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V
Foolproof Guide to Statistics
using IBM SPSS
2nd Edition
4
1 Dr Adelma Hills =
Copyright © Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 2014 – 9781442549821 - Hills/Foolproof Guide to Statistics using IBM SPSS 2e

MAT09_Basic3_6-297x210.indd 1 21/1/11 2:01:42 PM

 1 Introduction 1

1 INTRODUCTION

About this book

The intention with this guide is to provide a foundation from which readers can develop their under‐
standing of statistics, and their skill in using SPSS. It is not intended as an exhaustive text on either. The
domain of statistics, in its full complexity, is vast. Many modern text books aim to be relatively com‐
prehensive in their coverage, but in doing so, they can overwhelm the limited information processing
capabilities of the poor human user—particularly the new and/or infrequent user. SPSS, like so many
software programs, is similarly vast and can do pretty much “anything” statistical, but to make full use
of the program you need an extensive knowledge of its capabilities and operations. Many of these
capabilities go beyond the user‐friendly, point‐and‐click procedures and require the use of syntax
(instructions written in the code language of SPSS). A basic introduction to syntax is provided at vari‐
ous points in this guide.

The aim then, is to provide the essential information students and researchers need in order to have a
fundamental grasp of a range of statistical techniques, and essential practical skills in using SPSS for
Windows. This guide should always be accompanied by more comprehensive texts that can be con‐
sulted for more detailed or specialised information. For example, texts1 by Field (2005), Green and
Salkind (2005), Howell (2002), Pallant (2007), and Tabachnick and Fidell (2007) are all useful as
alternative sources of information, or more comprehensive texts.

Important . . .
Throughout the guide procedures are described for getting things done in SPSS, but very often there
are alternative ways of achieving the same outcome. You might find the alternatives easier or prefer‐
able to the one provided. Therefore, as you acquire confidence, it is essential that you explore all the
menus and option buttons; and consult the extensive Help (F1 key) that is provided in SPSS, so you can
develop a high level of expertise, solve any problems you encounter, and learn about advanced topics.
SPSS for Windows is actually quite easy to use, but real skill only comes with practice. One learns by
doing! Once you can “think” like SPSS you can wean yourself away from guidebooks and work out how
to do things yourself.

It is also important to be aware that computers and their associated software programs are marvellous
tools when they serve us; but they have a sinister potential when we serve them. Increasingly, software
programs automate many operations, but this increases the helpless dependence of the human user.
SPSS has innumerable default options, and this book relies on many of them, but as one becomes more
experienced default options should always be investigated and a decision should be made as to
whether or not they are appropriate. Users of SPSS can easily generate misleading results—or even
utter garbage—if they mindlessly point‐and‐click without really knowing what they are doing.

Changing technology
Constant technological change is now a fact of life, and one of the most important skills to develop is
the ability to adapt to change. Once you understand how computers and software programs work it is
usually relatively easy to figure out changes and adapt to them yourself. SPSS upgrades frequently so
be prepared for changes that may not yet have been updated in textbooks or guidebooks. Similarly, be

1 Text books are updating all the time, so always check to see if a later edition is available.

Copyright © Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 2014 – 9781442549821 - Hills/Foolproof Guide to Statistics using IBM SPSS 2e
 2 Foolproof guide to statistics using SPSS

prepared for differences if you are using an older version of SPSS, or even if you are using a student
version. If you encounter any such changes from the material in this text, try to work them out your‐
self, rather than depending on an explanation from someone else.

Computers and computing

To use SPSS for Windows effectively you need to make sure you are familiar with the computer system
you are using. Make this your first task. This includes knowing where to find and start programs such
as SPSS, knowing where to find files on the hard disk or network, and knowing how to log on to net‐
works if you are using one (e.g., in university computer labs).

One issue in the use of computers is document location. Windows programs control the storing of files
(documents) in various folders, but the user may have no idea where they are on the hard disk. Some
users, however, prefer to control this process themselves, keeping all their data in a personal folder
separate from programs—usually the My Documents folder. The Windows Explorer program allows
you to navigate through the folder structure, create your own folders, and exchange files among them,
as well as easily copy to disks, CDs or DVDs, or USB flash drives. (Note that Windows Explorer is a
Windows accessory program for managing files; it is not to be confused with the internet browser
Internet Explorer.)

Users of Macintosh computers need to have a similar understanding of their system.

VERY important: Backing up your work

Always be sure to back up any work you want to keep, as a safeguard against system failure. There are
automated ways of doing this, or in the interests of maintaining some sense of control users like me
prefer to do this manually—it’s easy once you develop the habit. At the end of each session (or during
the session if you are particularly obsessive) you can use Windows Explorer to quickly copy files to
other storage devices (e.g., USB flash drives).

Basic statistical concepts

The remainder of this book provides the fundamentals you need in order to use the various statistical
techniques, and SPSS to perform the analyses. Early chapters in each section deal with the basic tech‐
niques and include manual calculations to enhance your understanding of what the analysis is actually
doing. Later chapters deal with advanced techniques.

Before proceeding, make sure you are familiar with the following statistical concepts. These must be
part of the general knowledge of any graduate in disciplines that involve quantitative research.

Variables
A variable is any attribute that can vary (e.g., age, gender, religion, self‐esteem, air temperature, circle
diameter, etc.), as opposed to a constant that always has the same value (e.g., pi, the ratio of the cir‐
cumference of a circle to its diameter). Constants are relatively rare in the behavioural sciences, al‐
though a variable can be held constant in a research study by only considering one of its values (e.g.,
women in the case of gender). Measures of variables are the data of quantitative research.

Population
In research, interest is in understanding the nature of variables in a large group of people—the popu­
lation of interest (e.g., the ages of first year students at a particular university, or in a particular state,
or in the whole country). A summary measure of some population variable (e.g., average age) is known
as a parameter.

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 1 Introduction 3

Samples and random samples

Usually it is not practicable to measure every member of the population in order to determine a popu‐
lation parameter. Instead we take a sample or subset of people from the population. A summary
measure from a sample is known as a statistic, and it is used as an estimator of the population pa‐
rameter.

