Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 2024, 18, 417–421

https://doi.org/10.1123/jcsp.2024-0022
© 2024 Human Kinetics, Inc. COMMENTARY

Sport and Exercise Psychophysiology:

From Theory to Practice
Edson Filho1 and Marcelo Bigliassi2
1
Wheelock College of Education and Human Development, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA;
2
College of Arts, Science & Education, Florida International University, Miami, FL, USA

Psychophysiology pertains to the study of the reciprocal and “many to many”

relations between the mind and the body. Accordingly, this special issue includes
a collection of articles examining psychophysiological mechanisms implicated in
the performance and well-being of athletes and exercisers. More specifically, this
issue contains a literature review on the effects of heart rate variability biofeed-
back and athletic performance, as well as two empirical articles on the effects
of neurofeedback on myriad psychological variables, such as attentional focus,
anxiety, stress, and depression. There is also a paper on the effects of a self-talk
intervention on free-throw performance in basketball and somatic reactions and
a novel study on the effects of repeated transcranial direct current stimulation
on decision making among soccer players. Collectively, the articles included in
this issue advance our understanding of how psychophysiological theories and
methodologies can inform the development of applied interventions in sport,
exercise, and performance psychology.

Keywords: biofeedback, heart rate variability, neurofeedback, tDCS,

mindfulness flow, self-talk

Scholars and practitioners from a myriad of fields strive to understand the so-
called mind–body connection, which has long been thought to involve complex
“many-to-many relations” (Cacioppo & Tassinary, 1990). To this extent, extant
research in neuropsychology has shown that changes in body structure (e.g., lesion
brain studies) influence cognitive, affective, and behavioral functioning (see
Vaidya et al., 2019). In turn, changes in cognitive-affective-behavioral states and
patterns can also influence and help to shape and reshape body structure, for
example, neuroplasticity and physical adaptations (Bigliassi & Filho, 2022).
Indeed, “mind to body” (e.g., cognitive reframing) as well as “body to mind”
(e.g., autogenic training) interventions have been shown to influence psychobio-
social functioning in general and the performance and learning of motor skills in
particular (Pineschi & Di Pietro, 2013). For instance, optimal (e.g., flow and in-the-
zone states) and suboptimal (e.g., choking) performance experiences are often

Bigliassi https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6940-9849
Filho (efi[email protected]) is corresponding author, https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8548-4651

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418 FILHO AND BIGLIASSI

accompanied by changes in central and peripheral physiological markers (Cheron

et al., 2016; Filho et al., 2015, 2021).
It is also important to note that psychophysiological methods have been
developed to increase the reliability of assessments in the field (Tenenbaum &
Filho, 2015). In theory, scholars and practitioners aim to obtain measurements with
the least amount of error possible, that is, “error-free measurement” (Tenenbaum &
Filho, 2018). While error-free measurement is not possible to date, the emergence of
portable and relatively affordable technologies has contributed to the advancement
of more reliable evidence-based interventions (Park et al., 2015; Tenenbaum &
Filho, 2018). Today, electroencephalography, functional near-infrared spectroscopy,
heart rate monitors, and biofeedback (BFB) systems are becoming more accessible.
As a result, we expect to see a growing number of scholars and practitioners using
psychophysiological approaches to advance the field. It is within this background
that this special issue on sport and exercise psychophysiology was proposed and
came to fruition.

