Theme: Thermochemistry

Topic 18: ENERGY CHANGES DURING CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Energy changes normally occur every time chemical changes take place.
Energy is neither created nor destroyed but is can be transformed from one form to
another.
For example
1. In electrochemical cells, chemical energy is transformed to electrical energy
2. Fuel like coal store chemical energy which is transformed into heat energy when
the fuel is burnt.
3. The chemical energy is food is transformed into heat energy during metabolism to
facilitate body processes.
The most common form of energy change in chemical reactions is the heat changes.
All chemical substances possess chemical energy stored in bonds that connect atoms
in a compound.
The energy content (heat content) of a substance which is stored in its bonds is
referred to as Enthalpy
Also, energy has to be supplied if bonds are to be broken.
The enthalpy of a substance is denoted by H.
Changes in enthalpy are denoted by ∆𝐇
Enthalpy changes occur in a reaction when some old bonds in the reactants are
broken and new bonds are formed in the products
ACTIVITY
You are provided with the following chemicals and apparatus
- Dilute hydrochloric acid (2M HCl)
- Zinc granules
- Calcium oxide
- Ammonium chloride crystals
- Sodium hydroxide pellets
- Distilled water
- Thermometer
- 4 Beakers labeled A, B, C and D
- Spatula
- 4 test tubes

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Procedure
- Put dilute hydrochloric acid in a beaker labeled A.
- Put distilled water in a beaker labeled B
- Read and record the initial temperatures of both solutions
- In beaker A, put zinc granules using a spatula
- In beaker B, put calcium oxide using a spatula.
- Read and Record the final temperatures of both solutions
- Put 100cm3 of distilled water in beaker labeled C.
- Put 100cm3 of distilled water in beaker labeled D.
- In beaker C, put one spatula endful of ammonium chloride crystals
- In beakers D, put one spatula endful of sodium hydroxide pellets and stir
- Read and record the final temperatures of both solutions.
- Record your results in the table below.
Substance Initial temperature (oC) Final temperature (oC)
A
B
C
D

TASKS:
1. Which reactions produced heat?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
2. Which reactions absorbed heat?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
3. List two uses of heat in everyday life.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

Reactions are categorized into two depending on whether there is release of heat to
the surrounding or absorption of heat from the surrounding.
The reaction during which heat is liberated to the surrounding is called exothermic
reaction.

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The reaction during which heat is absorbed from the surrounding is called
Endothermic reaction.

EXOTHERMIC REACTIONS
An exothermic reaction is one during which heat is liberated to the surrounding.
During exothermic reaction, heat is given out and therefore, the temperature of the
products rises above room temperature, but with time, it drops to room temperature as
heat is lost to the surrounding
At the end of the reaction, the heat content of the products is less than that of the
reactants.
Therefore, the enthalpy (heat) change of an exothermic reaction is negative
∆𝐻 = Heat content of products – Heat content of reactants.
If: H1 = Is the heat content of reactants
H2 = Is the heat content of products

Then; ∆H = H1 - H2
Since the heat content of products (H2 ) is less than the heat content of reactants (H1 ),
that is to say 𝐇𝟐 < 𝐇𝟏 , then it means that ∆𝑯 is negative.

This can be represented on an energy level diagram.

Reactions
HI

Enthalpy Energy given out to the

Surroundings ∆𝑯 (Negative)

Products
H2

Reaction pathway

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An example of exothermic reaction is when carbon reacts with oxygen. In such a
reaction, heat is evolved
-
C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g) ∆H = 393kJ
The chemical energy in carbon and oxygen is partly transferred to chemical energy in
carbon dioxide and partly evolved as heat. This means that carbon dioxide has less
energy than the starting material that is carbon and oxygen; thus the value of enthalpy
change is negative.

Energy level diagram to represent the reaction.

C(s) + O2(g)

Enthalpy
(Heat content) ∆H = -393kJ

CO2(g)

Reaction pathway

NOTE:
Bond making involves the liberation of heat to the surroundings implying that it is
an exothermic process.

Examples of Exothermic Reactions or Processes In Everyday Life.

1) Cellular respiration
This is a vital exothermic reaction that occurs in living cells of the body. This process
provides energy to the body cells to maintain the other vital processes of the body.
During this process, glucose molecules are broken down in the body living cells into
carbon dioxide, water molecules and energy is released.

