1

Contents
Unit - I ............................................................................................................................................................. 4
Binomial Theorem ........................................................................................................................................ 4
Factorial: .................................................................................................................................................... 4
Expanding (𝒂 + 𝒃)𝒏 : ................................................................................................................................. 5
Binomial Theorem: .................................................................................................................................... 7
General term of Binomial series: ............................................................................................................... 8
Finding the coefficients: ............................................................................................................................ 9
Unit - II .......................................................................................................................................................... 11
Series and Sequences ................................................................................................................................. 11
Arithmetic Progression: ........................................................................................................................... 11
Sum of first 𝒏 terms: ............................................................................................................................... 12
Geometric Progression: ........................................................................................................................... 14
Converging series: ................................................................................................................................... 15
Application of Geometric progression: .................................................................................................... 16
Unit - III ......................................................................................................................................................... 18
Exponents and Logarithms ......................................................................................................................... 18
Exponents: ............................................................................................................................................... 18
Basic laws of exponents:.......................................................................................................................... 18
Natural exponent(𝒆𝒙 ): ............................................................................................................................ 18
Logarithms and its importance: ............................................................................................................... 19
Answers ........................................................................................................................................................ 21
Module Summary ......................................................................................................................................... 22
Binomial Theorem ...................................................................................................................................... 22
Series and Sequences ................................................................................................................................. 22
Exponents and Logarithms ......................................................................................................................... 23
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Unit - I
Binomial Theorem
Factorial:
The Factorial of a positive number(𝑛) is defined as the product of a series of natural numbers which are in
descending order from 𝑛 to 1.
Factorial of 𝑛 is denoted as 𝒏! which is read as “𝒏 factorial”.
Examples:
1! = 1
2! = 2 × 1 = 2
3! = 3 × 2 × 1 = 6
4! = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24
5! = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 120
In general,
𝑛! = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) … … 3 × 2 × 1
Some important results:
• 𝑛! = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)! (How?)
• Applying 𝑛 = 1 in the above result,
1! = 1(1 − 1)!
1 = 1(0!)
𝟎! = 𝟏
Applications of Factorial:
Factorial is applied in “Permutations and Combinations”.
Permutations:
Permutations are the number of ways a set of objects can be arranged.
• The 𝑛 number of objects can be arranged in 𝒏! ways.
• The 𝑟 number of objects that are selected from 𝑛 number of objects can be arranged in
𝒏!
ways. This is denoted as 𝒏𝑷𝒓 .
(𝒏−𝒓)!
𝒏!
𝒏𝑷𝒓 =
(𝒏 − 𝒓)!
Combinations:
Combinations are the number of possible selections from a set of objects. In permutations, the order of
arrangement matters whereas in combinations the order of arrangements doesn’t matter.
𝒏!
The 𝑟 number of objects can be selected from 𝑛 number of objects in ways. This is denoted as 𝒏𝑪𝒓
(𝒏−𝒓)!𝒓!
or (𝑛𝑟).
𝒏 𝒏!
( ) = 𝒏𝑪𝒓 =
𝒓 (𝒏 − 𝒓)! 𝒓!
Note: You will learn “Permutations and Combinations” in detail in Statistics 1.
Remember: Factorial cannot be found for negative numbers, decimals and fractions.
 5

Expanding (𝒂 + 𝒃)𝒏 :
We will try to expand (𝒂 + 𝒃)𝒏 for various values of 𝑛.
When 𝑛 = 0
(𝑎 + 𝑏)0 = 1
When 𝑛 = 1
(𝑎 + 𝑏)1 = 𝑎 + 𝑏
When 𝑛 = 2
(𝑎 + 𝑏)2 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎 + 𝑏)
(𝑎 + 𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2
When 𝑛 = 3
(𝑎 + 𝑏)3 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)2 (𝑎 + 𝑏) = (𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )(𝑎 + 𝑏)
(𝑎 + 𝑏)3 = 𝑎3 + 3𝑎2 𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏 2 + 𝑏 3
When 𝑛 = 4
(𝑎 + 𝑏)4 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)3 (𝑎 + 𝑏) = (𝑎3 + 3𝑎2 𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏 2 + 𝑏 3 )(𝑎 + 𝑏)
(𝑎 + 𝑏)4 = 𝑎4 + 4𝑎3 𝑏 + 6𝑎2 𝑏 2 + 4𝑎𝑏 3 + 𝑏 4
When 𝑛 = 5
(𝑎 + 𝑏)5 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)4 (𝑎 + 𝑏) = (𝑎4 + 4𝑎3 𝑏 + 6𝑎2 𝑏 2 + 4𝑎𝑏 3 + 𝑏 4 )(𝑎 + 𝑏)
(𝑎 + 𝑏)5 = 𝑎5 + 5𝑎4 𝑏 + 10𝑎3 𝑏 2 + 10𝑎2 𝑏 3 + 5𝑎𝑏 4 + 𝑏 5

Do you think that deriving a formula for higher powers of 𝑛 will make it easier?
If yes, shall we try to derive a general formula that applies for any powers of 𝑛?
First, let’s look for a pattern in the above derived formulae.
Let us analyse what happens to the powers of 𝑎 and 𝑏.
When 𝑛 = 0,
Number of terms =1 Term 1
Powers of 𝒂 0
Powers of 𝒃 0
When 𝑛 = 1,
Number of terms =2 Term 1 Term 2
Powers of 𝒂 1 0
Powers of 𝒃 0 1
When 𝑛 = 2,
Number of terms =3 Term 1 Term 2 Term 3
Powers of 𝒂 2 1 0
Powers of 𝒃 0 1 2
When 𝑛 = 3,
Number of terms =4 Term 1 Term 2 Term 3 Term 4
Powers of 𝒂 3 2 1 0
Powers of 𝒃 0 1 2 3
 6

Observations:
From the above tables,
• The number of terms in the expansion is always one more than the power(𝑛).
• The powers of 𝑎 are in descending order starting from the power(𝑛) and ending at 0.
• The powers of 𝑏 are in ascending order starting from 0 and ending at the power(𝑛).
From the observations done, we can conclude that, in general, for power 𝑛
• The number of terms = 𝑛 + 1
• The powers of 𝑎 are 𝑛 → 𝑛 − 1 → 𝑛 − 2 → ⋯ → 0
• The powers of 𝑏 are 0 → 1 → 2 → ⋯ → 𝑛 − 1 → 𝑛
Hence the expansion of (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 has the terms as 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑏, 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑏 2 , … , 𝑎𝑏 𝑛−1 , 𝑏 𝑛 .