For the sample statistic to be a good estimator of the population parameter the sample must be repre­
sentative of the population, and not biased in any way. Would a sample of students from an evening
class be likely to give an unbiased estimate of the average age of first year psychology students at a
university? I hope you can see that the answer is “no”—why?—because it is likely to be biased toward
older people who are working during the day.

The best way to achieve a representative sample is via random sampling. A random sample is one in
which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected in the sample.

Descriptive and inferential statistics

There are two goals of analysis. The first is simply to describe the sample (or sometimes the popula‐
tion), using techniques that organise and summarise the data. This is the province of descriptive
statistics.

A second goal is to use sample statistics to make inferences about population parameters, or to use
relationships found in a sample to make inferences about the relationships that exist in the popula‐
tion. This is the province of inferential statistics.

Hypothesis
The basis of research is a clear and concise research question. Reference to extant theory then leads
wherever possible to expression of the research question in terms of a hypothesis. This is a tentative
statement about the relationship between two or more variables. The aim of the research is then to
test the research hypothesis, by finding evidence that either supports or refutes it. (Note that a hy‐
pothesis is never “proved”1; it can only be supported.) Variables can be positively related (as one
increases the other increases), negatively related (as one increases the other decreases), or unrelated
(changes in one are not associated with any predictable change in the other). In experimental re‐
search causal relationships are investigated by looking for differences between groups treated differ‐
ently. For example, if a negative causal relationship is hypothesised between test difficulty and per‐
formance, this can be tested by giving one group of research participants a difficult test and another
group an easy test. If the group with the difficult test performs worse the hypothesis is supported.

The main types of variables in research

In research we hypothesise that one variable (e.g., X) will affect or be related to another (Y), that is, we
hypothesise that X will cause changes in Y, or we hypothesise that X will simply be related to Y. To test
this hypothesis we manipulate (in experimental research) or select (in correlational research) the
levels of X and measure participants' responses on Y as a function of the different levels of X.

The variable that is manipulated or selected in the research design is known as the independent
variable. It is usually abbreviated as the IV.

1 We are very tiny creatures inhabiting a small planet, orbiting a nondescript star, one of billions and
billions and billions in the known universe. We only have access to a part of reality and can’t be abso‐
lutely certain of anything. It helps to remember this, and to continually question what we think we
know.

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 4 Foolproof guide to statistics using SPSS

The variable that is observed and measured in response to the independent variable is known as the
dependent variable; that is, its values depend on the levels of the independent variable. DV is the
abbreviation.

Note that in correlational research, which tests relationship not causation, it is actually more correct to
refer to the IV as the predictor, and the DV as the criterion.

Control variables are those that are held constant in a study.

Internal and external validity

Be very careful of the term validity; it is a very important term that has somewhat different meanings
in different contexts—be sure you always fully understand it. In the context of research, there are two
main kinds of validity.

Internal validity refers to the accuracy of any conclusions we draw about the causal relationship
between the IV and DV. It is threatened to the extent that the observed relationship can be attributed
to other things. Consider the test difficulty example used previously. If all the participants working on
the difficult test did so in a hot, confined room, while those working on the easy test were in a comfort‐
able room, then performance differences might have been caused by the environmental conditions
and not by the difficulty of the test.

External validity refers to the extent to which research conclusions can be generalised beyond the
specific research context, that is, to different people, places, and times. For example, can research
findings in Australia be generalised to Inuit people living in Alaska; or research findings with 20‐year‐
olds be generalised to 80‐year‐olds? The answers depend on the circumstances of the particular re‐
search study.

Quantification of variables: Levels of measurement

In order to conduct quantitative research we need to be able to quantify or measure variables. There
is, of course, another type of research, namely qualitative research that uses thematic analysis of
qualitative data (e.g., interviews, texts, videos of behaviour), not statistical analysis of quantitative
data; however, it is not the subject of this book. In quantifying variables there are four types of meas‐
urement scale that you must understand:

Nominal or categorical scales involve using numbers simply as codes for some attribute. For
instance, we might code different religions as:
1= Protestant 2= Catholic 3=Baptist 4=Other

In nominal scales there is no mathematical relationship between the numbers (i.e., 1 is in no way
bigger, smaller, better, more than, or less than 2). Nominal variables are often referred to as categori­
cal variables, or even as qualitative variables.
Nominal variables that can have only two values (e.g., gender) are known as dichotomous variables.

Ordinal scales involve numbers that do indicate some mathematical rank order, but the intervals
between ranks are not necessarily equal. For example, when asked to list six life goals in order of their
importance to her, a participant produces this list:
1 Material Wealth
2 Pleasure
3 Security
4 Freedom
5 A World of Peace
6 Salvation

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 1 Introduction 5

This is a rank order. It tells us, for instance, that material wealth is more important to the person than
pleasure, but we cannot say that the intervals between goals are the same. The first four could be of
near equal importance, while the fifth and sixth ones may be much further removed.

Interval scales also assign numbers to a characteristic, but in this case there is a strong mathematical
relationship between the numbers, as each interval is equal. The classic example of an interval scale is
the temperature scale (Fahrenheit or Centigrade).
The thing to note about an interval scale is that it does not have a true zero; 0°C or 0°F does not indi‐
cate a complete absence of heat. In the absence of a true zero it is NOT the case, for example, that 4 can
be regarded as twice as much as 2. Forty degrees centigrade is not twice as hot as 20°C, although the
difference between 40°C and 50°C is the same as the difference between 20°C and 30°C.

Ratio scales involve an even stronger mathematical relationship; not only are the intervals between
the numbers or scale values equal, but there is a true zero so that 4 is twice as much as 2. Distance is
a ratio scale as 0 indicates no distance, and 10 km is twice as far as 5 km.

Discrete and continuous variables

Nominal variables are sometimes referred to as discrete variables, because they have fixed values,
and it is not possible to have smaller values between them (e.g., you cannot really be .5 of a man).