C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(g) 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) + energy

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The energy released during the break down of sugar is used in the synthesis of
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) which is the energy carrier molecule of the cells.

2) Rusting of iron
In the process, heat is released when iron comes into contact with oxygen and water
to form Hydrated iron(III) oxide.

3) Fermentation
Fermentation is the process by which sugars (for example glucose) are decomposed
by enzymes (for example zymase) produced by microorganism (for example yeast)
forming ethanol, carbon dioxide and energy.
Fermentation can also mean incomplete oxidation of glucose in the absence of
oxygen.
Fermentation is an exothermic reaction, meaning that the process releases energy in
form of heat.

4) Making an ice cube

This is the process of a liquid changing its state to a solid. Changing water into ice
cube is an exothermic reaction, since the water slowly loses heat and starts to cool
down to form ice cubes.

5) Combustion
This refers to a chemical reaction in which a substance reacts with oxygen
In this kind of reaction, heat energy is released to the surrounding. For example,
when wood is burnt in oxygen, large amount of heat energy is produced.
6) Snow formation of clouds
Clouds cone into existence from the condensation of water vapour. This process is an
exothermic reaction.
7) Burning of candle
The candle is a hydrocarbon which burns in oxygen to form carbon dioxide and
water. This process evolves heat to the surrounding.
Other examples of exothermic reactions include:-
- Laundry detergent
- Decomposition of vegetables
- Neutralization reaction
- Nuclear fission
- Cold packs to heal an injury
- Reaction of water and calcium chloride
- Dissolving a strong acid in water.

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ENDOTHEMRIC REACTIONS
Endothermic reaction is one during which heat is absorbed from the surroundings.
When an endothermic reaction occurs, the heat required for the reaction is taken from
the reacting materials and the temperature of the products falls below the initial
temperature.
Eventually, the temperature of the products raises to room temperature again as heat
is absorbed form the surrounding.
In this case, the heat content of the product is greater than that of the reactants and the
enthalpy change is positive.
∆H = Heat content of products – Heat content of reactants.
If: H1 = Is the heat content of reactants
H2 = Is the heat content of products
Then; ∆H = H1 - H2

Since the heat content of products (H2) is greater than the heat content of reactants
(H1), that is to say H2 > H1 then the ∆𝑯 is positive

This can be represented on an energy level diagram

H2 Products

Enthalpy (H) ∆H (Positive)

HI Reactants

Reaction pathways

For example, when hydrogen reacts with iodine, heat is absorbed from the
surroundings.

H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g) ∆H = +52kJ

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Hydrogen iodide has more energy than the starting materials, Hydrogen and iodine.
Therefore the value of enthalpy change is positive.

2HI(g)

Enthalpy
(Heat content) ∆H = +52kJ

H2(g) + I2(g)

Reaction pathways

NOTE:
Bond breaking requires the absorption of heat from the surroundings implying that
it is an endothermic process.

Examples of Endothermic Reactions or Processes in Everyday Life

1) Melting of ice
Heat is absorbed to convert ice into liquid water
H2O(s) H2O(l)
2) Dissolving ammonium nitrate in water.
This dissolution process absorbs heat from the surrounding.
NH4NO3(s) + (aq) NH4+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
3) Photosynthesis
This is an endothermic process because it requires energy from sunlight.
6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(g)

4) Thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate.

Heat is needed to break down calcium carbonate into calcium oxide and carbon
dioxide
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)

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5. Dissolving ammonium chloride in water.
This process absorbs heat from the surrounding, thus it is an endothermic process.
NH4Cl(s) + (aq) NH4+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
6. Electrolysis of water
This process requires an input of electrical energy, making it an endothermic process.
2H2O(l) 2H2(g) + O2(g)
7. Sublimation of dry ice (Solid carbon dioxide).
Dry ice sublimates at a temperature below room temperature, absorbing heat.
CO2(s) CO2(g)
8. Thermal decomposition of hydrogen peroxide.
Breaking down hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen requires intake of heat
2H2O2(l) 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
9. Dissolving sodium chloride (common salt) in water.
This dissolution process absorbs heat energy from the surrounding, resulting into
temperature fall.
NaCl(s) + (aq) Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
10. Cooking an egg
The process of cooking is an endothermic reaction.
For example, during the process of frying eggs, heat energy from the hot frying pan is
absorbing by the raw eggs, hence making the process to be endothermic.