Now let us discuss the pattern of the coefficients of the terms.

Let us make a triangle with the coefficients of each expansion from 𝑛 = 0 to 𝑛 = 5

𝒏=𝟎 1

𝒏=𝟏 1 1

𝒏=𝟐 1 2 1

𝒏=𝟑 1 3 3 1

𝒏=𝟒 1 4 6 4 1

𝒏=𝟓 1 5 10 10 5 1

TO DO:
• Try to find the pattern in the above table.
• Try to find the next two rows that is for 𝒏 = 𝟔 and 𝟕.

Are you able to identify the wonderful pattern in the above table and its application in the expansion of
(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 ?
TO KNOW:
This table is known as Pascal’s triangle named after the French mathematician BLAISE PASCAL
(1623-1662) who brought the triangle to the attention of Western mathematicians. It was known as early
as 1300 in China, where it was known as “Chinese Triangle”.

Do you think this triangle helps for higher powers of 𝒏?

If no, what can be another method?
Here, the combinations formula (𝑛𝐶𝑟 or (𝑛𝑟)) helps us where 𝑛 stands for the power 𝑛 and 𝑟 stands for the
term for which the coefficient is to be calculated.
Shall we check this out?
 7

TO DO:
• Draw the triangle shown below in a chart paper and calculate the values given in the triangle.
0
𝒏=𝟎 ( )
0
1 1
𝒏=𝟏 ( ) ( )
0 1
2 2 2
𝒏=𝟐 ( ) ( ) ( )
0 1 2
3 3 3 3
𝒏=𝟑 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0 1 2 3
4 4 4 4 4
𝒏=𝟒 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0 1 2 3 4
5 5 5 5 5 5
𝒏=𝟓 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0 1 2 3 4 5

• Compare this table with “Pascal’s triangle”.

We know the pattern of the powers of 𝑎 and 𝑏 and also the pattern of the coefficients. Now we can write the
generic formula for the expansion of (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 which is known as Binomial Theorem.
Binomial Theorem:
The name “Binomial” stands for two terms 𝑎 and 𝑏.
𝒏 𝒏−𝟏 𝒏 𝒏−𝟐 𝟐 𝒏 𝒏−𝟑 𝟑
(𝒂 + 𝒃) = 𝒂 + ( ) 𝒂 𝒃 + ( ) 𝒂 𝒃 + ( ) 𝒂 𝒃 + ⋯ + 𝒃𝒏
𝒏 𝒏
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
where 𝑛 is always a positive integer.
Example I – 1: Find the first four terms, in descending powers of 𝒙, in the expansion of
𝟑 𝟒
(𝒙 + 𝟐 )
𝒙
Here 𝑎 = 𝑥, 𝑏 = 3⁄ 2 and 𝑛 = 4.
𝑥
Hence,
3 4 4
4 3
3 4 2
3 2 4 3 3
(𝑥 + 2 ) = 𝑥 + ( ) × 𝑥 × 2 + ( ) × 𝑥 × ( 2 ) + ( ) × 𝑥 × ( 2 )
𝑥 1 𝑥 2 𝑥 3 𝑥
3 9 27
= 𝑥4 + 4 × 𝑥3 × 2 + 6 × 𝑥2 × 4 + 4 × 𝑥 × 6
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
54 108
= 𝑥 4 + 12𝑥 + 2 + 5
𝑥 𝑥
Can you see that the powers of 𝑥 in the above answer form a sequence?
The powers of 𝑥 are 4, 1, −2, −5.
This sequence proceeds as follow.
4−3=1
1 − 3 = −2
−2 − 3 = −5
 8

Example I – 2: Find the first four terms, in descending powers of 𝒙, in the expansion of
𝟏 𝟓
(𝟏 − 𝟐𝒙 )𝟐 𝟐
(𝒙 − )
𝒙
(1 − 2𝑥 )2 = 1 − 4𝑥 + 4𝑥 2
In descending powers of 𝑥,
(1 − 2𝑥 )2 = 4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1
Using binomial theorem,

2
1 5 2 5 5 2 4
1 5 2 3
1 2 5 2 2
1 3
(𝑥 − ) = (𝑥 ) + ( ) × (𝑥 ) × (− ) + ( ) × (𝑥 ) × (− ) + ( ) × (𝑥 ) × (− )
𝑥 1 𝑥 2 𝑥 3 𝑥
4 5
5 1 1
+ ( ) × 𝑥 2 × (− ) + (− )
4 𝑥 𝑥
1 1 1 1 1
= 𝑥 10 + 5 × 𝑥 8 × (− ) + 10 × 𝑥 6 × 2 + 10 × 𝑥 4 × − 3 + 5 × 𝑥 2 × 4 − 5
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
5 1
= 𝑥 10 − 5𝑥 7 + 10𝑥 4 − 10𝑥 + 2 − 5
𝑥 𝑥
1 5 5 1
(1 − 2𝑥 )2 (𝑥 − ) = (4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 10 − 5𝑥 7 + 10𝑥 4 − 10𝑥 + 2 − 5 )
2
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
We need only four terms. The first term is 4𝑥 12 . So, we can eliminate the lower terms.
5
1
(1 − 2𝑥 )2 (𝑥 2 − ) = 4𝑥 12 − 20𝑥 9 + 40𝑥 6 − 4𝑥 11 + 20𝑥 8 + 𝑥 10
𝑥
= 4𝑥 12 − 4𝑥 11 + 𝑥 10 − 20𝑥 9

Note: Since we need only the first four terms, and the powers are supposed to be in descending order,
we are eliminating the lower powers like 𝒙𝟖 , 𝒙𝟕 , 𝒙𝟔 … .

