problems about the pandemic. (This is a claim
of fact because it is debatable using factual evidence. Others may agree and others may not. To prove
or disprove, one may resort to news articles, interviews, advisories etc.)
• As of June 16, 2020, there are 26,781 confirmed cases reported in the Philippines, 56% are male, with
the most affected age group 30-39 years (23.0%) followed by 20-29 years (20.4%) (Is it a fact? Did it
happen? Is it true? Does it exist? Next, is it a claim of fact? Is it arguable/debatable?)

2. Claim of value
A claim of value argues that something is good or bad, or that one thing is better than another thing. It
presents about taste or morals and touches about proper judgements. To strengthen a strong claim of value, a
standard of evaluation must be established and examples clarifying abstract values must be presented where
credible authorities must be cited.
Look at the following examples:
• Learners learn better when attending in a face-to-face class than in an online class. (This is a claim of
value. A believer of this idea may present the advantages of face-to-face learning and may provide
examples or interviews of credible people who can attest on the effectiveness of such as proofs to the
said claim. On the other hand, a nonbeliever of this viewpoint may present the disadvantages and may
also resort to examples and interviews as proofs.)
• Doctors must be given the option to end their patients’ suffering through mercy killing. (This is a claim
of value. Is this good or bad, ethical or unethical? A person who has this as his claim may justify it by
giving the advantages of mercy killing on the part of the patient, the patient’s family and the medical
practitioner. Whereas, the one who condemns this act can also justify his claim by citing ethical/moral
issues to support his claim.)

3. Claim of policy
A claim of policy argues that certain conditions should exist or should not be done to solve a problem. A claim of
policy contains a clear proposed action justified by the need to carry out the action. The plans in the claim of policy
need to be workable and must be beneficial or advantageous to the concerned people. In justifying a claim of policy,
consider the opposition or counter arguments, too. In short, a claim of policy suggests a solution to a problem that has
been defined or described by an argument. The claim must be supported by sound justifications, clear actions and
 LESSON 7: CRITICAL READING AS A FORM OF REASONING
LESSON

Reading is basic in learning. Without the ability to read and understand texts, learning is not
possible. Reading involves not merely comprehension, pleasure, vocabulary improvement and the like.
From the following discussion, we will have a deeper look at one type of reading, critical reading.

Concept Descriptions / Meanings

Critical reading • It is engaging in what you read by asking yourself questions such as,’ what is the
author trying to say?’ or’ what is the main argument being presented?’
• It is the application of certain processes, models, questions, and theories that
results in enriched clarity and comprehension.
• It goes further than just being satisfied with what a text says. It involves reflecting
on what the text describes, and analyzing what the text means, in the context of
your studies.
• It is being able to reflect on what a text says, what it describes and what it means
by scrutinizing the style and structure of the writing, the language used as well
as the content.
Reasoning • It is the act of thinking about something in a logical, sensible way. (Brainly.com,
2019)
• It is the drawing of inferences or conclusions through the use of reason. In other
words, it is thinking about something in a true sense and practical way.
• It is an act of giving statements for justification and explanation (Merriam- Webster
Dictionary)
• Someone can defend something by giving out reasons.
Critical reading as • It is a more ACTIVE way of reading.
reasoning • It is a deeper and more complex engagement with a text.
• It is also the process of analyzing, interpreting and, sometimes, evaluating.
• When we read critically, we use our critical thinking skills to QUESTION both the
text and our reading of it.
SkillsYouNeed. Critical reading and reading strategy. n.d. https://www.skillsyouneed.com/learn/critical-reading.html

To read critically is to exercise our judgment about what we are reading – that is, not taking anything
we read at face value. When reading academic materials, we will be faced with the author’s interpretation
and opinion. Different authors will, naturally, have different slants. We should always examine what we
are reading critically and look for limitations, omissions, inconsistencies, oversights and arguments against
what we are reading. In academic circles, whilst you are a student, you will be expected to understand
different viewpoints and make your judgment based on what you have read (SkillsYouNeed, n.d.)
 Let’s take a look at the comparison between ordinary reading and critical reading.
READING CRITICAL READING
Purpose • To get a basic grasp of the text • To form judgments about how a text works

Activity • Absorbing/understanding • Analyzing/interpreting/evaluating

Questions • What is the text saying? • How does the text work? How is it argued?
• What information can I get out it? • What are the choices made?
• What kinds of reasoning and evidence
are used?
• What are the underlying assumptions?
• What does the text mean?

Response • Restatement/summary • Description, interpretation, evaluation

Focus • What a text says • What a text does and means

(https://www.utsc.utoronto.ca/twc/sites/utsc.utoronto.ca.twc/files/resource-files/CriticalReading.pdf)

WHAT NEEDS TO BE DONE TO PREPARE FOR CRITICAL READING?