Other examples of endothermic processes include:-

- Reacting ethanoic acid and sodium carbonate.
- Reacting baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) and vinegar (acetic acid)
- Melting of ice to water

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Differences between Endothermic and exothermic Reactions

Endothermic reactions Exothermic reactions

These are reactions during which heat is These are reactions during which heat is
absorbed from the surroundings liberated to the surroundings
Enthalpy changes of endothermic Enthalpy changes of exothermic
reactions are positive reactions are negative
Endothermic reactions result from bond Exothermic reactions results from bond
breaking making

Activity One
Exploring the reactions or processes in which energy is given out or absorbed.
a) Complete the table below by stating whether the reaction given is endothermic or
exothermic.
Reaction Is energy absorbed? Endothermic/ Exothermic?
Fermentation
Respiration
Cooking an egg
Burning salt in water
Melting ice cubes
Neutralization
Decomposition

b) State any other five reactions in which energy is

i) absorbed ii) given out

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Activity two
Exploring changes in temperature as different substances dissolve in water.
What you are required to do:
i) Label small plastic cups with
 Potassium chloride
 Calcium chloride
 Sodium carbonate
 Sodium hydrogen carbonate
 Ammonium nitrate
 Sodium hydroxide

ii) Add 150cm3 of water into the cup labeled ‘potassium chloride” and measure
its temperature using a thermometer. Record the temperature in the table as
initial temperature (To)

iii) Weigh 2g of potassium chloride and add it to the cup in step (ii) above. Stir the
mixture until the temperature stops changing and record the final temperature
(Tf) in the table.

iv) Repeat steps (ii) to (iii) using the cups labeled ‘calcium chloride’ ‘sodium
carbonate’ ‘sodium hydrogencarbonate’ ‘ammonium nitrate and ‘sodium
hydroxide’. Weigh and add the solutes to their corresponding cups.
Table: Temperature changes in some chemical reactions
Experiment Solid To (oC) Tf (oC)
1 Potassium chloride
2 Calcium chloride
3 Sodium carbonate
4 Sodium hydrogen carbonate
5 Ammonium nitrate
6 Sodium hydroxide

Observation and Analysis

1. Which solutes dissolved endothermically?

____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

2. Which solutes dissolved exothermically?

____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

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3. Which solute dissolved most exothermically?

____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

4. Which solute dissolved most endothermically?

____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

Importance of Endothermic Reactions in Everyday Life

The significance of endothermic reactions in our everyday life stretch from household
applications to industrial processes and medical treatments.
Endothermic reactions have significant importances in our everyday life, and these
include the following:
1) Cooling systems:
Refrigeration and air conditioning rely on endothermic reactions to absorb heat and
cool the surroundings
2) Food preparation:
Cooking and baking involve endothermic reactions to break down ingredients and
create desired textures and flavors.
3) Energy storage:
Batteries and fuel cells use endothermic reactions to store energy for later use.
4) Medical applications:
Some medical treatments, for example cancer therapy, utilize endothermic reactions
to target and destroy cancer cells.
5) Environmental remediation:
Endothermic reactions can help to clean pollutants from soil and water.
6) Material synthesis
Endothermic reactions are used to create materials like cement, glass and steel.
7) Water treatments
Endothermic reactions help to purify water by removing impurities and contaminants.
8) Pharmaceuticals:
Endothermic reactions are involved in the productions of some mediation.

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9) Food preservation:
Endothermic reactions help to preserve food by inactivating enzymes and
microorganisms.
10) Scientific research;
Endothermic reactions are essential in various scientific experiments and
investigations.

Importances of Exothermic Reactions in Everyday Life

The significance of exothermic reactions in our everyday life, stretch from energy
production and industrial processes to cooking and transportation.
Exothermic reactions have significant importance in our everyday life, and these
include the following;
1) Energy production
Combustion reactions, for example burning fossil fuels, provide energy for
transportation, heating and electricity generation.
2) Cooking and heating
Exothermic reactions are used in cooking, heating of water and space heating
3) Industrial process:
Exothermic reactions are used in cement production, steel manufacturing and
chemical synthesis.
4) Transportation:
Combustion reactions power internal combustion engines in cars, trucks and airplanes
causing them to move.
5) Food preparation:
Exothermic reactions are used in baking, grilling and frying.
6) Water treatments
Exothermic reactions are used to disinfect water and break down organic matter.
7) Medicine:
Exothermic reactions are used in some medical treatments, like cancer therapy.
8) Welding and cutting
Exothermic reactions are used in welding and cutting of metals.