Interval or ratio variables, on the other hand, are often continuous variables, because they can be
broken up into any number of finer divisions. Variables such as distance, for example, are continuous.
Depending on how finely we measure the distance between two points there can be anything up to an
infinite number of measures (e.g., 15 km, 14.91 km, 14.907 km, 14.9068 km etc.). However, interval or
ratio variables can also be discrete (e.g., number of children in the family, where it is not possible for a
family to have 3.65 or 3.642 children).

Levels of measurement in psychology

In psychology we often use rating scales similar to the following, where participants tick a box to
indicate where they stand:
Political advertising should not be permitted on television in the last week before an election.

      
Strongly Disagree Slightly Neutral Slightly Agree Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree

We then code these scales numerically (e.g., 1 to 7, or ‐3 to 3), and strictly speaking they are ordinal
scales. Nonetheless, it is common in psychology to regard them as if they are interval scales. It is
assumed that the psychological intervals are about the same.

Be aware this is quite a controversial issue, and different researchers and textbooks can take different
points of view.

Introduction to research design and statistics

Despite the dread induced in students by research and, even worse, statistics, quantitative research
design and analysis (statistics) are really based on very simple ideas. If you understand the simple
foundations you will not be so overwhelmed by the details, although you must be sure to retain
concepts, as later ones build on earlier ones, and you will soon be overwhelmed if you forget what is
learned at each step.

In essence, quantitative research is about commonsense pattern recognition. One of the simplest
forms of pattern recognition involves identifying what things occur together, so you can predict one on

Copyright © Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 2014 – 9781442549821 - Hills/Foolproof Guide to Statistics using IBM SPSS 2e
 6 Foolproof guide to statistics using SPSS

the basis of the other. This in essence is what correlation is about, but you need to be very careful with
the interpretation. Just because things occur together does not necessarily mean that one causes the
other. Perhaps the most fundamental issue of all is that of causation.

Usually, what we most want to identify are cause and effect relationships. The commonsense way to
do this is to experiment. If you think X might cause Y, then manipulate X and see if Y changes accord‐
ingly, and do this repeatedly so you can rule out chance as an explanation.

Research designs
These commonsense approaches to understanding how the world works are the basis of the two main
types of research design, namely nonexperimental and experimental.

Nonexperimental or correlational designs assess relationships among variables.

Experimental designs attempt to assess cause and effect. We measure group differences on the effect
variable (the dependent variable, DV) for groups of research participants treated differently on the
hypothesised causal variable (the independent variable, IV). The defining feature of experimental
designs is that the researcher actively manipulates the IV. True experiments use randomly formed
groups of participants; quasi experiments use intact (i.e., preexisting) groups.

Two types of experimental designs are between­groups (or between­subjects) where different
groups of participants receive the different manipulations of the IV, and repeated measures (or
within­subjects) where only one group of participants receives the different manipulations of the IV
on different occasions.

When conducting and writing up research, never get confused between experimental and correla­
tional research designs. In particular, never use causal terminology such as “effect of” or “influence
of” or “impact of” etc. when you only have a correlational design. Instead, be sure to only talk about
relationships. You may wish to argue on logical grounds for a causal relationship, but you must not
assume it from the design. Do not ever forget this!

Analysis techniques
Even though research designs and analysis techniques are intimately related, they are not one‐in‐the‐
same. Analysis of Variance (abbreviated as ANOVA), for instance, is the analysis technique for analys‐
ing group differences, and is the main analysis for experimental research designs when the groups
receive different levels of a manipulated variable (e.g., different amounts of a drug, different room
temperatures). However, it can be also used for nonexperimental correlational research designs
when the groups comprise a naturally occurring variable such as gender.

Always be alert to the natural groups nonexperimental design depicted on the next page. Arguably,
the term natural groups (Shaughnessy, Zechmeister, & Zechmeister, 2000, pp. 235‐238) best describes
this design, but different texts often use different terms. Very often too, the design is included under
quasi experiments, which is not appropriate—it is not an experiment because there is no manipula‐
tion. Furthermore, the design is fundamentally correlational in nature; it tests relationship, not causa‐
tion.

The different types of research design and analysis are illustrated on the next page.

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 1 Introduction 7

Types of quantitative research design and statistical analysis

Experimental Design Nonexperimental (Correlational) Design
True experiment Quasi experiment Natural groups Correlational
Manipulate IV: Manipulate IV: “IV” occurs naturally No manipulation or
Administer different Administer different levels and is not manipu- selection into groups:
levels of IV to different of IV to different groups of lated: Simply measure all vari-
groups of participants. participants. Levels of IV are selected ables of interest and
and represented by assess relationships among
Groups formed by Intact groups used, often discrete groups (e.g., these naturally occurring
random assignment (in in natural settings (e.g., gender, age-group, high variables.
between-groups de- school classes, shifts of versus low self-esteem
signs). workers). groups, religion).

Control other relevant Control of other variables is

variables (i.e., hold them problematic.
constant).

Causal inference can Causal inference is Cannot infer causation from design.
be inferred. problematic. Control of other variables is problematic, and other
Can infer from the Depends on explicitly ruling variables may be the cause of observed relationships;
design that IV causes out threats to causal hence causal inference is much more difficult and
the DV. inference (i.e., to internal cannot be made from the design itself. Researcher may
validity). be able to argue causation on logical grounds alone.

Significance of group differences Relationship among variables

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) “family” of statistics Correlational “family” of statistics
(and their nonparametric alternatives) (and their nonparametric alternatives)

Between-groups designs: Two-variables:

2 groups: Independent t test (Mann-Whitney) Pearson bivariate correlation and regression
3+ groups: One-way ANOVA (Kruskal-Wallis) Spearman nonparametric alternative
2+ IVs: Factorial ANOVA

Repeated measures designs: Relationship between several “IVs” (predictors) and

2 levels: Dependent t test (Wilcoxon) one “DV” (outcome or criterion):
3+ levels: One-way repeated ANOVA (Friedman) Multiple regression
2+ IVs: Factorial repeated ANOVA Logistic regression (nonparametric)

Other ANOVA designs: Structure (relationship pattern) in set of variables:

Mixed ANOVA (Between- and repeated IVs) Principal components or factor analysis
ANCOVA Analysis of Covariance Cluster analysis (nonparametric)
MANOVA Multivariate ANOVA (multiple DVs) Multidimensional scaling (nonparametric)

Frequency (Nominal) data: Frequency (Nominal) data:

One-way and two-way chi-square (nonparametric) One-way and two-way chi-square (nonparametric)
Multiway frequency analysis (nonparametric) Multiway frequency analysis

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 8 Foolproof guide to statistics using SPSS

2 ENTERING AND SAVING DATA IN SPSS

Getting things done in SPSS is usually a matter of pointing and clicking (or double‐clicking) on the
appropriate icon, then pointing and clicking instructions for what you want to do. Many operations can
also be performed by selecting from pull‐down menus. You are free to choose which technique you
prefer to use. Also, there are often several different ways of doing the same thing: which technique you
use is a matter of personal preference. You may find and prefer alternative ways of doing many of the
things covered in this text.