Exercise I – 1
Find the first 4 terms in the expansion of the following and write the sequence of the powers of 𝒙:
1 6
1. (2 + 3𝑥 )5 in ascending powers of 𝑥, 2. (2𝑥 − 2) in descending powers of 𝑥

1 7 1 2
6
3. (𝑥 − 𝑥) in descending powers of 𝑥 4. (2𝑥 − 4𝑥 ) in ascending powers of 𝑥

1 2 4
5. (2 − 𝑥 ) ( − ) in ascending powers of 𝑥
2 𝑥

1 5
6. (2𝑥 − 1 )2 (3𝑥 − 3𝑥 2 ) in descending powers of 𝑥

7. (1 − 2𝑥 + 4𝑥 2 )(2 − 𝑥 )6 in ascending powers of 𝑥

General term of Binomial series:

𝑛
The first term of the Binomial series is 𝑎𝑛 which can be written as ( ) 𝑎𝑛−0 𝑏 0 .
0
𝑛 𝑛
The second term is ( ) 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑏1 , the third term is ( ) 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑏 2 and so on.
1 2
Hence, the Binomial series is following a pattern from which the general term can be given as
𝒏
( ) 𝒂𝒏−𝒓 𝒃𝒓
𝒓
 9

Finding the coefficients:

We can use the general term of the Binomial series to find the particular term without expanding the whole
series.
Example I – 3: Find the value of the coefficient of 𝟏⁄𝒙 in the expansion of
𝟏 𝟓
(𝟐𝒙 − )
𝒙
1
Here, 𝑎 = 2𝑥, 𝑏 = − and 𝑛 = 5. The general term of the Binomial series is
𝑥

5 5−𝑟
1 𝑟
= ( ) × (2𝑥 ) × (− )
𝑟 𝑥
(−1) 𝑟
5 5
= ( ) × 25−𝑟 × 𝑥 5−𝑟 × 𝑟
= ( ) × 25−𝑟 × (−1)𝑟 × 𝑥 5−𝑟−𝑟
𝑟 𝑥 𝑟
5
= ( ) × 25−𝑟 × (−1)𝑟 × 𝑥 5−2𝑟
𝑟
1
We need to find the coefficient of that is the coefficient of 𝑥 −1 . Hence,
𝑥

5 − 2𝑟 = −1 ⇒ 𝑟 = 3
Applying 𝑟 = 3 in the general term, we get,
5
= ( ) × 25−3 × (−1)3 × 𝑥 5−2×3
3
5
= ( ) × 22 × −1 × 𝑥 −1
3
40
=−
𝑥
The coefficient of 1⁄𝑥 is −40.

Example I – 4: Find the coefficient of 𝒙𝟑 in the expansion of

(i) (𝟏 + 𝟐𝒙)𝟔 ,
(ii) (𝟏 − 𝟑𝒙)(𝟏 + 𝟐𝒙)𝟔 .
(i) Here, 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 2𝑥 and 𝑛 = 6. The general term of the Binomial series is
6
= ( ) × (1)6−𝑟 × (2𝑥 )𝑟
𝑟
6
= ( ) × 2𝑟 × 𝑥 𝑟
𝑟
We need to find the coefficient of 𝑥 3 . Hence, 𝑟 = 3.
Applying 𝑟 = 3 in the general term, we get,
6
= ( ) × 23 × 𝑥 3
3
= 20 × 8𝑥 3
= 160𝑥 3
The coefficient of 𝑥 3 is 160.
(ii) The question is to find the coefficient of 𝑥 3 .
In 1 − 3𝑥, we have two terms 1 and −3𝑥.
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1 when multiplied with 𝑥 3 term, we get 𝑥 3 term.

−3𝑥 when multiplied with 𝑥 2 term we get 𝑥 3 term.

(1 − 3𝑥 ) ⇒ 1 −3𝑥
× × ×

(1 + 2𝑥 )6 ⇒ 𝑥 3 term 𝑥 2 term
⇓ ⇓ ⇓

(1 − 3𝑥 )(1 + 2𝑥 )6 𝑥 3 term 𝑥 3 term

Hence, in the expansion of (1 + 2𝑥 )6 we need to find 𝑥 3 term and 𝑥 2 term.

𝑥 3 term = 160𝑥 3 (from part (i)).
To find 𝑥 2 term, we have to apply 𝑟 = 2 in the general term expression.
𝑥 2 term is given by,
6
= ( ) × 22 × 𝑥 2
2
= 15 × 4𝑥 2 = 60𝑥 2
Hence the 𝑥 3 term in the expansion of (1 − 3𝑥 )(1 + 2𝑥 )6 = 1 × 160𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 × 60𝑥 2
= 160𝑥 3 − 180𝑥 3 = −20𝑥 3
The coefficient is −20.

Exercise I - 2
6
1. Find the coefficient of 𝑥 2 in the expansion of (𝑥⁄2 + 2⁄𝑥 ) .
9
2. Find the term independent of 𝑥 (𝑥 0 ) in the expansion of (𝑥 − 1⁄ 2 ) .
𝑥
3. Find the coefficient of 𝑥 4 in the expansion of (1 + 𝑥 2 )2 (2 + 𝑥 2 )5 .
5
4. Find the coefficient of 𝑥 in the expansion of (1 + 2⁄ 2 ) (2𝑥 − 3⁄𝑥 ) .
𝑥
5. In the expansion of (1 + 𝑎𝑥)6 , where 𝑎 is a constant, the coefficient of 𝑥 is −30. Find the coefficient of
𝑥 3.
6
6. Given that there is no term in 𝑥 3 in the expansion of (𝑘 + 2𝑥 )(1 − 3⁄2 𝑥) , find the value of constant
𝑘.
7. The coefficient of 𝑥 3 in the expansion of (𝑎 + 𝑥 )5 + (1 − 2𝑥 )6 , where 𝑎 is positive is 90. Find the value
of 𝑎.
8. Given that the coefficient of 𝑥 2 in the expansion of (1 + 2𝑥 + 𝑎𝑥 2 )(2 − 𝑥 )6 is 48, find the value of the
constant 𝑎.
9. (i) Find the first 3 terms in the expansion of (2 − 𝑦)5 in ascending powers of 𝑦.
5
(ii) Use the result in part (i) to find the coefficient of 𝑥 2 in the expansion of (2 − (2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 )) .
10. The first three terms in the expansion of (1 − 2𝑥 )2 (1 + 𝑎𝑥 )6 , in ascending powers of 𝑥, are 1 − 𝑥 +
𝑏𝑥 2 . Find the values of the constants 𝑎 and 𝑏.
 11

