Peoples Republic of Bangladesh

Office of the Deputy Director

DAE, Cox’s Bazar

DAE/FAO/Memo-3 Date: 28-10-2022

Subject Nutrition Gardening through Vegetables seed distribution in Kutibdai Subdistrict By FAO
Reference: As Previous discussed with you.
According to the above said subject and reference and It is great pleasure for DAE that FAO going to take
great initiative for the poor and marginal farmers of Kutubdia Subdistrict. This action by the FAO will
uplift nutritional status of the Subdistrict.

To achieve this goal, I have some opinions; discussed with you; incorporated below in Tabular form. This
is draft only. My request to you as winter is running and it is high time to seed distribution. So, fill up the
time frame; I think it will help us for better accomplishment.

Sl No Activities Official related/Involved Time frame

1. Discussion on project out line, varietal FAO, DD,UAO,SAAO
need identification, Base line survey
2. Farmer group formation and listing UAO, SAAOS, Local
representative
3. Vegetables seed procurement based FAO-DAE
on need assessment
4. Group briefing and seed distribution FAO, DD, UAO, SAAO (FAO will
Among the groups in different union arrange the program with the
(150 groups equivalent to 3000 help of DAE field officers)
farmers)
5. Implementation of Nutrition Garden FAO-DAE field officer
6. Monitoring of Nutrition Garden groups a) FAO, DD and UAO
jointly 5 no.
b) DD= 5 no. Visit; report
based
c) UAO =10 no. Visit,
report based.
d) SAAOs will monitoring
all 150 groups

7. Result Discussion Seminar at FAO, DD, UNO, SAAOs

Subdistrict level and 150 group leaders.

I look forward for your necessary action.

To
Mr.Moksed Ali
FAO,Cox’s Bazar

Yours
Md.Kabir Hossain
Deputy Director, DAE
 Cox’s Bazar

Challenges of vegetables cultivation at Ukhiya and

way forward
Md.Kabir Hossain, Deputy Director, DAE,Cox’s Bazar

1) Agricultural Input related

a) Seed:
*Lack of HYV seed and seedling, *scarcity of good quality seeds * Lack of stress tolerant
variety
b) Fertilizer: *Balanced fertilizer * Organic fertilizer *Diammonium Phosphate (DAP),
*Vermicompost* Tricocomposte * Green-manuring
c) Irrigation: LLP, Solar irrigation
d) High prices of input
2) Soil Characteristic
a) Poor soil physical characteristic
b) Low organic matter content
c) Acidic soil
d)Saline soil
e) High temperature and limited soil moisture
3)Drainage and irrigation
a) Poor irrigation facilities
b) Water logging
c) Poor polder and sluice gate management
d) Rubber dam mis management
4)Framers ‘skill
a) In adequate farmer’s skill and knowledge related on
* Production technology
* Production model

*Intercultural operation
* Poly shed and grafted vegetables cultivation especially summer tomato
*Lack of technical knowledge @ Lack of technical help
b) Market access knowledge
5) Assessment of local vegetables demand
* Local consumer
* Hotel, Restaurants
* Local refugee camp
6)Financial drawback
a) Low market price/unfair price of produce/lower prices of vegetables
b) In adequate credit support to farmers, lack of loan facility
c)High cost of labor
d)Middle man
7)Pest and disease infestation
a) Disease infestation
* Lack of technical knowledge on Diseases identification and treatment
b) Insect attack
* Lack of technical knowledge on Insect identification and remedy
* Biopesticides and related issues
8)Lack of Marketing, storage and communication facilities
a) Marketing system is problematic and unorganized
b) Lack of cool chamber and cold storage
c) Transport facilities are not well up

9) Knowledge gap of maturity indices, sorting, grading and packaging

10) Climatic factors

a) Increased temperature
b) Losses of vegetable due to natural calamities
c) Tidal intrusion of saline water
Introduction

Farmer training is education that most often takes place outside formal learning
institutions. It differs from education in schools because it is geared towards adult
learning.

