PHY 208 - superposition

Superposition of Waves
What happens when two waves touch.

Principle of Superposition

When two marbles collide, they bounce back. That's how material objects behave. Two different
objects can't occupy the same space at the same time.

Waves, on the other hand, can occupy the same space. These two wave pulses are moving
towards each other, then start to overlap, then continue on.

Principle of Superposition

v v

1 2

1 2

1 2

1
2

2 1

2 1

2 1
v v

This is one of the major concepts of physics - superposition.

The concept of superposition is a very fundamental part of physics.

It is the underlying cause for many phenomena in optics, acoustics,
quantum mechanics, and other sub fields. Superposition also plays
a large role in engineering fields, especially electrical. If you want to
send several chunks of information down the same electrical wire,
you'll rely on aspects of superposition. We'll look at how it occurs
in simple systems like a wave on a string as well as more
complicated situations like 2 dimensional acoustic interference.
Later, you'll use the same concepts and tools to treat more
complicated situations.

What ever the two waves are, all we need to do is add them up in order to find the new wave.

y ′ (x, t) = y1 (x, t) + y2 (x, t)

This animation shows two different wave approaching, interacting,

then receding.

updated on 2018-02-01 J. Hedberg | © 2018 Page 1

 PHY 208 - superposition

Quick Question 1

These two waves are approaching each other at t=0. What will the sum look like at t = 2 s?

1 m/s 1 m/s

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

A B

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

C D

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Math of Superposition

Let's add two waves traveling in the same direction on the same string.
(k, ω, and A are the same)

wave 1: y1 (x, t) = A sin(kx − ωt)

wave 2: y2 (x, t) = A sin(kx − ωt + ϕ)

Since,

y ′ (x, t) = y1 (x, t) + y2 (x, t) (1)

= A sin(kx − ωt) + A sin(kx − ωt + ϕ) (2)

with a trig identity (below)

ϕ ϕ
y ′ (x, t) = [2A cos ] sin(kx − ωt + )
2 2
This is a very useful trig identity:
1 1
sin α + sin β = 2 sin (α + β) cos (α − β)
2 2
The only difference between these two waves is the phase factor ϕ
that appears in the second one. This just indicates that the waves
might have different amplitudes at t = 0.

The sum of two waves

These two waves (the red Red curve:

and the blue) are added wave 1: y1 (x, t) = A sin(kx − ωt)
together to get the purple
Blue curve:
2 (x, t) =J.A sin(kx
updated on 2018-02-01 Hedberg |©− ωt + ϕ)
2018 Page 2
 PHY 208 - superposition
wave. wave 2: y2 (x, t) = A sin(kx − ωt + ϕ)

Purple Curve:
ϕ ϕ
y ′ (x, t) = [2A cos 2 ] sin(kx − ωt + 2 )

Summary of interference types

Interference is used to describe this phenomenon.

Phase difference in
Amplitude Interference Type
Degrees Radians wavelength
0º 0 0 2A Fully Constructive
2π
120º 3 .33 A Intermediate
180º π .5 0 Fully destructive
4π
240º 3
.67 A Intermediate
360º 2π 1 2A Fully Constructive

(Applicable for waves with the same amplitude and wavelength traveling in the same direction.)

Waves traveling in opposite directions.

Here are two waves with equal amplitudes and frequencies traveling in opposite directions on a
string. (The blue wave is the sum of the two red waves)

As you watch the animation, keep an eye on the dark blue line. This
is the sum of the two red lines. You'll note that it doesn't appear to
moving in the x direction, only the y direction. There are also some
points that never move in the y direction (i.e. have no displacment,
updated on 2018-02-01 J. Hedberg | © 2018 Page 3
 PHY 208 - superposition
ever), and other points that oscillate between +A and -A
(maximum displacement).

Math of Superposition for opposite direction

Let's add two waves traveling in opposite direction on the same string.
(k, ω, and A are the same)

wave 1: y1 (x, t) = A sin(kx − ωt)

wave 2: y2 (x, t) = A sin(kx + ωt)

Since,

y ′ (x, t) = y1 (x, t) + y2 (x, t) (3)

= A sin(kx − ωt) + A sin(kx + ωt) (4)

with a trig indentity (below)

y ′ (x, t) = [2A sin kx] cos(ωt)

This is not of the standard traveling wave format! Indeed, this equation describes a standing
wave.
1 1
sin α + sin β = 2 sin (α + β) cos (α − β)
2 2
Standing waves

For traveling waves, the amplitude of displacement of each element was the same. They would
all get displaced to a maximum A. In a standing wave, the amplitudes will be position
dependent.

y ′ (x, t) = [2A sin


(kx) ] cos(ωt)
position dependent

The kx argument of the sine function leads to this phenomenon.