Unit - II
Series and Sequences
Arithmetic Progression:
An Arithmetic Progression is a series or a sequence of numbers such that the difference between the
consecutive terms is constant.
Let us assume the first term(𝑢1 ) of the sequence as ′𝑎′ and the common difference between any two
consecutive terms as ′𝑑′, then,
the second term(𝑢2 ) = 𝑢1 + 𝑑 = 𝑎 + 𝑑,
the third term (𝑢3 ) = 𝑢2 + 𝑑 = (𝑎 + 𝑑) + 𝑑 = 𝑎 + 2𝑑
Hence the general form of an Arithmetic Progression is

𝒂, 𝒂 + 𝒅, 𝒂 + 𝟐𝒅, 𝒂 + 𝟑𝒅, 𝒂 + 𝟒𝒅, … … …

Can you see a pattern in the terms?
𝑢1 = 𝑎 = 𝑎 + (1 − 1)𝑑
𝑢2 = 𝑎 + 𝑑 = 𝑎 + (2 − 1)𝑑
𝑢3 = 𝑎 + 2𝑑 = 𝑎 + (3 − 1)𝑑

Hence, we can generalise the terms as 𝒖𝒏 = 𝒂 + (𝒏 − 𝟏)𝒅.

This is called as the 𝑛th term or the general term.
If the sequence has only 𝑛 terms then 𝑢𝑛 is the last term.

Example II – 1: Given that 𝟐𝒙, 𝟓, 𝟔 − 𝒙 are the first three terms in an arithmetic progression, find the
value of 𝒅.
We know that in an AP, the difference between the consecutive terms is constant. That is
𝑢2 − 𝑢1 = 𝑢3 − 𝑢2
5 − 2𝑥 = (6 − 𝑥 ) − 5
5 − 2𝑥 = 1 − 𝑥
𝑥=4
Now the common difference 𝑑 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 = 5 − 2𝑥 = 5 − 2 × 4 = 5 − 8 = −3

Example II – 2: For the AP 𝟑, 𝟕, 𝟏𝟏, … the 𝒏th term is the only term that is greater than 𝟒𝟎. Find the
term.
Here 𝑎 = 3, 𝑑 = 7 − 3 = 4.
Given: 𝑛th term > 40.
𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 > 40
3 + (𝑛 − 1) × 4 > 40
4(𝑛 − 1) > 37
𝑛 − 1 > 9.25
𝑛 > 10.25
∴ 𝑛 = 11
 12

Hence 11th term is the only term that is greater than 40.
𝑢11 = 3 + (11 − 1) × 4
= 3 + 40
𝑢11 = 43

Sum of first 𝒏 terms:

Let us try to derive a formula to find the sum of all the 𝑛 terms of an AP.
We know that the first three terms of an AP are 𝑎, 𝑎 + 𝑑, 𝑎 + 2𝑑.
If the last term is denoted by 𝑙, then last three terms are 𝑙 − 2𝑑, 𝑙 − 𝑑, 𝑙.
If the sum of first 𝑛 terms is denoted as 𝑆𝑛 ,
𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑎 + 𝑑) + (𝑎 + 2𝑑) + ⋯ + (𝑙 − 2𝑑) + (𝑙 − 𝑑) + 𝑙 ______________(1)
Now adding from the last term to the first,
𝑆𝑛 = 𝑙 + (𝑙 − 𝑑 ) + (𝑙 − 2𝑑) + ⋯ + (𝑎 + 2𝑑) + (𝑎 + 𝑑) + 𝑎_____________(2)
Adding (1) and (2),
𝑆𝑛 + 𝑆𝑛 = (𝑎 + 𝑙) + (𝑎 + 𝑑 + 𝑙 − 𝑑) + (𝑎 + 2𝑑 + 𝑙 − 2𝑑) + ⋯ + (𝑙 − 2𝑑 + 𝑎 + 2𝑑 ) + (𝑙 − 𝑑 + 𝑎 + 𝑑)
+ (𝑎 + 𝑙)
2𝑆𝑛 = (𝑎 + 𝑙) + (𝑎 + 𝑙) + (𝑎 + 𝑙) + ⋯ 𝑛 times
2𝑆𝑛 = 𝑛(𝑎 + 𝑙)
𝒏
𝑺𝒏 = (𝒂 + 𝒍)
𝟐
Since 𝑙 is the 𝑛th term, we can use 𝑙 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑.
Hence,
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = (𝑎 + 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑)
2
𝒏
𝑺𝒏 = (𝟐𝒂 + (𝒏 − 𝟏)𝒅)
𝟐
Example II – 3: If the first three terms in an AP are 𝟖, 𝟓, 𝟐 then what is the sum of the first 𝟏𝟔 terms.
Here 𝑎 = 8, 𝑑 = 5 − 8 = −3, 𝑛 = 16
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = (2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑)
2
16
𝑆16 = (2 × 8 + (16 − 1) × −3)
2
= 8 × (16 + 15 × −3)
𝑆16 = −232
First term and common difference in terms of 𝑺𝒏 :
𝑆𝑛 is the sum of first 𝑛 terms.
Then 𝑆1 is just the first term alone.
∴ 𝑆1 = 𝑢1 = 𝑎
𝑆2 is the sum of first 2 terms.
𝑆2 = 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 = 𝑆1 + 𝑢2
 13

∴ 𝑢2 = 𝑆2 − 𝑆1
Common difference 𝑑 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 = 𝑆2 − 𝑆1 − 𝑆1 = 𝑆2 − 2𝑆1 .