According to the University of Toronto (n.d.), there are two steps to preparing to read critically:

1. Self-Reflect:
a. What experiences, assumptions, knowledge, and perspectives do you bring to the text?
b. What biases might you have?
c. Are you able to keep an open mind and consider other points of view?

2. Read to Understand:
a. Examine the text and context: Who is the author? Who is the publisher? Where and when was it
written? What kind of text is it?
b. Skim the text: What is the topic? What are the main ideas?
c. Resolve confusion: Look up unfamiliar words or terms in dictionaries or glossaries. Go over difficult
passages to clarify them.

WHAT IS THE PROCESS FOR READING CRITICALLY?

To read critically, you must think critically. This involves analysis, interpretation, and evaluation. Each of these
processes helps you to interact with the text in different ways: highlighting important points and examples,
taking notes, testing answers to your questions, brainstorming, outlining, describing aspects of the text or
argument, reflecting on your own reading and thinking, raising objections to the ideas or evidence presented,
etc.

A reading strategy that supports critical reading is the SQ3R (Chubb, 2013). This is awell-known
strategy for reading. SQ3R stands for Survey, Question, Read, Recall and Review.Take note of these:

o S - Survey. This relates to speed reading, scanning and skimming the text. In this initial stage, you
will be getting the general gist of the material.

o Q - Question. Before you begin to read, you have a question or set of questions that will guide you -
why am I reading this? When you have a purpose for your reading, you want to retain certain
information. Having questions changes reading from passive to an active pursuit. Examples of
possible questions include:
▪ What do I already know about this subject?
▪ How does this chapter relate to the assignment question? How can I relate what I read to my
own experiences?
o R - Read. This is the main activity. It involves careful consideration of the meaning of what the author
is trying to convey and involves being critical or analytical as well as active.
 o R - Recall. This is recalling from time to time what you have read that allows you to focus upon the
main points – which in turn aids concentration. It gives you the chance to thinkabout and assimilate
what you have just read, keeping you active. A significant element in being active is to write down,
in your own words, the key points.

o R - Review. This is the final step to review the material that you have recalled in your notes. Did you
understand the main principles of the argument? Did you identify all the mainpoints? Are there any
gaps? Do not take for granted that you have recalled everything you need correctly – review the
text again to make sure and clarify.

This is another way to present SQ3R:

o Survey the chapter by focusing on:
▪ the introduction and the summary
▪ the section headings
o Form three or four Questions from your scanning of the chapter. Write these down on a piece of
paper.
o Read the detailed sections that help to answer the questions.
o Recall in your mind the answers to the questions you asked. Writing some short notes willhelp with
the final phase.
o After one day, review your answers to the questions you set.

In reading critically, another way to look into texts is to consider the following (StuDocu, 2018):
1. Style
This refers to the particular way in which a writer uses language. The factors that caninfluence these
are level of formality, use of figurative language, diction or word choice, sentence patterns and
methods of organization.
2. Tone
This is the author’s attitude toward both the subject and readers or listeners. In conversations, you
can hear a speaker’s tone in the way words and phrases are spoken. In reading, you can “hear” the
tone in an author’s choice of words and details.Examples: pompous, playful, serious, personal,
sarcastic and friendly
3. Perspective
This is the viewpoint or opinion the author expresses about the subject, eitherdirectly or indirectly.
Bias occurs when an author makes one-sided presentation by ignoring relevant facts, using
emotional language or by unfairly swaying readers’ or listeners’ feelings.
4. Purpose
It is the author’s reason for writing. This can be to inform, to persuade, to honor, to entertain, to
explain or to warn.

As a critical reader, you also need to ponder on the 3 modes or steps of analysis:
1. What the text says: after critically reading a piece, you should be able to takenotes,
paraphrasing - in your own words - the key points.
2. What the text describes: you should be confident that you have understood the text sufficiently
to be able to use your examples, compare, and contrast with other writing on thesubject on hand.
3. Interpretation of the text: this means that you should be able to fully analyze the textand state a
meaning for the text as a whole.
(https://www.skillsyouneed.com/learn/critical-reading.html)
As a critical reader, you should be able to use textual evidence when asked by your teacher to
support analysis of the explicit and implicit information presented by a writer in a text. In other words, you
should be able to point out evidences or the part of the text where you based your statements. In that
case, you are applying the skills of reasoning and giving analysis and evaluative statements.
Formulating evaluative statements
Evaluative statements are formulated after having read the text carefully and critically (Belino,
2017). This is grasping the essence of the text and checking for possible fallacies orerrors in the argument.

What are evaluative statements?

1. It is a way of giving a better explanation to show the strength and the weakness of something
through writing.
2. It presents a value judgment based on a set of criteria.
3. It is used in giving a sound judgment - a judgment that can be backed up or supported by valid
reasons or proof.
4. It is the writer’s way of explaining why a strength is a strength and a weakness is a weakness
based on the pieces of evidence gathered.
logical arguments.