Adult learners are distinct from child learners in four important respects. The self-
concept of a child is characterized by dependency, whereas mature adults are self-
directed and sufficient in most aspects of their lives. Adults tend to resent educators
that fail to take this fact into account. They do not appreciate being talked down to or
having their autonomy restricted in ways that show a lack of respect. Since most
learning situations are pedagogical, or directed at children, adults often enter training
with expectations that they will be treated like children with explicit guidance at each
step. When they eventually discover that they are capable of directing their own
learning, adults are often spurred on by a strong, emerging motivation to pursue their
own educational goals.

A second aspect of adult education that also pertains to agricultural training deals with
motivation to learn. In pedagogical learning, teachers decide the content to be
delivered to students as well as how and when the teaching is to take place. Adults on
the other hand, begin new learning ventures with some ideas of what they will gain
from doing so. It is necessary, then, that extension agents discover what it is a farmer
wants to learn This may seem like a natural step and perhaps not worth much
emphasis. Nonetheless, failure to accomodate a farmer's interests is a common pitfall.
Extension agents often assume the teacher's role and decide for the farmer what she
needs to know. The drawback to this approach is that the farmer is apt to resist.
Decisions on the content and method of training must be the shared responsibility of
farmers and extensionists. The common purpose which emerges from such choices
leads to sense of cooperation necessary for learning to take place. A cooperative spirit
in adult learning is important because it allows for the sharing of useful knowledge
and skills adults bring with them to a new learning situation. Children have less
experience to offer. Their classroom activities are characterized by modes of one-way
communication, lectures, assigned readings and audio-visual presentations. By
contrast, the past experience of adult learners is central to adult learning, so activities
such as discussion, role playing, and skills-practice are designed which use that
experience as a foundation for further learning. Grain farmers are asked to use their
intimate knowledge of seasonal variations of climate to help plan a crop rotation
pattern suitable for local conditions. Livestock owners rely on their experience of the
difficulties of procuring local feedstuffs as they make selections to design a nutritional
feed ration for a flock of laying hens.

The final characteristic of adult learners which sets them apart from children has to do
with their time perspective and how it affects their orientation to training overall.
Children (and many educators) view pedagogy as preparation for the future. Its focus
is the child herself. Graduation is the point at which learning begins to be applied.
Adult learning on the other hand is based on the principle that all experience
contributes to a learning process that does not end with the closure of a training event,
but continues throughout one's adult life. Whereas pedagogy involves grouping and
classifying information into subjects to be studied now for use "someday", adult
education promotes learning by working on today's problems today. For example,
Farmer training sessions are likely to focus on composting rather than chemistry, or
immunization rather than microbiology. Though elements of the broader subjects
come into play in each case, the immediacy of application is the determining factor in
choosing the actual content of the training.

Adult learning is not widely practiced in the extension services which are predominant
in the developing world. Small farmers in Third World countries are often told what is
right ("modern techniques") and what is wrong ("traditional practices"), what to grow
( often, cash crops), and where and when to market their produce. This approach to
extension promotes dependency on outside inputs and expert advice (self-concept). It
denies farmers the choice of what they want to learn (motivation). It does not focus on
the Third World farmer's most immediate need to grow more food for her family (time
perspective). Nor does it take into account a farmer's accumulated experience of the
environment where her crops are grown.

The environment in which small-scale Third World farmer lives is often dominated by
uncertain weather, pests, diseases and price fluctuations. Farming in this environment
is fraught with risks. Given the choice afforded her in a farmer training system built
on adult learning principles, a farmer will avoid as much risk as she can. The
extension worker's task, then, is to help the farmer reduce risks whenever possible
through a sensitive choice of training methods and presentation of innovations that are
appropriate to the scale and type of farming being practiced.

There are several ways to help accomplish this goal. Perhaps the most important is to
try and ensure success by promoting only those innovations whose results have been
thoroughly tested under local conditions. Extensionists often succumb to the
temptation to promote before testing. This may well result in failure of the practice
and a disastrous loss of credibility among farmers. The importance of assessing the
success rate of specific proposed changes cannot be overemphasized.

A second way to reduce farming risks is to time the sequencing of innovations.