Overview of the Articles

We received nine submissions from across the globe, and after a rigorous peer-
review process, five manuscripts were accepted for inclusion in this special issue.
The authors represent institutions from Brazil, France, Iran, Italy, Sweden, and the
United States, and their work addresses several sports (e.g., archery, biathlon,
basketball, soccer, swimming) and utilizes different methodologies, namely tran-
scranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), BFB, and neurofeedback (NFB).
Noteworthy, three manuscripts included in this issue were on either BFB or
NFB interventions. Applied researchers are interested in both BFB and NFB because
these methods have been shown to positively influence sport performance (Pacheco,
2016; Pagaduan et al., 2020). Moreover, BFB and NFB allow for self-paced practice
while also providing multimedia and multimodal stimuli, which, in turn, can aid
motivation and retention in both clinical and nonclinical populations (Filho, 2015).
Of the papers on BFB, Pruneti et al. (2023) reviewed the literature and
concluded that heart rate variability BFB could be a useful method to influence
emotional-psychophysiological and cognitive-behavioral functions in athletes.
Specifically, their review showed that heart rate variability BFB can influence
chronic stress response stages (alarm, resistance, and exhaustion) and help to
acutely regulate motor-cognitive arousal.
Fadaei et al. (2024) showed that NFB training (3 days per week over a 10-
week period) coupled with swimming exercise was effective in ameliorating stress,
anxiety, depression, and the severity of dependence among methamphetamine
addicts. Given that substance abuse is a common issue faced by people in sport
and other settings (Murray et al., 2024), the findings by Fadaei et al. (2024) are
important and should stimulate future research. We encourage researchers to
continue examining how psychophysiological interventions coupled with exercise
and sport practice can help alleviate symptoms and address the underlying roots of
clinical issues.
Toolis et al. (2023) examined whether frontal midline theta power NFB
training could improve shooting performance and attentional focus among

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 SPORT AND EXERCISE PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY 419

biathletes. Twenty-eight highly trained biathletes were assigned to either a control

group or an intervention group. No significant differences between the groups
emerged for either shooting performance or attentional focus. Toolis et al. (2023)
concluded that the effects of frontal midline theta power NFB training might be
transient and not lead to improved performance for highly skilled athletes.
Examining different NFB modalities and targeting athletes of different levels are
potential avenues for future research.
Gomez Souffront et al. (2023) examined whether a social media self-talk
intervention would improve free throw shooting performance under pressure
among skilled (collegiate or higher level of play) basketball players. They
concluded that self-talk helped to improve shooting accuracy. They attributed
such effects to the fact that self-talk influences somatic physiological reactions and
movement automaticity. This study is yet another example of the reciprocal linkage
between the mind and the body. Perhaps more importantly, this work illustrates
how mental skills training can be delivered using technology and psychophysio-
logical methods; this type of research is of critical importance in our field.
Fortes et al. (2022) examined how the use of repeated tDCS over the left
dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, an area responsible for executive functioning,
influenced decision making in a small-sided game and in a screening task in soccer
players, with respect to sham control. Specifically, their analyses revealed that
postintervention, the tDCS group exhibited a higher number of fixations in the
small-sided game and a quicker response time for screen decision-making tasks.
Given that longer eye fixations and quicker response times are markers of skilled
performance in sports (Kredel et al., 2017; Tenenbaum et al., 2013), these findings
are interesting as they suggest that the stimulation of relevant cortex areas can
influence decision making. We agree with Fortes et al. (2022) that the stimulation or
inhibition of brain areas is a complex matter, as different patterns of (de)activation
are implicated in myriad cognitive outcomes. Consequently, more tDCS studies are
needed to advance the science and practice of sport and exercise psychophysiology.
Generally, we need more randomized controlled trials including diverse psycho-
physiological measures and methodological approaches (e.g., electroencephalogra-
phy, functional near-infrared spectroscopy) to study psychology constructs (e.g.,
confidence, flow, mindfulness, fatigue). Both lab-based and field-based studies are
needed.

Concluding Remarks
The diversity of authors from across the globe, the variety of sports represented,
and the number of topics included in this issue suggest to us that sport and exercise
psychophysiology is here to stay. The articles included here did not cover the entire
breadth and depth of the field, which continues to grow. It is our hope, however,
that this special issue will help to stimulate more research informed by psycho-
physiological theories and methodologies. The so-called mind–body interaction is
manifested by “many to many” relationships among input, throughput, and output
variables. In closing, we invite scholars and practitioners to continue triangulating
psychological and physiological methods and theories to advance the study of
individuals, teams, and systems in sport, exercise, and other performance domains.

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420 FILHO AND BIGLIASSI

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