𝒂 = 𝑺𝟏
𝒅 = 𝑺𝟐 − 𝟐𝑺𝟏
Example II – 4: In an A.P., the sum of the first n terms, denoted by 𝑺𝒏 , is given by 𝑺𝒏 = 𝟑𝒏𝟐 − 𝒏. Find
the first term and common difference.
𝑆𝑛 = 3𝑛2 − 𝑛
𝑆1 = 3 × 12 − 1 = 2
𝑆2 = 3 × 22 − 2 = 12 − 2 = 10
𝑎 = 𝑆1 = 2
𝑑 = 𝑆2 − 2𝑆1 = 10 − 2 × 2 = 6
First term = 2 and common difference = 6.

Exercise II - 1
1. An AP has second term of 96 and a fourth term of 54. Find the first term of this A.P.
2. The first term of an A.P. is 6 and the fifth term is 12. The progression has 𝑛 terms and the sum of all the
terms is 90. Find the value of 𝑛.
3. The first two terms in an A.P. are 5 and 9. The last term in the progression is the only term which is
greater than 200. Find the sum of all the terms of the progression.
4. The ninth term of an A.P. is 22 and the sum of the first four terms is 49. The 𝑛th term of the progression
is 46. Find the value of 𝑛.
5. Find the sum of all the multiples of 5 between 100 and 300 inclusive.
6. Find the sum of all the multiples of 7 between 200 and 500.
7. An A.P. has third term 90 and fifth term 80.
a. Find the value of 𝑚 given that the sum of first 𝑚 terms is equal to the sum of the first (𝑚 + 1)
terms.
b. Find the value of 𝑛 given that the sum of the first 𝑛 terms is zero.
8. A circle is divided into 6 sectors in such a way that the angles of the sectors are in A.P. The angle of the
largest sector is 4 times the angle of the smallest sector. Given that the radius of the circle is 5 cm, find
the perimeter of the smallest sector.
9. An A.P. is such that the eighth term is three times the third term. Show that the sum of the first eight
terms is four times the sum of the first four terms.
10. An A.P. contains 25 terms and the first term is −15. The sum of all the terms in the progression is 525.
Calculate the sum of all the positive terms in the progression.
11. In an A.P., the sum of the first 𝑛 terms, denoted by 𝑺𝒏 , is given by 𝑺𝒏 = 𝒏𝟐 + 𝟖𝒏. Find the first term
and common difference for the A.P.’s, whose the sum of first 𝑛 terms, denoted by 𝑺𝒏 , are given.
(i) 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑛2 + 8𝑛 (ii) 𝑆𝑛 = 2𝑛2 − 3𝑛 (iii) 𝑆𝑛 = 5𝑛 − 3𝑛2
12. The first term of an A.P. is 61 and the second term is 57. The sum of the first 𝑛 terms is 𝑛. Find the
value of the positive integer 𝑛.
13. Derive the formula to find the sum of first 𝑛 natural numbers.
 14

14. (a) Derive the formula to find the sum of first 𝑛 odd natural numbers.
(b) Derive the formula to find the sum of first 𝑛 even natural numbers.

Geometric Progression:
A Geometric Progression is a series or a sequence of numbers such that the ratio between the consecutive
terms is constant.
Let us assume the first term(𝑢1 ) of the sequence as ′𝑎′ and the common ratio between any two consecutive
terms as ′𝑟′, then,
the second term(𝑢2 ) = 𝑢1 × 𝑟 = 𝑎𝑟,
the third term (𝑢3 ) = 𝑢2 × 𝑟 = (𝑎𝑟) × 𝑟 = 𝑎𝑟 2
Hence the general form of a Geometric Progression is

𝒂, 𝒂𝒓, 𝒂𝒓𝟐 , 𝒂𝒓𝟑 , 𝒂𝒓𝟒 , … … …

Can you see a pattern in the terms?
𝑢1 = 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑟1−1
𝑢2 = 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑎𝑟 2−1
𝑢3 = 𝑎𝑟 2 = 𝑎𝑟 3−1

Hence, we can generalise the terms as 𝒖𝒏 = 𝒂𝒓𝒏−𝟏 .

This is called as the 𝑛th term or the general term. If the sequence has only 𝑛 terms then 𝑢𝑛 is the last term.

Example II – 5: Given the first two terms in a geometric progression as 2 and 4, what is the 10th
term?
Here,
4
𝑎 = 2, 𝑟 = = 2
2
𝑛−1
𝑢𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟
𝑢10 = 2 × 210−1 = 2 × 29 = 1024

Example II – 6: In a GP, the fourth term is 𝟏𝟎𝟖 and eighth term is 𝟖𝟕𝟒𝟖. Find the tenth term.
Given: fourth term 𝑢4 = 𝑎𝑟 3 = 108
Eighth term 𝑢8 = 𝑎𝑟 7 = 8748
Dividing both equations,
𝑎𝑟 7 8748
=
𝑎𝑟 3 108
𝑟 4 = 81 = 34
𝑟=3
𝑎𝑟 3 = 108
𝑎 × 33 = 108 ⇒ 𝑎 = 4
Now tenth term 𝑢10 = 𝑎𝑟 9 = 4 × 39 = 78732
Let us try to derive a formula to find the sum of all the 𝑛 terms of a GP.
Sum of all the 𝑛 terms of a GP is
𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−3 + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−2 + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 _______________(1)
 15

Multiplying both sides with 𝑟:

𝑟𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + 𝑎𝑟 3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−2 + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛 ______________(2)
In both equations 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + 𝑎𝑟 3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−2 + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 are common. To eliminate these terms, we
subtract both equations.
(1) − (2) ⇒ 𝑆𝑛 − 𝑟𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎 − 𝑎𝑟 𝑛
𝑆𝑛 (1 − 𝑟) = 𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )