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9) Catalytic converters
Exothermic reactions reduce emissions in the vehicle exhaust systems
10) Fuel cells:
Exothermic reactions generate electricity in fuel cells

ENERGY TRANSFORMATIONS
These are processes that convert energy from one form into another.
First law of thermodynamics (law of conservation of energy)
Energy is neither created nor destroyed but it can be transformed from one form to
another.
Every useful process transforms energy from one form to another.
Examples of everyday energy transformations include the following:
1. Electricity to light:
Electric lamps transform electrical energy into light and heat energy.
2. Chemical energy to kinetic energy:
Gasoline is transformed into motion (kinetic) energy in cars.
3. Thermal energy to kinetic energy:
Heat from a stove is transformed into motion energy to cook food.
4. Kinetic energy to thermal energy
Brakes on a bike transform motion energy into heat energy.
5. Electrical energy to sound energy:
Speakers transform electrical energy into sound waves.
6. Chemical energy to thermal energy:
Food is transformed into energy for body use through digestion.
7. Solar energy to electrical energy:
Solar panels transform sunlight energy into electrical energy.
8. Kinetic energy to electrical energy
Generators transform motion energy into electrical energy.
9. Thermal energy to electrical energy;
Power plants transform heat energy into electrical energy
10.Mechanical energy to thermal energy:
Friction transforms motion energy into heat energy

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ENERGY TRANSFORMATIONS IN BURNING ETHANOL
Ethanol is a fuel that has chemical energy stored in carbon – carbon (C-C) bonds,
carbon – hydrogen ( C-H) bonds and oxygen – hydrogen bonds (O–H)
Ethanol being a combustible fuel, it releases heat energy during combustion.
The chemical energy in ethanol is converted into heat energy when burnt and this is
an example of an exothermic reaction.
Burning of ethanol releases heat energy and the enthalpy change (∆H) value of this
reaction is negative.
The chemical energy in ethanol is also transformed into light energy during
combustion.
ENERGY TRANSFORMATION IN BURNING PARAFFIN
Paraffin is a group of alkanes. It is a mixture of different types of hydrocarbons with
the general formula CnH2n+2.
Paraffin is a by- product of crude oil, which is a fossil fuel.
In fossil fuels, energy is stored in form of chemical energy, which is converted into
heat and light energies when burnt.

ENERGY TRANSFROMATIONS IN BURNING WOOD

The chemical energy in wood is released as heat and light because of the chemical
reaction between chemicals in wood (for example cellulose) and oxygen in air. This
type of chemical reaction is called combustion and it requires oxygen.
Combustion converts the stored chemical energy in wood into heat and light energy.

THE FLOW OF ENERGY THROUGH AN ACOSYSTEM

Energy flow in an ecosystem involves reactions which are endothermic
(photosynthesis) and those which are exothermic (respiration)
Endothermic reactions occur during photosynthesis, while exothermic reactions occur
during consumption and decomposition. Energy flows from one trophic level to
another, with some energy lost as heat at each level.
For example;
1) Producers (Endothermic):
Plants absorb light energy from the sun and convert it into chemical energy through
photosynthesis (endothermic reaction).This energy is stored in organic compounds
like glucose.

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2) Herbivores (Exothermic)
Herbivores consume plants and breakdown the organic compounds into simpler
molecules, releasing energy (exothermic reaction). The energy released is used for
growth, maintenance, and reproduction.
3) Carnivores (Exothermic)

Carnivores consume herbivores and break down their organic compound, releasing
energy (exothermic reaction). This energy is used for growth, maintenance, and
reproduction.

4) Decomposers (Exothermic)
Decomposers break down dead organic matter, releasing energy (exothermic
reaction). This energy is used by other organism in the ecosystem.

5) Energy loss (Exothermic):

Energy is lost as heat at each tropic level due to metabolic processes (Exothermic
reactions)

6) Energy input (Endothermic)

The ecosystem receives energy input from the sun through photosynthesis
(endothermic reaction), which supports the entire food web.