The main SPSS window appears as follows. Data are entered in this Data View window, but not before
you have defined your variables by clicking on the Variable View tab at the bottom to go to the Vari­
able View window. Note that the colour scheme and style may vary, depending on the Windows
software version you are using and the style preferences that have been selected.

Menu bar: Click on

words to pull down
menus for performing
tasks.

Icon bar: Click on

icons to perform
tasks. Point to Click on each of these three buttons to control the window:
each one and it
To minimise the window to just a title button at bottom of screen
will tell you what it
(then click title button to restore)
does.
To reduce the window size , then maximize to full screen again

To Exit from SPSS

This active tab shows you are
in Data View, where the data
are entered and viewed.

To start, before we enter any data, we need to tell SPSS all about the
variables. Click on this tab to go into Variable View, where variables can be
named and formatted, as explained on following pages.

Saving the contents of SPSS windows

The contents of any window can be saved to a file on the hard disk, floppy disk, CD or DVD, USB flash
drive, or network etc. SPSS works with three types of windows (and files):

Data windows are where variables are defined and data are entered (as explained on the following
pages). Data window contents are saved in data documents or files, to which SPSS gives the extension
sav.

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 2 Entering data 9

Output windows are where SPSS places the output or results of statistical analyses. The contents of
output windows are saved in SPSS viewer documents, to which it gives the extension spo.

Syntax windows are where SPSS commands or control lines can be typed, then run to perform any
statistical analysis. We only tend to use syntax for more complex analyses. The contents of syntax
windows are saved in text documents, to which SPSS gives the extension sps.

Whenever you are working with any of these windows and you want to keep the contents, remember
to ask SPSS to save the document. The contents of any window can be saved as follows: .

1 How to: Save window contents to documents (files)

[For example, to save the contents of a Data window, select Menu options by clicking as follows:]
File
Save As...
This calls up the Save Data As dialog box, as demonstrated below.
When you have specified the location and file name click on Save button.

Important: If successfully saved, the window heading will change to the new file name. If this does not happen you
have done something wrong, and the file has not been saved!

Saving subsequent versions of a file:

Once a file has been named, subsequent versions can be saved by choosing the File option from the Menu bar,
then simply click on the Save option, OR just click on the save icon (second from left on the icon bar). Note
that subsequent versions replace the earlier version.

Click this right arrow, then select the drive or folder

where you want to save the file (e.g., to save to a
USB flash drive, select the relevant drive as shown).

In the space for File name: type the name you would like to give
the file (e.g., DemoSPSS). SPSS automatically adds the .sav
extension (indicating a data file).

Copyright © Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 2014 – 9781442549821 - Hills/Foolproof Guide to Statistics using IBM SPSS 2e
 10 Foolproof guide to statistics using SPSS

Defining variables
Let us move on now to learn about how to enter data into SPSS. Suppose that data on age and gender
are to be recorded for a class of 10 students. We must first define these variables in Variable View.

The Variable View window is shown here, with column reference numbers added for the important
columns to cross reference to the explanations below.

4
5
1 2 3 6

Don’t forget
5a to click Add

If you click on a cell in any column except Name and Label an arrow or arrows selector (as shown in
column 3 for Decimals) or option indicator (as shown in column 5 for Values) appears to the right of
the cell.
Arrow selectors: If you click on the arrows you can change the settings. In this example, none of the
variables uses any decimal places, so each has been changed to 0, as shown here for age. (To save time
you can then copy and paste from this one to the others.)

Option indicators: If you click on cells in any of the columns Type, Values, or Missing an option
indicator appears to the right of the cell, as shown here in the Values column for gender (this is ex‐
plained below).

1. Name column: Here, you type the short name of each variable. For this example, ID has been
typed in the first row of the Name column, gender in the second row, and age in the third row.
Once you name the variables in Variable View, SPSS heads the columns in Data View with
these names.

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 2 Entering data 11

Although SPSS already has case numbers down the left hand side of the data window, it is a very
good idea to include an ID variable as a unique identifier for each participant, because SPSS of‐
ten rearranges the data during analysis. When this happens the numbers down the side no
longer correspond to the correct participant number.

2. Type column: This can be left as the default Numeric for variables that are numbers. If, how‐
ever, you have alphabetic variables (e.g., if you wish to literally type in “male” and “female” for
gender) you would need to activate the Numeric dialogue box, and select the  String option,
which means alphabetic characters.

3. Decimals column: This is where you specify the number of decimal places you want for each
variable, by clicking on the arrow indicators accordingly.

4. Label column (optional): Where a longer, more explanatory, variable name is desired in the
printed output, type such names in the Label column, as shown here for ID.

5. Values column: Here is an example of an option indicator. When it is clicked upon, a dialog box
appears for Value Labels (as shown). In order to perform statistical analyses on a nominal (or
categorical) variable such as gender it must be assigned numerical codes (e.g., 0=Male,
1=Female). This column enables you to specify how such variables are coded.