𝒂(𝟏 − 𝒓𝒏 )
𝑺𝒏 =
𝟏−𝒓
Example II – 7: Given the first two terms of a GP as 𝟓 and 𝟏⁄𝟐 , what is the sum of the first 𝟕 terms?
1⁄ 1
𝑎 = 5, 𝑟 = 2 = ,𝑛 = 7
5 10
𝒂(𝟏 − 𝒓𝒏 )
𝑺𝒏 =
𝟏−𝒓
1 7
5 (1 − ( ) )
10
𝑆7 =
1
1−
10
𝑆7 = 5.56 (3𝑠. 𝑓)
Converging series:
A Geometric series is said to be a converging series when the consecutive terms of the series reduces towards
zero. The value of 𝑟 determines whether the series is convergent or divergent.
For example, consider a series with 𝑎 = 4 and 𝑟 = 2. The terms are as follows.
4, 8, 16, 32, … …
The consecutive terms are increasing towards infinity. This series is called Divergent series.
Consider another series with 𝑎 = 4 and 𝑟 = 0.02. The terms are as follows.
4, 0.08, 0.0016, 0.000032, … …
Here the consecutive terms are decreasing towards zero. That is when 𝑛 increases, the values decrease.
This is possible only when 𝑟 satisfies the condition |𝒓| < 𝟏 or −𝟏 < 𝒓 < 𝟏.
For a converging series, the sum of infinite terms will always approach a constant value.
For example, the sum of the terms in the above example is
4 + 0.08 + 0.0016 + 0.000032 = 4.081632
The next term of this series is 0.00000064. Adding this to the sum of first four terms will not make any
significant change. Hence, the sum of infinite terms of this series can be rounded off to 4.08.
Shall we try to find a general expression for calculating the sum to infinity for a converging series?
We already know the 𝑆𝑛 formula for a GP. We will use the same formula to derive the sum to infinity formula.
𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑛 ) 𝑎 − 𝑎𝑟 𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = =
1−𝑟 1−𝑟
𝑎 𝑎𝑟 𝑛
= −
1−𝑟 1−𝑟
 16

When the value of 𝑛 increases, then the value of 𝑟 𝑛 approaches zero, for −1 < 𝑟 < 1.
𝑛
Hence eliminating the term 𝑎𝑟 ⁄1 − 𝑟 , we can write the formula as,
𝒂
𝑺∞ =
𝟏−𝒓
where 𝑆∞ stands for Sum to infinity.
Shall we use this formula to find the sum for the above example?
Given: 𝑎 = 4, 𝑟 = 0.02.
4
𝑆∞ = = 4.0816
1 − 0.02
We are getting the same answer as what we got above.
Application of Geometric progression:
To calculate the Percentage increase or decrease, Geometric progression is used.
10
For example, if the amount of $4000 is increasing every year by 10%, then 𝑎 = 4000, 𝑟 = 1 + = 1.10.
100

Then the value of the amount after 5 years is given by 4000 × 1.105−1 and the total amount for 5 years is
4000(1 − 1.105 )
1 − 1.10
10
Similarly, to calculate the value of percentage decreasing, 𝑟 = 1 − = 0.90.
100

Exercise II-2
1. The first term of a G.P. is 81 and the fourth term is 24. Find the sum to infinity of the progression.
2. Find the sum to infinity of G.P. with first three terms 0.5, 0.53 , 0.55 .
3. A G.P. has a common ratio of − 2⁄3 and the sum of the first 3 terms is 35. Find the sum to infinity.
4. A G.P., in which all the terms are positive, has common ratio 𝑟. The sum of the first 𝑛 terms is less than
90% of the sum to infinity. Show that 𝑟 𝑛 > 0.1.
5. The first three terms of a G.P. are 2𝑘 + 3, 𝑘 + 6 and 𝑘, respectively. Given that all the terms are positive,
calculate 𝑘 and sum to infinity.
6. A G.P. has first term 1 and common ratio 𝑟. A second G.P. has first term 4 and common ratio 𝑟⁄4. The
two progressions have same sum to infinity, 𝑆. Find the values of 𝑟 and 𝑆.
7. A college agrees a sponsorship deal in which grants will be received each year for sports equipment.
This grant will be $4000 in 2012 and will increase by 5% each year. Calculate the value of the grant in
2022. Also calculate the total amount the college will receive in the years 2012 to 2022 inclusive.
1
8. The first two terms of a geometric progression are 1 and 1⁄3 tan2 𝜃 respectively, where 0 < 𝜃 < 𝜋.
2
Find the set of values of 𝜃 for which the progression is convergent.
9. In a G.P. the second term is 9 less than the first term. The sum of the second and third terms is 30. Given
that all the terms are positive, find the first term.
10. The third term of a G.P. is four times the first term. The sum of the first six terms is 𝑘 times the first
term. Find the possible values of 𝑘.
 17

11. The first term of an A.P. is 8 and the common difference is 𝑑, where 𝑑 ≠ 0. The first term, the fifth
term and the eighth term of this A.P. are the first term, the second term and the third term, respectively,
of a G.P whose common ratio is 𝑟. Find the value of 𝑟 and 𝑑.
12. A television quiz shows takes place every day. On day 1 the prize money is $1000. If this is not won
the prize money is increased for day 2. The prize money is increased in a similar way every day until it
is won. The television company considered the following two different models for increasing the prize
money.
Model 1: Increase the prize money by $1000 each day.
Model 2: Increase the prize money by 10% each day.
On each day that the prize money is not won the television company makes a donation to charity. The
amount donated is 5% of the value of the prize on that day. After 40 days the prize money has still not
been won. Calculate the total amount donated to charity
(i) If Model 1 is used.
(ii) If Model 2 is used.
13. The first two terms of a G.P. are 64 and 48 respectively. The first three terms of the G.P are also the
first term, the ninth term and the 𝑛th term respectively of an A.P. Find the value of 𝑛.
 18

Unit - III
Exponents and Logarithms
Exponents:
Exponents are defined as the number of times a base value is getting multiplied by itself.
Say a base value ′𝑎′ is multiplied by itself 𝑛 times as shown below.
𝑎 × 𝑎 × 𝑎 × 𝑎 × … … 𝑛 times
We can write this as 𝒂𝒏 which is the exponential form, where 𝑎 is the base and 𝑛 is the exponent.