Certain changes lend themselves to earlier promotion than others. Those that are
easily assimilated into current practices involve less risk than those that are more
disruptive of the norm. Examples would be innovations that do not require a radical
change in diet or a detrimental shift in the tasks assigned to men and women in the
work force; that would avoid considerable retraining; or that would not entail a
realignment of a periodic farming cycle. Less costly innovations (e.g. timeliness, seed
selection or better spacing techniques) are preferred and in cases where cash inputs
are required, risk is reduced if they are readily available to all classes of farmers.
Finally, extension agents can build credibility by first introducing innovations that
have an immediate payoff as opposed to those that have longer term results (e.g.
variation of a feed ration as opposed to cross-breeding).

Sometimes it is easier to promote a 'package' of innovations than a single innovation,

because the results of a well-tested package are often much more dramatic. The
package approach is also sometimes favored by national planners of extension
services because it is seen as a more efficient use of limited extension manpower. One
major drawback of this technique is that if the package fails, farmers may conclude
that all of the individual practices are unproductive. Also, more research and testing
are required to adapt a package to local conditions than a single innovation. A
package may be more costly because several changes are introduced at once and may
therefore be inaccessible to small farmers with limited cash resources. (Note that a
package can also be designed that does not include cash inputs.) Finally, the elements
of a package may be so closely related that if a single input is unavailable or one
component is inadvertently neglected, the entire package may be susceptible to
failure.

It is not uncommon for extension agents, whether they are working with a package or
with individual innovations, to exaggerate the benefits of a new practice. Efforts must
be taken to make conservative recommendations. Suggestions include: lower yield
estimates to account for incidental factors and less than optimum employment of new
practices by farmers; recommend purchased inputs on the basis of maximum return
per dollar rather than maximum return per land unit or head of livestock (this favors
small farmers who do not profit by volume); encourage farmers to do a limited trial of
a new practice prior to wholesale adoption, (for example, on a small portion of land
rather than over a whole landholding). The idea behind making conservative
recommendations is that they allow a farmer to improve at her own rate until she
reaches a position of sufficient financial security to assume greater risks.

At times, the difficulties farmers have in taking their chances with a particular practice
have less to do with the practice itself than with the method of its presentation.
Appropriate training methods help ensure that the benefits of change and the specific
steps required to make that change are effectively communicated to a farmer in a way
she can readily understand.

Examples of different learning styles include farmers who need to see and test results
for themselves; farmers who are unsure how to do something; farmers who need to get
their information from people they know rather than strangers, and farmers who need
ideas expressed in a logical framework, that is consistent with their own worldview.
Corresponding training methods are result demonstrations and on farm-trials; method
demonstrations; training of master farmers to train their peers; and analogy and
storytelling. When an effective match is made between training method and learner,
the quality of communication between the extension agent and the farmer increases,
trust is established and risk in the eyes of the farmer is reduced.
In sum, farmers seek to avoid risk whenever possible in an occupation characterized
by uncertainty. To help farmers change and adapt new conditions extension agents
need to make concentrated efforts to reduce risk by rigorously testing results before
promotion, introducing easily adaptable improvements before those requiring a more
substantial departure from accepted practices, packaging innovations to enhance
results, erring on the conservative side in making recommendations, and choosing
training methods appropriate to farmers' learning needs. The advantages of combining
these risk-avoiding steps include a greater measure of credibility for the extension
agent and a more significant degree of control of and participation by farmers in the
development process which affects their lives.

Cross - cultural communication

OVERVIEW

Extension work is carried out through two-way communication. This communication

takes place in a cross-cultural environment that is not familiar to a new agent.
Sensitivity to that environment is important in everything the agent does.

Evidence of cultural differences is readily found in a people's customs and beliefs.

Extension agents need to look beyond these more obvious manifestations of culture to
subtle distinctions fauna in language and other means of communication if the desired
two-way flow of information is to take place.

Language

Learning to speak the farmer's own language is a goal most extensionists work
towards in some way or another. Learning to use a language in a culturally
appropriate way may in many respects be a more useful objective. For example, there
are expressions in most languages that have special (colloquial) meanings in local
circumstances. "An empty sack will not stand up" does not refer to grain bags in a
storeroom; it is an expression that says, in effect, "A man who has not been fed will
not work." Proverbs or parables such as this one are very direct forms of
communication that can enhance an extension worker's ability to talk effectively with
people. Generally, they refer in some way to the most vital aspects of life in a given
culture. Systematic questioning about key elements of life, such as food or family,
may generate a list of expressions that would prove useful in an extensionist's work
with farmers.