To tell SPSS how gender is coded in this example, type in the Value Labels dialogue box as fol‐
lows (Note: these steps have already been completed in the example for the 0 value):

[In the space for] Value [type] 0 [note this is zero, not letter O]
[Hit the Tab key, then in the space for] Value Label [type] Male
[Click on the button ] Add
[Cursor moves to the space for] Value [type] 1
[Hit the Tab key, then in the space for] Value Label [type] Female
[Click on the button ] Add
[Click on the button ] OK

6. Measure column: There are three options here for specifying the level of measurement of the
variables, namely, Scale (interval or continuous), Ordinal, and Nominal (categorical). In this
example ID and gender have been changed to nominal.

Of the remaining columns, Width only needs to be changed if your data are likely to need more than
the default of 8 characters (as may be the case if you are entering text for a string variable). Missing is
used if you want to assign codes for different types of missing data, while Columns and Align control
the physical width and alignment respectively of the data columns in the Data View window.

Copyright © Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 2014 – 9781442549821 - Hills/Foolproof Guide to Statistics using IBM SPSS 2e
 12 Foolproof guide to statistics using SPSS

Entering data
Now that the variables have been defined in Variable View you can click on the Data View tab at the
bottom left to move back to the data window where the actual data (listed here) can be entered. Below
are versions of the Data View window after these data have been entered.

ID Gender Age
1 0 18
2 1 19
3 1 18
4 0 18
5 1 32
6 1 19
7 0 40
8 1 18
9 1 19
10 0 20

If you click on the View menu option, then select Value Labels in the dialog
box that appears (so that it is ticked) values, rather than numbers, can be
displayed for nominal variables, as shown here for gender.

As you type data in the active

cell (highlighted in yellow
below) it will also appear in this
space. When you hit the
keyboard Enter or arrow keys,
it will be stored in the active
cell only.

This yellow highlighted cell with the rectangle around it is the active
cell where you type the data.
You use the keyboard arrow keys to move to other cells.

Remember: After all the data have been defined and entered, save the data
file as demonstrated at the beginning of this chapter.

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 2 Entering data 13

Using SPSS to perform a simple frequency analysis

2 How to: Perform a frequency analysis

[Select Menu options by clicking with mouse on:]

Analyze
Descriptive Statistics 
Frequencies…
[In dialog box select required variables by clicking on variable name, then on arrow button]
age 
gender 
[Click on] OK

To deselect variables:
Click on them, then send them back to the list of variables by clicking on the arrow that will now be pointing in the
reverse (send back) direction ().
To remove all selections and return everything to its default setting, click on the Reset button.

Examining the output

SPSS moves to the Output window where the results of this analysis (the output) appear. .

Click on the up or
down pointing
triangles in the
scrollbar at the right
of the window to
scroll up (or down).

This is the What is this output telling you?

Navigation What percentage of students is
panel. Click on female? How many students are
any section of aged 18 years?
the output to go
to it directly. To exit SPSS completely double-
click on the “kill” button, the very
top right-hand button. Then,
if you do not want to save any of
this to disk, click on No for any
dialog boxes that appear. If you
do want to save any window
contents, refer back to the
instructions at the beginning of the
chapter.

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 14 Foolproof guide to statistics using SPSS

3 THE PROBLEM OF VARIABILITY:

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR CENTRAL
TENDENCY AND VARIANCE

If human beings and other living organisms were like pieces of metal, copper for instance, behavioural
science research would be relatively easy. Any piece of copper behaves like any other piece of copper
of equivalent purity under the same conditions. Therefore, if you want to establish the effect on copper
of changes in temperature any individual sample will suffice.

This is not the case in the biological and behavioural sciences where there exists the problem of vari‐
ability! Living organisms are complex entities whose behaviour (both physical and behavioural) is
determined by innumerable variables. Thus, for example, the effect of a given drug on one individual
may be quite different to the effect of the same drug on another individual; it may have a large effect on
one individual and little or no effect on another. Moreover, if it is a drug hypothesised to affect blood
pressure, for instance, it will be difficult to compare effects across individuals because those individu‐
als are likely to have a range of different blood pressure levels to begin with for a range of different
reasons.

The way this problem has traditionally been dealt with in disciplines such as psychology is to average
across individuals and determine how much of the entire variance in a sample of individual scores can
be explained or accounted for by a particular variable (the drug in this example). Inferential statistics
are then used to generalise from the sample to the population. Of course, what this means is that we
have an estimate of the average effect in the whole population, but we are not able to specify the effect
for any given individual, especially when the proportion of variance explained is quite small—as it very
often is in the social and behavioural sciences.

The problem of individual variability underpins the whole of behavioural research and the whole of
statistics. In fact, statistics is nothing more than an elaborate device for trying to deal with variability.

Summary statistics
In averaging across individuals, two summary descriptive statistics are needed to summarise or de‐
scribe a sample. The first is a measure of the central tendency (i.e., the average score in the sample),
and the second is a measure of the average variability or variance about that average score. Both
measures are necessary to adequately describe the sample. To know, for example, that the average
income in a country is $150,000 is not enough; you would not rush over there until you knew the
variability. You might be less enthusiastic if you discovered that there is a large variance and that
incomes actually range from $5,000 (for most of the population) to $900,000 (for the ruling elite). If,
on the other hand, the variance was small, with incomes ranging from $145,000 to $155,000, you may
well be applying to emigrate.

The remainder of this chapter reviews measures of central tendency and variance, but first a word
about statistical notation.

Statistical notation
In order to understand statistics you to need to be familiar with statistical notation, that is, the set of
abbreviations used to represent statistical concepts. Among the main symbols are:
N refers to the total number of scores (participants) in a sample

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 3 Variability 15

n refers to the number of scores in a subset of a sample

X refers to any score

 means the sum of (it is the Greek capital letter, sigma)

X is the symbol used in calculations for the mean ("X‐bar"), however, when writing re‐
search reports use M for the mean and SD for the standard deviation.

Note that most symbols are in italics.

Measures of central tendency and variability

The mode
The simplest measure of central tendency is the mode, which is just the most frequently oc­
curring score or scores.

To find the mode, list the scores in order, then locate the score or scores with the highest fre‐
quency.

The mode can be found for nominal level data and above.

There is no specific measure of variability to accompany the mode, although with ordinal, inter‐
val or ratio level data, the range should be indicated (see below).