Basic laws of exponents:

1. 𝑎𝑚 × 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚+𝑛 2. 𝑎𝑚 ÷ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚−𝑛 3. 𝑎−𝑚 = 1⁄𝑎𝑚

4. (𝑎𝑚 )𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚𝑛 5. 𝑎0 = 1 6. 𝑎1 = 𝑎

TO DO:
• Create power points or charts showing the proofs for the “Basic laws of exponents”.
• Teach the concepts of exponents and the laws to your juniors.
• Give them a worksheet designed by yourselves.
• Evaluate their answers and make a report on the common errors they make.

Natural exponent(𝒆𝒙 ):
Natural exponent has its base as 𝒆 where 𝒆 is known as Euler’s number. It is also known as Napier’s constant.
The value of the constant 𝒆 is 2.71828.
This value of 𝒆 can be calculated using many theorems and the most common calculation is by using
“Compound Interest” formula.
Calculation of the constant 𝒆:
Let us assume that the Principal amount is $1 and the rate of interest is 100%.
The formula for the total amount compounded for the time period 𝑛, rate of interest 𝑟% and the principal
amount 𝑃 is
𝑟 𝑛
𝐴 = 𝑃 (1 + )
100
When the interest is calculated per annum,
100 1
𝐴1 = 1 (1 + ) = (1 + 1)1 = 2
100
When the interest is calculated half yearly, (𝑛 = 2, 𝑟 = 50%)
50 2 1 2
𝐴2 = (1 + ) = (1 + ) = 2.25
100 2
When the interest is calculated quarterly, (𝑛 = 4, 𝑟 = 25%)
25 2 1 4
𝐴3 = (1 + ) = (1 + ) = 2.441406
100 4
Now we can generalise the formula as:
 19

When the interest is calculated for 𝑛 −terms,

1 𝑛
𝐴 = (1 + )
𝑛
Use your calculator, to calculate the value of 𝐴 for any value of 𝑛 and fill the following table.

𝟏 𝒏
𝒏 𝑨 = (𝟏 + )
𝒏
365
1000
10000
1000000
100000000

From this table we can conclude that for any higher values of 𝑛, the value of 𝐴 approaches a constant. This
constant value is 𝑒.
This can be stated as follows:

𝟏 𝒏
𝒆 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝟏 + )
𝒏→∞ 𝒏
where 𝐥𝐢𝐦 means “when 𝒏 approaches infinite value”.
𝒏→∞

TO DO:
• Browse for some other definitions for 𝒆.
• Write five applications of 𝒆.
Logarithms and its importance:
In Mathematics, every operation has its inverse.
• Inverse of addition is Subtraction and vice versa.
• Inverse of Multiplication is Division and vice versa.
• Inverse of Square is Square root and vice versa.
Similarly, the Inverse of exponents are Logarithms and vice versa.
As an exponent has its base, a logarithm would also have a base.
Notation:

𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒙
This is read as “log of 𝑥 base 𝑎”.
Conversion between exponents and Logarithms:
Let us assume that

𝒂𝒏 = 𝒃
To remember:
• When exponents go to the other side of the equation it becomes logarithms.
• The base of the exponent becomes the base of the logarithms.
 20

Hence the above equation transforms as follows:

𝒏 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒃
• Here the exponent is in LHS. While taking it to the RHS it becomes a logarithm of the RHS log (b).
• Since the base of the exponent is 𝑎, the base of the logarithm is also 𝑎.
Default base:
If there is no base mentioned in the logarithm then the base is assumed as 𝟏𝟎 by default.
That is 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙 is equivalent to 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝒙.
Natural Logarithm:
Natural logarithm is the inverse of Natural Exponent. Hence the base for the natural logarithm is 𝒆.
We have a special notation for natural logarithm. That is

𝐥𝐧 𝒙
𝐥𝐧 𝒙 is equivalent to 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒆 𝒙.
Importance of logarithms:
It is easier to solve the following equation.
𝟐𝒙 = 𝟑𝟐
We know that 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟑𝟐, hence 𝒙 = 𝟓.
This equation can also be solved using logarithms as follows.
𝒙 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟐 𝟑𝟐 = 𝟓
Example III – 1:
Solve 𝟑𝒙 = 𝟒𝟎
𝒙 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟑 𝟒𝟎 = 𝟑. 𝟑𝟔 (𝟑𝒔. 𝒇)
Example III – 12:
Solve 𝟏𝟎𝒙 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎
𝒙 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟑𝟎𝟎 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟖 (𝟑𝒔. 𝒇)
Example III – 13:
Solve 𝒆𝒙 = 𝟑
𝒙 = 𝐥𝐧 𝟑 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟗𝟗 (𝟑𝒅. 𝒑)

Exercise III
Solve the following equations:
1. 𝟓𝒙 = 𝟔𝟒 2. 𝟕𝒙 = 𝟕𝟎𝟎 3. 𝟒𝒙 = 𝟗𝟖
4. 𝟏𝟎𝒙 = 𝟐𝟑𝟓 5. 𝟏𝟎𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟑𝟓 6. 𝟏𝟎𝒙 = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟓
7. 𝒆𝒙 = 𝟓𝟔 8. 𝒆𝒙 = 𝟑𝟒𝟎 9. 𝒆𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟒𝟎
 21