NOTE:
An ecosystem is a community of organisms and their physical environment
interacting together to form a self-sustaining unit.

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ENERGY FLOW DIAGRAM
Sun

Plants (Producers)

Photosynthesis

Glucose (Chemical energy)

Herbivory

Herbivores (Primary consumers)

Consumption

Carnivores (Secondary consumers)

Consumption

Decomposers (Detritivores)

Decomposition.

Nutrients (Energy released)

Energy loss

Heat (Energy dissipated)

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An Investigation to Compare the Heat Given Out When Different Fuels Burn
(For example: Peanuts, Oils, paper and Wood)
Title: Comparative Investigation of Heat released from Burning Peanuts, oils,
paper and Wood.
Aim: To determine and compare the heat released when peanuts, oils, paper and
wood are burnt
Hypothesis: Wood releases the most heat per unit mass, compared to peanuts, oils and
paper.
Variables: Dependent variable: Temperature
Control variable: Mass of fuel materials
Materials:  Peanuts
 vegetable oil
 paper (Newspaper)
 Wood
 Thermometer
 Heat – resistant container or crucible
 Weighing balance
 Stop watch or timer
Procedure 1. The initial temperature (To) of the thermometer is recorded.
2. A fixed mass (for example: 10g) of each fuel material (Peanuts, oil,
paper and wood) is weighed.
3. Each material is placed in the heat – resistant crucible.
4. Each material is ignited and its temperature is measured using a
thermometer
5. The maximum temperature (Tf) reached and the time taken to reach it
are measured and recorded.
6. Steps (3) to (5) for each fuel materials are repeated.
7. The heat released per unit mass is calculated using the formula below
8. Heat released = Mass x Specific heat x change in
(m) Capacity (C) temperature
9. Per unit mass Q = MC∆𝜃
Risks:  Working with open flames and combustible materials increase the risk of
fires and burns.
 Handling hot materials and equipment can cause heat - related injuries.
 Burning materials can release harmful chemicals, such as volatile
organic compounds which can be harmful if inhaled
 Inhaling fumes from burning materials can cause respiratory problems.
 Exposure to smoke, heat or chemicals can cause eye and skin irritation
 Improper use of equipment such as thermometers can lead to damage or
breakage
 Measure errors or equipment malfunctions can lead to inaccurate data,
which can affect the validity of the conclusions of the investigation.

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  Follow proper laboratory guidelines
 Wear appropriate persona; protective equipment (PPE) such as gloves,
Mitigations goggles and lab coats
 Ensure proper ventilation and exhaust systems are in place
 Use equipment correctly and follow manufacturer’s instructions.
 Monitor temperature and heat output carefully
 Keep a fire extinguisher nearby
 Supervision of students during the investigation
 Proper disposal of fuel materials

Data presentation
Table of results. (These are assumed values)
Material To (oC) Tf (oC) Time (s) C (Jg -1 ℃-1) Heat released
Peanut 25.0 450.0 120 0.59 2500
Vegetable oil 25.0 380.0 90 0.51 1800
Paper 25.0 320.0 60 0.41 1200
Wood 25.0 500.0 150 0.65 3100

Data interpretation
 Wood released the most heat per unit mass followed by peanuts, oil and paper
 The release of heat by fuel materials is in the order of wood >Peanuts > Oil>paper
 The high heat released from wood is due to its high carbon content and
combustion efficiency.
 Peanuts have a higher heat release than oil and paper due to their high protein and
fat content, which burn more efficiently.
 Paper has the lowest heat release due to its low carbon content and higher water
content, which reduces combustion.
Conclusion
 The investigation compared the heat released when peanuts, oils, paper and wood
are burnt.
 The results show that wood releases the most heat per unit mass, followed by
peanuts, oil and paper.