2 3 4 4 5 6 6 6 7 8 Mode = 6

The median, the range, and the semi-interquartile range

The median is the measure of central tendency that corresponds to the 50th percentile, that is,
the score that separates the bottom 50% of scores from the top 50% of scores.

To find the median, first list the scores in order, then locate the middle score.

The median is used with ordinal level data and above.

The abbreviation used for the median in written reports is Mdn.

2 3 4 4 5 6 6 6 7 8 Mdn = 5.5

1 1 2 2 3 4 6 6 6 7 8 Mdn = 4

3 4 5 8 8 9 Mdn = 5 + ( (8 ‐ 5) / 2 )
= 5+3/2
= 5 + 1.5
= 6.5

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 16 Foolproof guide to statistics using SPSS

The range is the measure of variability that accompanies the median. It is the distance between
the highest and lowest scores. Scores must be listed in order to determine the range.

2344566678 Range = 8 ­ 2 = 6

The semi­interquartile range is half the distance between the 25th and 75th percentiles (i.e.,
half the distance between the bottom 25% of scores and the top 25% of scores; or the 50% of
scores that fall either side of the median).

The range and semi‐interquartile range are used with ordinal level data and above.

The median is the most appropriate measure of central tendency for ordinal data. The range
can be used as the measure of variability, although the presence of extreme scores or outliers
can make it misleading. Hence, some texts recommend the use of the semi­interquartile range
as the best indicator of variability in ordinal level data (accompanying the median).

The mean, the variance, and the standard deviation

The mean is the most frequently used measure of central tendency. It is the arithmetic "average".

Note that the statistical symbol for the mean used in calculations is X .

The symbol for the mean used in written reports is M.

The mean is used with interval level data and above.

To demonstrate how the mean is calculated, let us use the same set of figures as for the mode
and median, but note there is no need to arrange them order.

Participant
Number X
(ID)
1 6
2 4
3 3
4 2
5 6
6 8
7 7
8 5
9 6
10 4
N = 10 X = 51

Using the formula for the mean, we calculate is as follows:

ΣX
X
N
51

10
 5.1

For this set of data note that the mean is 5.1, the median is 5.5, and the mode is 6.

Copyright © Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 2014 – 9781442549821 - Hills/Foolproof Guide to Statistics using IBM SPSS 2e
 3 Variability 17

This discrepancy in the three measures of central tendency is due to the negative skew1 in the
scores. In a perfectly symmetrical distribution the mode, median, and mean will be the same, but
in skewed distributions they are spread apart.

The standard deviation approximates the average amount by which scores deviate from the mean,
and the variance is the standard deviation squared.

For data that are interval level or above, the mean is the most appropriate measure of central
tendency, and the standard deviation is the most appropriate measure of variability.
The statistical symbol for standard deviation used in most calculations is s.
The symbol for standard deviation used in written reports is SD.
The statistical symbol for variance used in most calculations is: s 2 .
There are two ways to calculate the variance and standard deviation. The most useful way for
conceptual understanding is to use the deviation score formula, as follows (note it requires
the mean to be calculated first):

ID X X- X (X- X )2
x x2
(Deviation score) (Squared deviation score)
1 7 1.2 1.44
2 3 -2.8 7.84
3 9 3.2 10.24
4 4 -1.8 3.24
5 6 0.2 0.04
N=5  X = 29  x = 0.0  x = 22.80
2

Sum of deviation scores Sum of squared

Always equals 0 deviation scores
SUM OF SQUARES (SS)

ΣX
X 
N
29

5
 5.8

s variance  
2 Σx 2 s SD   s 2
N -1
 5.7
22.80

4  2.3875
 5.7  2.39

1 Skewness is explained in the next chapter.

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 18 Foolproof guide to statistics using SPSS

The most efficient formula for calculation purposes is the raw score formula, as follows:

ID X X2
1 7 49
2 3 9
3 9 81
4 4 16
5 6 36
N=5  X = 29  X = 191
2

Variance calculation:

ΣX 2 
ΣX 2
s2  N
N 1

191 
29 
2

 5
5 1

841
191 
 5
4

191  168.2

4

22.8

4

 5.7

Standard deviation calculation (square root of variance):