Answers
Unit - I – Binomial Theorem
Exercise I - 1
1. 32 + 240𝑥 + 720𝑥 2 + 1080𝑥 3 2. 64𝑥 6 − 96𝑥 5 + 60𝑥 4 − 20𝑥 3
1 3
3. 𝑥 7 − 7𝑥 5 + 21𝑥 3 − 35𝑥 4.
64𝑥 6 − 4𝑥 3
+15 − 160𝑥 3
32 48 28 8
5.
𝑥 4 − 𝑥 3 + 𝑥2
−
𝑥
6. 972𝑥 7 − 972𝑥 6 + 243𝑥 5 − 540𝑥 4

7. 64 − 320𝑥 + 880𝑥 2 − 1408𝑥 3

Exercise I - 2
15
1. 2. −84 3. 272 4. 240 5. −2500 6. 𝑘=1
4
1 17
7. 𝑎=5 8. 𝑎=3 9. (i) 32 − 80𝑦 + 80𝑦 2 (ii) 400 10. 𝑎 = ;𝑏 = −
2 4

Unit - II – Sequences and Series

Exercise II - 1
1. 𝑎 = 117 2. 𝑛=8 3. 𝑆𝑛 = 5150 4. 𝑛 = 25
5. 𝑆𝑛 = 8200 6. 𝑆𝑛 = 15050 7. a. 𝑚 = 20 b. 𝑛 = 41
8. 12.1 10. 𝑆𝑛 = 570
11. (i) 𝑎 = 9, 𝑑 = 2 (ii) 𝑎 = −1, 𝑑 = 4 (iii) 𝑎 = 2, 𝑑 = −6 12. 𝑛 = 31
𝑛
13. 𝑆𝑛 = (𝑛 + 1) 14. (a) 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑛2 (b) 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
2

Exercise II - 2
2
1. 𝑆∞ = 243 2. 𝑆∞ = 3. 𝑆∞ = 27 5. 𝑘 = 12, 𝑆∞ = 81
3
4 𝜋
6. 𝑟 = ;𝑆 = 5 7. $6516 − $6520; $56800 8. 0<𝜃<
5 3
3 1
9. 𝑎 = 27 10. 𝑘 = 63 or 𝑘 = −21 11. 𝑟 = ; 𝑑 = −
4 2

12. (i) 𝑆𝑛 = 41000 (ii) 𝑆𝑛 = 22100 13. 𝑛 = 15

Unit - III – Exponents and Logarithms
Exercise III
1. 2.58 2. 3.37 3. 3.31 4. 2.37 5. −0.629 6. 0.371
7. 4.03 8. 5.83 9. −1.08
 22

Module Summary
Binomial Theorem
▶ Binomial Theorem:
𝒏 𝒏−𝟏 𝒏 𝒏−𝟐 𝟐 𝒏 𝒏−𝟑 𝟑
(𝒂 + 𝒃) = 𝒂 + ( ) 𝒂 𝒃 + ( ) 𝒂 𝒃 + ( ) 𝒂 𝒃 + ⋯ + 𝒃𝒏
𝒏 𝒏
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
where 𝑛 is always a positive integer.
▶ General Term of Binomial Series:
𝒏 𝒏−𝒓 𝒓
( )𝒂 𝒃
𝒓

Series and Sequences

▶ Arithmetic Progression:
▶ The general form of an Arithmetic Progression is
𝒂, 𝒂 + 𝒅, 𝒂 + 𝟐𝒅, 𝒂 + 𝟑𝒅, 𝒂 + 𝟒𝒅, … … …
▶ The 𝑛th term or the general term is
𝒖𝒏 = 𝒂 + (𝒏 − 𝟏)𝒅
▶ The sum of all the 𝑛 terms of an AP
𝒏
𝑺𝒏 = (𝒂 + 𝒍)
𝟐
𝒏
𝑺𝒏 = (𝟐𝒂 + (𝒏 − 𝟏)𝒅)
𝟐
Where,
𝑎 − first term
𝑑 − common difference
𝑙 − last term
𝑛 − number of terms in the progression
▶ For an AP,
𝒖𝟐 − 𝒖𝟏 = 𝒖𝟑 − 𝒖𝟐 = 𝒖𝟒 − 𝒖𝟑 = ⋯
▶ If 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑓(𝑛) is given for an AP, then
𝒂 = 𝑺𝟏
𝒅 = 𝑺𝟐 − 𝟐𝑺𝟏

▶ Geometric Progression:
▶ The general form of a Geometric Progression is
𝒂, 𝒂𝒓, 𝒂𝒓𝟐 , 𝒂𝒓𝟑 , 𝒂𝒓𝟒 , … … …
▶ The 𝑛th term or the general term is
𝒖𝒏 = 𝒂𝒓𝒏−𝟏
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▶ The sum of all the 𝑛 terms of an GP

𝒂(𝟏 − 𝒓𝒏 )
𝑺𝒏 =
𝟏−𝒓
Where,
𝑎 − first term
𝑟 − common ratio
𝑛 − number of terms in the progression
▶ For a GP,
𝒖𝟐 𝒖𝟑 𝒖𝟒
= = =⋯
𝒖𝟏 𝒖𝟐 𝒖𝟑
▶ Converging Series:
A Geometric series is said to be a converging series when the consecutive terms of the series
reduces towards zero.
Condition for Convergence: |𝒓| < 𝟏 or −𝟏 < 𝒓 < 𝟏.
Sum of infinite terms of a convergence series is given by
𝒂
𝑺∞ =
𝟏−𝒓
▶ For calculating percentage increase, say 𝑥%, then the value of 𝑟 should be taken as 𝟏 + 𝒙%.
For calculating percentage decrease, say 𝑥%, then the value of 𝑟 should be taken as 𝟏 − 𝒙%.

Exponents and Logarithms

▶ Logarithms:
The inverse of exponents are Logarithms and vice versa.
Notation:
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒙
This is read as “log of 𝑥 base 𝑎”.
Conversion between exponents and Logarithms:
Let us assume that
𝒂𝒏 = 𝒃
The above equation transforms as follows:
𝒏 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒃
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙 is equivalent to 𝐥𝐨𝐠𝟏𝟎 𝒙.
𝐥𝐧 𝒙 is equivalent to 𝐥𝐨𝐠𝒆 𝒙.
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