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 INVESTIGATION OF EXOTHERMIC REACTION
(Using the Scientific Method of Dissolving Substances)
(For example: Sodium hydroxide dissolved in water)
Title: Investigation of Exothermic reactions that occur when Sodium
Hydroxide Dissolves in water.
Aim: To investigate an exothermic reaction that occurs when sodium
hydroxide dissolves in water
Hypothesis: Dissolving sodium hydroxide pellets in water will result in an
exothermic reaction, causing a temperature increase, and increasing
the mass of sodium hydroxide will increase the temperature change.
Variables: Dependent variable: Temperature change of the mixture
Independent variable: Mass of sodium hydroxide pellets.
Control variable: Initial temperature of water
Materials:  Sodium hydroxide pellets.
 Distilled water
 Thermometer
 Stirring rod
 Containers (beakers or cups)
 Weighing balance
Procedure: 1. The initial temperature (Ti) of the water in a plastic beaker is
measured and recorded.
2. A fixed mass (m) of sodium hydroxide (for example 1g) is
weighed and recorded.
3. The sodium hydroxide is slowly added to water while stirring
4. Stirring is continued until the sodium hydroxide is fully
dissolved.
5. The final temperature (Tf) of the mixture is measured and
recorded.
6. Steps (2) to (5) are repeated with different masses of sodium
hydroxide (for example 2g, 3g, 4g and 5g)
7. The temperature change (∆𝑇) is calculated using the formula:
∆𝑇 = Tf – Ti
8. A graph of temperature change (∆T) against mass of NaOH is
plotted.

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Risks:  Splashes of sodium hydroxide solution cause skin and eye
irritation
 Sodium hydroxide solution formed in the investigation can burn
if not handled carefully.
 Inhaling sodium hydroxide dust can cause respiratory problems
for example bronchitis
 The exothermic reactions can generate heat, potentially causing
burns
 Improper use of equipment such as thermometers can lead to
breakage.
 Measurement errors can lead to inaccurate data, affecting the
validity of the investigation.
Mitigations:  Wear appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) including
gloves, goggles and a lab coat
 Handle sodium hydroxide solution formed with care, to avoid
splashes and spills
 Ensure proper ventilation and exhaust systems are in place
 Use equipment correctly and follow the instructions of the
manufacturer
 Monitor temperature and heat output carefully
 Keep a fire extinguisher nearby
 Dispose the materials properly

Data presentation, Data analysis and Interpretation

Data presentation
Table of results (These are assumed values)
m(g) Ti(℃) Tf ℃) ∆T (℃)
1.0 20.0 35.0 15.0
2.0 20.0 40.0 20.0
3.0 20.0 45.0 25.0
4.0 20.0 50.0 30.0
5.0 20.0 55.0 35.0

Data analysis
Plot a graph of ∆T against m.

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Data Interpretation
The results show a consistent temperature increase with increasing mass of sodium
hydroxide, indicating an exothermic reaction.
The temperature change (∆T) is directly proportional to the mass of sodium of
sodium hydroxide
The graph shows a linear relationship between ∆T and concentration of sodium
hydroxide, allowing for predictions of temperature changes at different
concentrations.
Conclusion:
This investigation demonstrates the exothermic reaction between sodium hydroxide
and water, with a clear dependence on the mass of sodium hydroxide.
The results support the hypothesis and provide a quantitative understanding of the
temperature change.

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 INVESTIGATION OF ENDOTHERMIC REACTION
(Using the Scientific Method Of Dissolving Substances)
(For example: Sodium hydrogen carbonate dissolved in water)
Title: Investigation of Endothermic reaction that occur when sodium
Hydrogencarbonate dissolves in water.
Aim: To investigate an endothermic reaction that occurs when sodium
hydrogencarbonate dissolves in water
Hypothesis: Dissolving sodium hydrogencarbonate in water will result in an
endothermic reaction, causing a temperature decrease, and increasing
the mass of sodium hydrogen carbonate will increase the temperature
decrease.
Variables: Dependent variable: Temperature change of the mixture
Independent variable: Mass of sodiumhydrogen carbonate
Control variable: Initial temperature of water
Materials:  Sodium hydrogen carbonate powder
 Distilled water
 Thermometer
 Stirring rod
 Containers (beakers or cups)
 Weighing balance
Procedure: 1. The initial temperature of water (Ti) in a beaker is measured and
recorded
2. A fixed mass (m) of sodium hydrogencarbonate (for example: 1g)
is weighed and recorded.
3. NaHCO3 is slowly added to the water while stirring
4. Stirring is continued until the sodium hydrogencarbonate is fully
dissolved
5. The final temperature (Tf) of the mixture is measured and
recorded
6. Steps (2) to (5) are repeated with different masses of sodium
hydrogencarbonate (for example: 2g, 3g, 4g and 5g)
7. The temperature change (∆T) is calculated using the formula:
∆T = Tf – Ti
8. A graph of temperature change (∆T) against mass of NaHCO3 is
plotted.

