Cell: The Unit of Life – Comprehensive NCERT Notes with Examples

1. Introduction to Cells

 Definition: A cell is the smallest, self-sustaining unit of life. It performs all life processes like
respiration, growth, and reproduction.

o Example: Just as bricks build a house, cells build living organisms.

 Discovery:

o Robert Hooke (1665): Observed dead cork cells under a microscope. Coined the
term "cell" (Latin: cellula = small room).

o Anton van Leeuwenhoek: First to observe living cells (bacteria, sperm) using a
superior microscope.

2. Cell Theory

Proposed by Matthias Schleiden (German botanist), Theodor Schwann (British zoologist),

and Rudolf Virchow:

1. All living organisms are made of cells:

o Unicellular (e.g., Amoeba) or multicellular (e.g., humans).

2. Cells arise from pre-existing cells (Virchow’s Omnis cellula-e cellula):

o Disproved spontaneous generation theory.

3. Cells control life processes:

o DNA in cells regulates growth, metabolism, and heredity.

Exceptions:

 Viruses: Not cells; need a host to reproduce.

 Skeletal muscle cells: Multinucleate (many nuclei).

 Fungal hyphae: Long, thread-like structures with multiple nuclei.

3. Types of Cells

A. Prokaryotic Cells

 Structure:

o No nucleus: DNA floats in nucleoid (e.g., bacterial chromosome).

o Cell wall: Made of peptidoglycan (sugar + protein).

o Flagella/Pili: For movement (e.g., E. coli flagella).

 o Plasmids: Small DNA rings (used in genetic engineering).

 Examples:

o Bacteria: Lactobacillus (curd formation), Cyanobacteria (photosynthetic).

o Archaea: Thrive in extreme environments (e.g., hot springs).

 Unique Fact: Mycoplasma (0.3 µm) is the smallest cell; lacks a cell wall.

B. Eukaryotic Cells

 Structure:

o Nucleus: DNA enclosed in a nuclear membrane.

o Membrane-bound organelles: Mitochondria, Golgi, etc.

o Cytoskeleton: Protein filaments for shape and movement.

 Examples:

o Plant Cells: Rigid cell wall (cellulose), chloroplasts (photosynthesis), large vacuole
(stores water).

 Example: Onion peel cells under a microscope.

o Animal Cells: Flexible cell membrane, centrioles (cell division), lysosomes.

 Example: Human cheek cells (stained with methylene blue).

4. Cell Organelles – Structure & Functions

A. Cell Membrane (Plasma Membrane)

 Structure:

o Phospholipid bilayer: Hydrophilic heads (outside) and hydrophobic tails (inside).

o Proteins: Act as channels (e.g., aquaporins for water).

o Cholesterol: Maintains membrane fluidity.

 Function:

o Selectively permeable: Controls entry/exit (e.g., glucose enters via proteins).

o Fluid Mosaic Model: Dynamic structure with moving lipids/proteins.

 Example: Red blood cells burst in hypotonic solutions (osmosis).

B. Nucleus

 Structure:

o Nuclear envelope: Double membrane with pores.

o Nucleolus: Produces ribosomes.

 o Chromatin: DNA + proteins (condenses into chromosomes during division).

 Function:

o Genetic control centre: Directs protein synthesis.

o Example: Liver cells have large nuclei due to active metabolism.

C. Mitochondria

 Structure:

o Double membrane: Inner folded into cristae (increases surface area).

o Matrix: Contains mitochondrial DNA and enzymes.

 Function:

o ATP production via cellular respiration (uses glucose + O₂).

o Example: Muscle cells have more mitochondria for energy.

D. Chloroplast

 Structure:

o Thylakoids: Disc-like structures (contain chlorophyll).

o Stroma: Fluid-filled space (site of sugar synthesis).

 Function:

o Photosynthesis: Converts CO₂ + sunlight → glucose.

o Example: Leaf cells in plants (e.g., spinach).

E. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

 Types:

o Rough ER (RER): Ribosomes on surface → protein synthesis.

 Example: Pancreatic cells secrete insulin via RER.

o Smooth ER (SER): Lipid synthesis, detoxification.

 Example: Liver cells detoxify drugs.

F. Golgi Apparatus

 Structure: Stacked cisternae (flattened sacs).

 Function:

o Modifies proteins (e.g., adds sugar → glycoproteins).

o Packages materials into vesicles for secretion.

o Example: Secretory cells (e.g., salivary glands).

G. Lysosomes

 Structure: Vesicles filled with digestive enzymes.

 Function:

o Digest food particles, dead organelles, or pathogens.

o Example: White blood cells digest bacteria.

o Autolysis: Lysosomes burst to self-destruct old cells.

H. Vacuoles

 Function:

o Storage: Water, ions, waste (plant vacuoles are large).

o Turgor pressure: Keeps plants upright.

o Example: Amoeba uses contractile vacuole to expel water.

5. Key Differences: Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells

Feature Prokaryotic Eukaryotic

Nucleus Absent (nucleoid region) Present (membrane-bound)

Organelles No membrane-bound organelles Mitochondria, ER, Golgi, etc.

Cell
Division Binary fission Mitosis/Meiosis

Size 0.3–5 µm (tiny) 10–100 µm (larger)

Examples E. coli, Bacillus Humans, Mango tree

6. Real-Life Examples & Applications

1. Osmosis:

o Raisins in water: Swell as water enters cells.

o Salty food causes dehydration: Water leaves cells (plasmolysis).

2. Diffusion:

o Oxygen in lungs: Moves from alveoli to blood.

 3. Active Transport:

o Root cells absorb minerals against concentration gradient (uses ATP).

4. Lysosomes:

o Tadpole tail resorption: Lysosomes digest tail cells during metamorphosis.

Cell Organelles & Functions

Organelle Function Example/Feature

Controls entry/exit of substances Made of phospholipid bilayer; fluid

Cell Membrane (selectively permeable). mosaic model.

Provides rigidity and protection Plant cell wall: cellulose; bacterial cell
Cell Wall (plants, fungi, bacteria). wall: peptidoglycan.

Surrounded by nuclear membrane;

Nucleus Stores DNA, controls cell activities. contains nucleolus.

Produces energy (ATP) via cellular "Powerhouse of the cell"; has its own
Mitochondria respiration. DNA.

Contains chlorophyll; double

Chloroplast Conducts photosynthesis (plants). membrane.

Endoplasmic Synthesizes proteins (RER) and RER has ribosomes; SER detoxifies
Reticulum (ER) lipids (SER). drugs (e.g., liver cells).

Modifies, packages, and transports

Golgi Apparatus proteins. Stacks of cisternae; forms lysosomes.

Digest waste using enzymes (e.g., in "Suicidal bags" – autolysis during cell
Lysosomes white blood cells). damage.

Protein synthesis (70S in

Ribosomes prokaryotes, 80S in eukaryotes). Found on RER or free in cytoplasm.
7. Summary

 Cells are the building blocks of life, with specialized organelles performing unique roles.

 Prokaryotes (simple, no nucleus) vs. Eukaryotes (complex, nucleus).

 Understanding cells helps in medicine (e.g., antibiotics target bacterial cell walls)
and biotechnology (e.g., plasmids in gene therapy).