2
s(SD )  s

 5.7

 2.3875

 2.39

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 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
Six unsophisticated policemen, anxious to show their mettle and
overzealous in the performance of their duty, discovered a hilarious
and richly paying crap game running at Lake and Carpenter streets.
They decided it was their duty to raid it. They did so. They thought
they would be commended by their superior officers for their
conduct.
Instead of commendation they were told they were inefficient and
material that would never make good policemen.
Two days later they were transferred to South Chicago. That meant
that they were obliged to travel thirty-two miles each day from their
homes on the West side to their posts on the far South side.
Is it necessary to say why?
Simply because in doing their duty in raiding the crap game, they
spoiled the profits of the Vice Trust. The game was run by a man
who paid an enormous amount of monthly protection money to
these men’s masters. They had “tread on somebody’s feet.”
Investigation of records of transfers in the department showed that
thirty per cent of the transfers were caused for such reasons. The
record sheets of men showed, in many instances, that a few days
before their transfers they had antagonized the great Vice Trust by
attempting to do their duty to the public which entrusted them to
enforce the laws.
As an instance of how the “transfer game” may be worked with
telling effect even on a police official who refuses to give his powers
to the protection of gambling, the following suits the purpose.
A prominent political leader, anxious to gather spoils, went to a
certain police lieutenant on the North side, and said to him:
“Well, we’re going to start something up this way.”
“Not unless it’s on the order books and the captain stands for it,”
answered the police officer carefully.
Result:—
The next day that lieutenant was transferred by the powers of the
Vice Trust. One hour and a half after his successor took his place,
the new commander was seen watching a street faro game in
progress. He stood across from it and watched the gambling
combine’s agent skin the “pikers” and he never moved to stop it.
Certain policemen in Chicago who are compelled to arrest certain
well known criminal characters, cheat justice even after the arrests
are made. They send the criminals to certain corrupt criminal
lawyers. Then when the case comes to trial, the policemen lose their
memories and do not remember the incriminating circumstances
under which their prisoners were taken. These policemen receive a
percentage, amounting to about fifty per cent, on the cases which
they give to this class of shysters.
Could Chicago have a deeper blot of shame, dishonor and disgrace
on her escutcheon than the present police department?
Can the condition be remedied?
Is there hope that some day criminals may be locked behind barred
doors that gold cannot pick?
There is always hope while honest men and women live and struggle
to build up a city to rear their children unsullied. The police
department is only one part of a great slave system. The evil is back
at the ballot box. It is the old and only solution here as elsewhere, in
the conditions that make Chicago the “wickedest city in the world.”
That solution is the annihilation AT THE BALLOT BOX of the powers
of vice, graft and sin,—the Vice Trust with its Directorate of Ten.
The civic conscience will arouse itself from its lethargy and some day
purge out the evils that have thrived so prosperously for so many
years.
 CHAPTER X.
What Are You Going To Do About It?
The Cause of the Great Evils—A Warning—The Duty of
Parents—Conclusion.
Christ, prostrate at Gethsemane and hanging in his death agony
upon the cross, prayed for a dying, decaying world’s redemption.
Chicago was included in the divine plan of things since the
beginning.
Chicago has not been forgotten.
Though her sins are as scarlet, they shall be washed as white as
snow.
There is within the community a slowly awakening civic conscience.
It shall arouse itself to deathless activity and wrest the Windy City
from the forces that prey upon it. That is our prophecy.
The religious thought, the religious mind, the religious heart are
ready to do battle for the God of righteousness.
Behind the telling of this story of Vice, Graft and Political Corruption
has been but one predominating idea, the revelation of the truth
about Chicago today.
There has been but one hope:—the arousing of Chicagoans to the
fight against corruption by revealing the terrible evils thriving about
them and the delivering of a warning to those in and out of the
great metropolis who, innocent and unsuspecting, might be trapped
in the lures of sin, evil and shame.
On the great white, festering ulcer of Chicago’s world of crime and
vice, we have turned the burning searchlight of truth. Into all the
dark corners, the pitfalls, the covered abysses and the paths that
lure and lead to Hell, has the light, blinding in its intensity, been
thrown.
In the beginning we started out to demonstrate the theory that vice
and crime as they exist and flourish today are so, because infamous
and degraded men have commercialized them.
It has been shown that thousands of innocent girls and women are
hurled into the bottomless pits of Hell annually, not because of a
social viciousness that has no palliative, but because a coterie of
Godless creatures value their bodies and souls at so many dollars
and cents.
It has been shown that back of all the wickedness and evil of
Chicago is the monumental and gigantic Vice Trust. The body,
composed of a directorate of ten men who for years have fattened
off the sins of fallen women and the crimes of inhuman men, has
been vivisected and analyzed in all its component parts.
Truly, we have painted Chicago as the wickedest city in the world.
We have not held it up and cried “Shame” for the sake of sensation.
We have sought to teach a lesson and utter a warning of vital
import.
If the reading of this book turns the thousands of women who yearly
stand on the brink of destruction, and saves them as an honor to the
motherhood of the race, then this book will have been of infinite
value.

CHICAGO—WICKEDEST CITY IN THE WORLD.

Its wickedness is the outgrowth of the terrible irreligious system of
commercialism that has reduced the sacred things of life to a filthy
gold and silver valuation.
As long as men whose consciences are stifled by gold dust, whose
souls are Godless, and whose hearts are dry and hard as rock,
control our ballot box, so long shall Chicago live under an infamous
stigma.
When the ballot box is cleansed of fraud, then the forces of sin will
be dissipated and the Vice Combine of today dissolved.
The “redlight” districts must stand as pesthouses where death feeds
on the bodies of men and women until the political foundations of
the Vice Trust are dynamited and destroyed. So, too, the saloons,
the dance halls, the thousands of dens of infamy and hell-holes,
where the seed of sin is sowed in the hearts of innocent girls.
The police department, as we have shown, is a helpless, dependent,
parasitic body. The Vice Trust has enslaved it. Just as long as the
Vice Trust exists, so long will the police department do its bidding,
while the laws are forgotten and disobeyed and a taxpaying public is
left to the mercy of thieves and murderers.
But—

WHAT ARE YOU GOING TO DO ABOUT IT?

Rise up and in a body of Christian manhood and womanhood slay
the monster of hellish iniquity.
But while the evil exists be prepared to fight against it for the sake
of yourselves and your children.
We have told a horrifying story to save the pure souls and undefiled
bodies of your sons and daughters.
Books have been written by the dozens on the question of White
Slavery as a warning to young girls and their parents as to how the
infamous agents of this soul and body traffic work.
The warning is timely.
But we have struck out into a broader pathway.
But one third of the lost women today are the victims of the White
Slave Traffic.
Two thirds of the girls who are dying slow deaths in the gilded dens
of infamy drifted there because they knew not the hideous,
paralyzing truth: because they dreamed not of the sorrow, shame,
hunger, remorse and despair that was to be their bitter mouthful
from the chalice of life.
To save the girls and women who in the future may form that two-
thirds battalion of human slaves has been our aim in treating of the
scarlet woman and her tribute to, and reward from the Vice Trust.
Few girls who today are tottering drunkenly and uncleanly to a
prostitute’s grave, ever dreamed of the fate in store as they sipped
the first glass of wine or felt the burning lips of an agent of Satan
upon their cheek.
We have set about to tell every woman what is the inevitable end of
the life of shame and sin.
To the girl who dreams of fine clothes, glittering jewelry, wine
suppers and association with men of brilliant character, down in the
hell-holes of Chicago, we say:
It is the greatest lie Satan ever invented to wrest your souls from
God and give your bodies to the unhallowed grave.
There is no hope to those who heed not the warning.
A life of sin in Chicago, is a life of slavery to the Vice Trust.
Over and over again on the rock of crime, the agents of that gigantic
combine will break each woman’s body, taking flesh, pound by
pound, and blood, drop by drop, until the last merciless toll has been
exacted on the brink of the grave.
When the mask is torn off, there is nothing to lure in the life of the
underworld.
It has been shown how the thousands of women in the segregated
districts are robbed of even the last dollar of their immoral earnings.
To every father and mother we cry out:
FOR GOD’S SAKE LET YOUR DAUGHTER KNOW THE TRUTH BEFORE
IT IS TOO LATE!
Tell her of the pitfalls that are ever about her; teach her the horror
and ignominy of the life of sin that may be the consequence of one
night in a cafe, or in an evil dance hall.
Put this book into her hands so that she may go forth to battle with
the powers of evil and pass through the white fire unscathed.