Nodes

Since sin(nπ) = 0 , we can determine where exactly the amplitudes will be zero.

Whenever kx = nπ , n = 0, 1, 2, 3..., we'll obtain a zero for the displacement.

Rearranging:
λ
x=n
2

Anti-Nodes

Likewise, when sin(kx) = 1, the rope will undergo a maximum displacement.

updated on 2018-02-01 J. Hedberg | © 2018 Page 4
, , ,...
 PHY 208 - superposition
π 3π 5π
kx = , , , . . . (5)
2 2 2
1
= (n + )π for n = 0, 1, 2... (6)
2
Nodes and Antinodes

Here is our standing wave.

One node and one antinode are pointed out. (Although there are many more)

In abstract math-land, all we have to do to create a standing wave is

add up two wave functions. In the physical universe however, we
have to do a little bit more. To understand how a standing wave is
created in a physical system, we'll need to see what happens when
waves bounce.

Boundary (hard)

If we send a wave pulse down a string, where the string is fixed at the far end, we see that the
waveform flips.

Another way of phrasing it is to say, the waveform is inverted upon

reflection, or undergoes a phase flip of 180°

Boundary (soft)

If we send a wave pulse down a string, where the string is loose at the far end, we see that the
waveform does not flip.

Creation of a standing wave

Standing waves and resonance

L
If we oscillate a fixed string in such a way that
there is a node at each end point, we have
effectively set up a standing wave. This will
happen when the frequency of oscillation is in
resonance with the string characteristics.

Thus, only wavelengths which 'fit' in the

string will create resonant oscillations.

These are called 'harmonic modes' (shown are

1, 2, and 3).

The image here shows the first 3 harmonic modes of the string, modes
1, 2 and 3. The first mode is often called the fundamental, or
lowest harmonic.

Resonance frequencies

What determines the resonance frequencies?

updated on 2018-02-01 J. Hedberg | © 2018 Page 5
 PHY 208 - superposition
Remember that v = λf. Now, the velocity of the wave wave given by the physical characteristics
of the string: the linear mass density, μ, and the tension, τ .

Therefore we can write:

v v −τ− 1
f= =n = n√
λ 2L μ 2L

Quick Question 2

When a wire under tension oscillates in its third harmonic mode, how many wavelengths
are observed?

1. 1/3
2. 2/3
3. 1/2
4. 3/2
5. 2

Quick Question 3

Which of these could be the frequency of a standing wave with a wave speed of 12 m/s as
it oscillates on a 4.0-m string fixed at both ends? (it might not be the lowest harmonic)

A. 2.5 Hz
B. 5.0 Hz
C. 10 Hz
D. 15 Hz
E. 20 Hz

Example Problem #1:

Example Problem: Piano String

The lowest note on most pianos is A 0. It has a frequency of 27.5 Hz. The vibrating section
of this wire on a grand piano is 1.9 meters long. [1 meter of piano wire has a mass of 200 g ]
What is the tension in the string?

Interference

Consider a speaker playing a pretty sinusoidal wave with a wavelength λ.

Then, another speaker playing the exact same pitch is placed in front of Speaker 1, so that the
two speakers are exactly one wavelength apart.

The two signals, or waves, will constructively interfere creating a signal of larger amplitude.

updated on 2018-02-01 J. Hedberg | © 2018 Page 6

 PHY 208 - superposition

spkr 1 spkr 2

sum of
1+ 2

Now, let’s imagine the second speaker was

producing a wave exactly opposite to the
speaker 1 wave.
spkr 1 spkr 2

The sum of these two waves will now be

equal to zero, since they are always creating
destructive interference. sum of
1+ 2

These two waves are called “out of phase”.

Math of 1-D audio interference

If want to know what the sound is like at point A, we’ll need to know how far it is from both
sources:

spkr 1 spkr 2

If Δd is equal to wavelength times a whole number, then the amplitude of the oscillations is
increased: Δd = nλ

If Δd is equal to wavelength times half an integer number, then the amplitude of the oscillations
is decreased: Δd = nλ2

Two speakers
updated on 2018-02-01 J. Hedberg | © 2018 Page 7
 PHY 208 - superposition
Math of 1d interference

The phase difference between two waves will determine whether the interference is constructive
or destructive. For constructive:

Δϕ = 0, 2π, 4π …

and for destructive:

Δϕ = π, 3π, 5π …

The equations of two traveling waves (traveling in the same direction with the same frequency
and wavelength) are given by:

y1 = A sin(kx1 − ωt + ϕ10 )

and

y2 = A sin(kx2 − ωt + ϕ20 )

For these waves, ϕ10 means the intitial phase constant of wave 1.