An equally important consideration is the way people of a given culture communicate

non-verbally. There are often very strict, unwritten rules regarding the gestures one
uses, eye contact, and other means of physical communication. An outsider may
unwittingly break these rules and cause offense.
A useful way to avoid cultural miscommunication when using a language is to choose
a language instructor or interpreter who also serves as a cultural informant. Focussing
on parables and non-verbal means of communication in addition to learning grammar
and vocabulary will help ensure that culture does more to enhance communication
than impede it.

Cultural bias

The participants in any communication exchange bring with them a particular

viewpoint or bias that reflects their culture. Peace Corps volunteers doing extension
work in technical fields such as agriculture often betray a special bias toward abstract
scientific concepts that is not always shared by the people with whom extensionists
work.

Experiments have been conducted which show that people in non-literate societies do
not share American ("Western") concepts of measurement or geometry.

For example, equal quantities of water were poured into a long, thin glass and a short,
stout glass. When asked which glass contained more water, 60% of a non-literate
group chose one glass or the other because of its shape. Similarly, two points were
marked on a circular table and test participants were asked to connect the points with
a straight line ("as if you were carrying a heavy load of wood or water"). Again,
roughly 60% of the participants failed to draw the straight line. The implications of a
volunteer's scientific bias may not be apparent until farmers confront a task such as
measuring fertilizer or digging an irrigation ditch and encounter difficulty. The need
for extension agents to consider this type of cultural difference is nonetheless
apparent.

Illiteracy has other implications. People who are constantly exposed to the printed
page are also frequently inundated with photographic images, not only in magazines
and books, but also on television and movie screens, signs and advertisements. The
skill of interpreting these images is referred to as visual literacy. Those who are
visually illiterate have difficulty with depth perception in pictures, and they have a
hard time discovering motion or identity. Other two-dimensional visual effects such as
maps or drawings present similar difficulties to those who are not "conversant" in
visual language. Thus, an extension worker should use care in choosing visual aids for
a training presentation.

Sometimes maps can be constructed as three-dimensional scale models. Again,

caution is warranted, in that interpreting scales may not be a common practice in a
given culture. The example is often cited of the extension worker who employed a
meter long scale model of a tsetse fly in a presentation to farmers on cattle diseases.
At the end of the short talk, one farmer raised his hand and thanked the agent for
alerting him to the dangers of the tsetse fly. He added that he was, himself, not too
worried because he had yet to see a fly anywhere near as big as the one in the agent's
hand on his own farm.
Another problem with scale models in particular and visual aids in general, is the
unconscious use of negative symbolism. Colors, certain animals or replicas of human
beings can all, in certain cultures, have connotations of danger or represent
unfavorable omens. The key to avoiding offense in cross-cultural communication is
pre-testing presentations with part of the intended audience to determine their
suitability in advance. Observers can help an extension agent with suggestions that
will make his communication more direct and bias-free.

Appropriate cross-cultural training methods

Just as ignorance of cultural norms can work to block effective communication,

understanding the communication patterns in a local culture can open up new,
exciting avenues for information flow. Storytelling is a means of communication that
has been practiced in many cultures for generations. When used in extension work,
stories can serve several different purposes. They can demonstrate drawbacks of
specific agricultural practices without singling out any one farmer in front of her
peers. This is accomplished by telling the story in the third person about a fictional
character and allowing the audience to draw its own conclusions.

Another particularly effective technique is to make analogies to situations within the

collective experience of one's audience.

This allows farmers to build upon what they already know as they learn. A rice plant
goes through a growth stage at which the stem grows fat just prior to vigorous vertical
growth. This is an opportune time to apply nitrogen fertilizer so it is important that the
stage be precisely identified. By analogy, extension agents and farmers in West Africa
refer to the stage by saying that the plant "gets belly", or becomes pregnant. This type
of analogy can be used in the context of a story to help farmers come to a fuller
understanding of a new practice or method by incorporating concepts with which
farmers are already familiar.