FOREWARNED IS FOREARMED.
To be prepared for life’s battle is the first victory.
If your daughter in the future is to make her living in the big city,
prepare her for the temptations that will beset her.
The truth may be an awful revelation to her, but the facts set forth in
this book, showing the fate of the scarlet woman who dreamed of
love, luxury and pleasure, and plunged into the lake of infamy, may
save her from a similar fate.
If you will save yourself, mother and father, from sitting about the
fireplace, wondering in the aching sorrow of your heart, as to where
your rosy-cheeked, bright-eyed daughter is, teach her the facts as
we have set them forth.
Teach her that it is not the White Slave Traffic she must dread alone.
Teach her that it is the place of amusement that seems innocent, the
drinking of pleasant drinks, the association with characterless men.
Once she tastes the fruit that is forbidden, the rest is days and
nights of drifting on and on until the whirlpool of vice swallows her.
For the sake of a glorious motherhood, for the sake of a new
generation of men and women who shall make earth a picture of the
eternal Paradise, let your daughter know the horrors of sin in a large
city.
All that has been said of the girl applies to the parent and the boy.
The boy here and the one who comes to Chicago must also know of
the paths, luring and attractive, that lead direct to the gates of Hell.
As you tuck your darling into his bed tonight, think of his future.
To be great he must be honest. To be a leader he must be pure of
heart. To be a true citizen he must be filled with the love of a true
and chaste womanhood, a despiser of mercenary ideals, an advocate
of good government and a supporter of inflexible and just laws.
He will carry on his struggle in the maelstrom of a large city, possibly
Chicago.
Is it fair to hurl him into the midst of temptations without weapons
to fight the demons of sin, crime, vice and corruption?
Tell him the truth. Let him read the truth.
Every young man should know the evils which wait ever ready to
trap him.
He should know of the great Vice Trust, of its system of slavery, of
its power and scope of operation, of its daily bartering of flesh and
blood, of its alliance with the dishonest gambling combine.
Then he will be prepared to gain the ranks of those who will battle
unwearyingly and ceaselessly against the monster.
Better that your daughter should sleep today underneath the green
sward in the country church yard, in the city cemetery, than be the
slave of a dastardly vice system, wearing her flesh away, damning
her soul and eating out her heart for her vice masters.
Better that your boy should be taken from you in the flush of early
manhood than that he should grow up to fall a hopeless victim to
the curse of a great city.
God gave you your child. He gave you a terrible responsibility—the
salvation of that child’s soul.
Therefore, prepare him or her for the battle “that goeth on unending
to the tomb.”
We have told the story of a City Defiled, of a city given over to the
powers of darkness. We have shown the existence of a Vice Body
and how it protects and feeds its thousands of slaves, permitting
them to live to turn more drops of blood into gold for them.

A PICTURE OF CHICAGO.
The story is a picture of Chicago, drawn only after the most
thorough investigation, but we venture to say that investigation
would reveal the same conditions in all the larger cities.
Sincerely we pray we have done good. Our exposure was
undertaken with a sense of duty to the 2,000,000 residents of
Chicago and to the thousands that swarm into her gates daily.
Chicago needs civic leaders, civic martyrs,—men and women who
will lead the army of Christian warriors to battle; men and women
who will lay down their lives that their homes may be without peril
from the terrible vice plague,—that their children may never know
the face of sin and vice.
Chicago is full of latent good, religious enthusiasm, moral courage. It
needs to be aroused.
One concerted blow struck at the head of the monster Vice would
cause its death.
Let Chicago’s Christian population strike the fatal blow.
Let us engage in an honest rebellion with patriotism to our children,
our country and our God, in our hearts.
Overthrow the Dynasty of Vice! Overthrow the corrupt political
system that established and today sustains the Vice Trust!
Voice is without power adequately to describe the inferno that burns
about us and daily offers to the god of the pagans as a propitiatory
sacrifice the souls of men and women.
The human mind, if it could conceive the real horror of the meaning,
—Vice Trust,—would be paralyzed by the revelation.
Chicago needs human redeemers,—God-inspired men and women.
Human persistency, concerted effort, backed by unconquerable wills
and hearts that hold God as a perpetual visitant, cannot fail.
We of this generation have a sacred duty.
That duty is the scourging of the Vice combine and the cleansing of
Chicago. That duty devolves on the reform leaders and their
thousands of Christian followers.
 THE STORY IS CONCLUDED.
The story is concluded. The trail of graft has been followed from the
ballot box to the dive, from the dive to the house of prostitution,
from the house of prostitution to the gambling hole and on up to the
houses of those debased public men and people-appointed
guardians of the law, who are today weighted down with the gold,
created by the melting of vice, sin and crime in the melting pot of
the underworld.
Chicago waits for salvation.
Who shall bring it the “tidings of great joy”?
Every father and mother, every man and woman, every youth and
maiden.
As a mighty army let us go forth. As a mighty army, with God’s
armor upon us, using all the means at our command, let us meet
and conquer the enemy.
With hearts thrilling with the horror of thousands of souls
precipitated to endless darkness, with souls full of divine charity for
our brothers and sisters, let us annihilate the Vice Trust and its
minions.
Let the battle cry be—
The Universal Brotherhood, all for God and God for all.
In the place of dives let us have gardens; in the place of dens of
infamy, playgrounds for a growing generation.
The revelation has been made. Now is the time of expurgation.
From the Wickedest City in the World, Chicago may become through
persistent and systematic attack on its Vice Trust—
THE CITY BEAUTIFUL OF ALL NATIONS.
REAL ISSUE LITERATURE
Lithographed in Colors.

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