Thus, the phases, or the arguments of the sine terms are given by:

ϕ1 = kx1 − ωt + ϕ10

and

ϕ2 = kx2 − ωt + ϕ20

If we subtract these two phases, that is find Δϕ (aka the phase difference):

2π
Δϕ = ϕ2 − ϕ1 = k(x2 − x1 ) + (ϕ20 − ϕ10 ) = (x2 − x1 ) + Δϕ0
λ
And so, for the case of two sound sources in one dimension, if we want to figure out when
constructive interference will occur, based on either the initial phase constants of the two waves,
or the separation in space:
2π
Δϕ = (x2 − x1 ) + Δϕ = 0, 2π, 4π …
λ

Or for destructive interference:

2π
Δϕ = (x2 − x1 ) + Δϕ = π, 3π, 5π …
λ

1d-interference

Here is the phase difference equation:

2π
Δϕ = (x2 − x1 ) + Δϕ0
λ
We can see that there are two contributions:

1. The path-length difference, x2 − x1 , in proportion to the wavelength.

updated on 2018-02-01 J. Hedberg | © 2018 Page 8

 PHY 208 - superposition
2. The inherent phase difference between the two oscillators.

If we have two identical sources that are in phase (i.e. Δϕ0 = 0 ), then only the path length
difference will determine if the waves constructively or destructively interfere.

Δx = mλ

where m is an integer will create maximum constructive interference. This makes sense. If the
waves are separated by a whole number of wavelengths, then it's essentially the same as if they
are not separated at all.

Sounds waves in 2-dimensions (or 3)

Here is a single source. Imagine just one speaker, creating pressure waves in the air.

Now we add a second source.

We'll need to be very careful with interpreting the contrast (i.e color
scheme) of this plot. If a point is red or blue, that means the
medium's displacement is large. If a point is colored with white,
that means the medium's displacement is zero. Most positions will
alternate between red, white, blue, white, red as time advances, and
the wave propagates. However, some regions, as you can see in the
animated version, remain white at all times. These are the regions
of destructive interferences, where the waves from the two sorces
interfere destructively. At these locations, there is no displacement
of the medium, and thus no sound is heard.

crest

Consider 2 points. We need to figure out how point 1

trough

far they are from each sound source. L1 L2

L1 L2

point 2

Constructive and Destructive Interference

We can find some general guidelines to determine if we'll have constructive or destructive
interference based on the position of the listener.

1. Case 1: The path length difference is equal to a whole number of wavelengths:

ΔL = nλ

This yields constructive interference

2. Case 2: The path length difference is equal to a half number of wavelengths:

1
ΔL = (n + ) λ
2

This yields destructive interference

Rephrased in terms of phase.

updated on 2018-02-01 J. Hedberg | © 2018 Page 9
 PHY 208 - superposition

Mathematically speaking, interference is determined by the phase difference between two waves.

If ϕ is 0, 2π , or any multiple of 2π , constructive interference occurs

i.e. ϕ = m × 2π where m = 0, 1, 2, …

This is contrary to destructive interference which occurs at odd multiples of 2π

i.e. ϕ = (2m + 1)π where m = 0, 1, 2, …

updated on 2018-02-01 J. Hedberg | © 2018 Page 10

 PHY 208 - superposition

Quick Question 4
crest trough trough crest

1
2

Here are two sound source emitting wound waves in phase. The solid lines are the
maxiumum pressure regions, the dashed lines show the location of the minimum pressure
regions, at t = t0

At point 1, the interference is

1. Maximum Constructive
2. Constructive, but less than maximum
3. Perfectly Destructive
4. Destructive, but only partially
5. No interference

Quick Question 5

At point 2, the interference is

1. Maximum Constructive
2. Constructive, but less than maximum
3. Perfectly Destructive
4. Destructive, but only partially
5. No interference

Quick Question 6

At point 3, the interference is

1. Maximum Constructive
2. Constructive, but less than maximum
3. Perfectly Destructive
4. Destructive, but only partially
5. No interference

Example
updated on 2018-02-01 Problem #2: J. Hedberg | © 2018 Page 11
 PHY 208 - superposition
Example Problem #2:

Two speakers in a plane are 2.0 m apart and in phase with each other. Both emit 700 Hz
Sound waves into a room where the speed of sound is 341 m/s. A listener stands 5.0 m in
front of the speakers and 2.0 m to one side of the center. Describe the interference at this
point in space.

Reflecting sound waves

Just like with a wave on a string, if the conditions are right, we'll obtain a standing wave inside
the tube.

And, just like with waves on a string, only certain wavelengths will
'fit'.