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Risks:  Sodium hydrogencarbonate is a mild irritant whose splashes can
cause skin and eye irritation if not handled carefully.
 Inhaling sodium hydrogencarbonate dust can cause respiratory
problems such as coughing
 Direct contact of the skin with sodium hydrogencarbonate can
cause irritation and discomfort
 Improper use of equipments such as thermometers can lead to
inaccurate data, affecting the validity of the investigation
 Some individuals may be allergic to NaHCO3, which can cause an
allergic reaction.
Mitigations:  Wear appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) including
gloves, goggles and a lab coat
 Handle sodium hydrogencarbonate with care, to avoid splashes
and spills
 Ensure proper ventilation and exhaust systems are in place
 Use equipment correctly following instructions of the
manufacturer
 Monitor temperature and heat output carefully
 Keep a first aid kit nearby
 Dispose off the materials properly
 Be aware of any allergies or sensitivities

Data presentation, Data analysis and Interpretation

Data presentation
Table of results (These are assumed values)
m(g) Ti(℃) Tf ℃) ∆T (℃)
1.0 20.0 18.0 -2.0
2.0 20.0 16.0 - 4.0
3.0 20.0 14.0 - 6.0
4.0 20.0 12.0 - 8.0
5.0 20.0 10.0 - 10.0

Data analysis
Plot a graph of ∆T against M

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Data interpretation
The results show a consistent temperature decrease with increasing mass of NaHCO3,
indicating an endothermic reactions.
The temperature change (∆T) is directly proportional to the mass of NaHCO3,
supporting the hypothesis.
The graph shows a linear relationship between (∆T) and the mass of NaHCO3,
allowing for predictions of temperature changes at different concentrations.

Conclusion:
This investigation demonstrates the endothermic reaction between sodium
hydrogencarbonate and water, with a clear dependence on NaHCO3 concentration
The results support the hypothesis and provide a quantitative understanding of the
temperature change

OBTAINING USEFUL ENERGY FROM BURNING FUELS

Energy can be released in chemical reactions in various forms for example light and
sound energy, although it is usually released as heat energy.

AMOUNT OF ENRGY RELEASED FROM BURNING FUELS

Amount of energy released from a burning fuel (for example ethanol) is got from the
expression below.
Energy released (Q) = Mass(m) x specific heat capacity (c) x change in temperature
Q = MC∆𝜃 (eqn i)
Change in temperature (∆𝜃) = Final temperature (𝜃𝑓 ) – Initial temperature (𝜃𝑖 )
∆𝜃 = 𝜃𝑓 - 𝜃𝑖 eqn(ii)
Putting equation (ii) into equation (i)
Q = MC (𝜃𝑓 - 𝜃𝑖 )

Where Q - Is the energy released by the fuel.

M - Is the mass of the liquid heated
C - Specific heat capacity of the liquid heated
𝜃𝑓 - Final temperature
𝜃𝑖 - Initial Temperature

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Example
1. 3.5g of a fuel is burned to heat 50cm3 of water. The temperature of water increased
from 22oC to 71oC. Calculate the:-
i) Energy released by the fuel
ii) Energy released per gram of the fuel
Solution (i)
Heat released = Mass of water X specific heat capacity X change in temperature
mass
From density =
volume
Density of water = 1gcm-3
Volume of water = 50cm3
Mass of water = Density X volume
= 1gcm-3 x 50cm3
Mass of water = 50g

Heat released by the fuel = 50 x 4.2 x (71 – 22)

= 50 x 4.2 x 49
Heat released by the fuel = 10,290Joules

Solution (ii)
Energy released by the furl
Energy released per gram of the fuel =
mass of the fuel

10,290Joules
=
3.5g

Energy released per gram of the fuel = 2,940Joules per gram

INTERPRETATION OF CHEMICAL EQUATIONS FOR EXOTHERMIC

REACTIONS

Consider the equation below

H2(g) + ½O2(g) H2O(l) ∆𝐻 = -286kJmol-1
Interpretation of the equation
When one mole of hydrogen is completely burnt in oxygen, it evolves or produces
286kJ of heat

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Consider the equation below
C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g) ∆𝐻 = -406kJmol-1
Interpretation of the equation:
When one mole of carbon is completely burnt in oxygen, it produces 406kilo joules
of heat.
Note: The negative sign on the value of ∆𝐻 means that heat is produced or evolved or
liberated to the surrounding implying that is an exothermic reaction
INTERPRETATION OF CHEMICAL EQUATIONS FOR ENDOTHEMRIC
REACTIONS
Consider the equation below
C(s) + 2S(s) CS2(i) ∆𝐻 = +117kJmol-1
Interpretation of the equation
When one mole of carbon reacts with 2moles of sulphur, 117 kilo joules of heat are
absorbed form the surrounding.
Note: The positive sign on the value of ∆𝐻 means that heat is absorbed form the
surrounding, implying that it is an endothermic reaction.

TYPES OF HEAT CHANGES

Heat of combustion (Enthalpy of combustion)
Heat of combustion is the heat change that occurs when one mole of a substance is
completely burnt in excess oxygen.
Heat (enthalpy) of combustion is usually negative; that is to say ∆H is negative
This implies that heat combustion is an exothermic process or reaction, which
evolves heat to the surrounding.
Heat of neutralization.
This is the heat change that occurs when one mole of hydrogen ions from an acid
react with one mole of hydroxyl ions form an alkali to form one mole of water.
Ionic equation:
H+(aq) + ̅ H(aq)
O H2O(i)
Heat of neutralization is usually negative, that is to say ∆H is negative
This implies that heat neutralization is an exothermic process or reaction, which
liberates heat to the surrounding.

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INTERPRETATION ENERGY PROFILES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

There is transfer of energy during a chemical reaction as reactants are converted into
products. The idea of transfer of energy during a chemical reaction is illustrated using
energy profile diagram.

ENERGY PROFILE DIAGRAM

An energy profile diagram show the theoretical energy pathway of the reaction as it
progresses from reactants to products.

The energy profile diagram compares the energy of the reactants to that of the
products

The difference between the energy of reactants and that of products represents the
amount of energy transferred to the surroundings or absorbed from the surroundings.

Potential energy

This is the energy stored in the bonds of a compound or substance.

Activation energy

This is the minimum energy needed for the reaction to proceed.

Note: The difference in the energy of products and that of the reactants is called
enthalpy change or heat change and it is donated by ∆𝐇

Heat change (∆𝐇) = Energy of products - Energy of reactants

Energy level diagrams are simplified illustrations that only show the initial and final
energies of substances during the reaction.

ENERGY LEVEL DIAGRAM FOR THE DECOMPSOITION OF

MAGNESIUM CARBONATE

The thermal decomposition of magnesium carbonate is an endothermic reaction,

requiring 117.3kJmol-1 of heat.

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Equation:
MgCO3(s) MgO(s) + CO2(g) ∆𝐻 = +117.3kJmol-1

MgO(s) + CO2(s)_
(Products)

Potential ∆H = +117.3kJmol-1
Energy
(kJmol-1)

MgCO3(s)
(Reactants)

Progress of the reaction

From the equation and energy level diagram, we can conclude that during the
reaction, energy is transferred from the surrounding to the system, so the heat energy
of the products is greater than the heat energy of the reactants, thus, the enthalpy
change (∆H) is positive.

ENERGY LEVEL DIAGRAM FOR THE FORMATION OF A WATER

MOLECULE FROM HYDROGEN AND OXYGEN

The reaction of hydrogen gas with oxygen gas to produce water is an exothermic
reaction, producing 285.8kJmol-1

Equation

H2(g) + ½O2(g) H2O(l) ∆𝐻 = -285.8kJmol-1

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 H2(g) + ½O2(g)
(Reactants)

Potential ∆H = -285.8kJmol-1
Energy
(kJmol-1)

H2O(l)
(Product)

Progress of the reaction

Form the equation and energy level (profile) diagram, we can conclude that during
the reaction, energy is transferred from the system to the surroundings, so the
enthalpy of the products is lower than the enthalpy of the reactants, thus, the enthalpy
change (∆H) is negative implying that is an exothermic reaction.

SOURCE GAYAZA CAMBRIDGE COLLEGE OF ST. MBAAGA

WRITER MULONDO SULAIMAN (Department of Chemistry)
CONTACT(S) 0787476677 / 0756315622 (WhatsApp)

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