Pressure and Displacement in tubes

∆(pressure) closed-closed open-open ∆(pressure)

m=1 m=1

displacement displacement

m=2 m=2

m=3 m=3

This figure shows the first three modes of oscillation for standing
waves in tubes. On the left, we see a tube that is closed on both
updated on 2018-02-01 J. Hedberg | © 2018 Page 12
 PHY 208 - superposition
ends. Since the tube is closed, particles of air cannot move past the
boundary. Thus, the displacement graphs show a node at the ends
of the tube. However, in the pressure graph, the ends are occupied
by anti-nodes. On the right, the same is illustrated but for tubes
that are open on both ends. Now, the particles are free to move in
and out of the tube at the end. However, since the pressure at the
end of the tube is set by atmospheric pressure, this value cannot
change. Therefore, we see nodes in the pressure graphs at the ends,
and anti-nodes in the displacement graphs.

As you can see in the top left, the fundamental mode for a closed-
closed tube has a frequency whose wavelength is equal to twice the
length of the tube. The second harmonic frequency contains 1 full
wavelength.

Pressure and Displacement in tubes

∆(pressure) closed-open

m=1

displacement

m=3

m=5

These plots show tubes that are closed on one end, and open on
the other. The fundamental mode for a closed-open tube will have
a wavelength equal to 4 times the length of the tube.

Wind Instruments...

… are just tubes with air flowing. The length

of the tube is one important aspect. Different
notes are created by covering holes, which
effectively change the length of the tube.

updated on 2018-02-01 J. Hedberg | © 2018 Page 13

 PHY 208 - superposition

Tuning Forks

Tuning forks are very clean oscillators.

The ends (called tines) move back and forth

in a very sinusoidal motion.

This motion creates the pressure waves that

we hear as a pure sine wave.

The wavelength and thus the frequency are

given by the geometry and materials of the
tuning fork.
displacement

time

updated on 2018-02-01 J. Hedberg | © 2018 Page 14

 PHY 208 - superposition
Here is a tuning fork

And here is the frequency spectrum of the

sound the tuning fork makes. The spectrum is
a graph of the signal strength verses
frequency. We can see that one frequency has
a very high value.

Sound, in general

Rarely do we hear perfect sinusoidal oscillations.

Most instruments, noises, vocalizations are
mixtures of many different oscillations.

This is middle C on the piano. You can see the

fundamental at 261 Hertz. But there are a lot of
higher tones also present. The zoom in shows
even more little peaks.

Beats

So far, all this talk of interference has been about two sources with the same frequency. In real
life, that’s usually not the case.

Here are two plots of sine waves coming from two speakers located at the same place.

The top sound has a frequency of 1 Hertz while the bottom has a frequency of 1.1 Hertz.

It’s hard to tell they are different.

updated on 2018-02-01 J. Hedberg | © 2018 Page 15

 PHY 208 - superposition

overlap
1

5 10 15 20

out of phase
2

region of
constructive interference
2

5 10 15 20

region of
destructive interference
Let each of the two source waves be given by:

s1 = sm cos ω1 t and s2 = sm cos ω2 t

The resultant displacement is then:

s = s1 + s2 = sm (cos ω1 t + cos ω2 t) (7)

updated on 2018-02-01 J. Hedberg | © 2018 Page 16
 PHY 208 - superposition
Using a trig identity, this becomes:

1 1
s = 2 sm cos[ (ω1 − ω2 ) t] cos[ (ω1 + ω2 ) t] (8)
2 2

if ω′ = 12 (ω1 − ω2 ) and ω = 12 (ω1 + ω2 ), then the above equation becomes more tidy:

s(t) = [2 sm cos ω′ t] cos ωt

region of
constructive interference s(t) = [2 sm cos ω′ t] cos ωt
2

1 Since ω ≫ ω′ , the term in brackets can be

considered a modulated envelope oscillating
5 10 15 20
at angular frequency ω′ .

1
Its min and max values occur twice in a given
cycle.
2
This oscillation between a min and max is
region of what we hear as beats.
destructive interference
ωbeat = 2 ω′ = 2( 12 )(ω1 − ω2 ) = ω1 − ω2

or, in terms of frequency, f:

fbeat = f1 − f2

A heavy mass is suspended from a 1.65 m long

steel wire. (The wire has a mass of 5.85g) The
frequencies of the 3rd harmonic oscillation of
the wire as a function of mass are given below in
the table. Use this data to determine a value of
g.
L Enter: Fit{{0,0},{2 , 68^2},{4 , 97^2},{6 ,
117^2},{8 , 135^2},{10, 152^2}} at
wolframalpha.

Link

M
Mass (kg) f3 (Hz)
2.00 68
4.00 97
6.00 117
8.00 135
10.00 152

updated on 2018-02-01 J. Hedberg | © 2018 Page 17