The way a story is actually told can vary with the story's purpose. An extension agent
can incorporate peer teaching into storytelling by asking several farmers to tell
different parts of a story. This allows for wider participation and generally creates a
higher interest level on the part of the audience. An extension agent can also tell half
of a story and leave 'blanks' for farmers to complete. This can be used to test and see
how much farmers actually retain during training sessions, e.g.:

"Jose has been working all day under the hot sun. He is tired and is looking forward to
the meal and bathwater that will be waiting for him when he returns home. Still, he
wants to finish planting his maize field before evening, so he continues, methodically
dropping handfuls of seed into holes (how far?) apart..."

In some cultures, stories can even be dramatized with farmers playing different roles.
In general, creative use of this medium can bridge communication barriers that would
otherwise pose serious problems to outsiders acting as extension workers.
Songs and dances are communication media that are easily overlooked, but
nonetheless serve as extremely effective mass promotional devices. Most villages
have someone who can sing and put words to music. The agent need only ask this
person to prepare a song on a special topic, such as:

The man who harvested his grain too late

The woman who built a strong fence around her garden to keep out pests

The village that had no grazing restrictions

When set to a popular tune with a pronounced dance rhythm, the elements of these
stories can rapidly become ingrained in the daily routine of a whole village.

Role plays or spontaneous dramatizations provide an opportunity for farmers to

practice skills in problem-solving, community organizing, and teaching methods.
They require few props and minimal preparation, can be very lively, and can come
very close to approximating real life situations. It is important not to ask farmers to
role-play situations that are extremely controversial. To prevent bad feelings from
developing, each player should be allowed to de-role by saying how it felt to play his
or her character, and discussion among players and observers should be encouraged.

Finally, a wide variety of visual aids can be employed to improve cross-cultural

communication. Several cautions have already been mentioned about the limits to the
use of graphics models and photographs. Even so, excellent training materials are
available (see TOOLS section below) to help extensionists prepare and use visual aids
in their work.

The audience

Choice of audience may have clear implications within a particular culture. In some
cases, it is a sign of respect to pay separate visits to individual households. Practically
speaking, training sessions with individuals may be more effective because they can
be paced to meet specific needs. They also make use of a farmer's own fields as a
training setting, a more comfortable and relevant arrangement for most farmers.

The advantages of working with groups include opportunities for farmers to step into
active training roles with their peers. This helps de-emphasize the extension agent's
role as 'expert' and helps ensure that information will pass through culturally
appropriate channels.

Conclusion

The techniques suggested for improving cross-cultural communication in this section

can be combined in many useful ways. Additional references to consult are included
in the TOOLS section below.
ILLUSTRATIONS

Use of a scale model:

To demonstrate the interrelationship of a system's parts and to solve a problem, a set

of irrigated rice paddies are modeled out of clay; Farmers owning connecting paddies
are assembled and each is asked to demonstrate with the model how he irrigates his
own plots; where he lets water into his plots, where he lets it out, how long and often
he lets water flow through his plots, etc. A discussion then ensues about how water
not used by farmers upstream must be allowed to pass unimpeded to farmers
downstream.

Use of analogy:

This illustration is borrowed from David Werner and Bill Bower's, Helping Health
Workers Learn, p. 13-8

Helping health workers learn

Use of role playing:

When preparing a joint demonstration on fertilizer application a Peace Corps

extension worker and her counterpart take turns playing the role of a non-literate
woman vegetable farmer. They pose questions to each other and follow advice exactly
as it is given to see if they can uncover any areas of cultural bias in their presentation.

TOOLS

Sources of proverbs and parables

When learning a new language and gathering useful colloquial phrases for use in
cross-cultural communication, start with vital topics such as those on the following
list:

harvest children
land money
food weather
work school
family politics

Non-verbal communication:

Observe or ask cultural informants about rules concerning the following types of non-
verbal communication:

• body language, gestures

• interpersonal space (how close to stand to someone)

• timing of verbal exchange (is it rude to interrupt someone before they have finished
speaking?)

• eye contact

• touching (body contact, holding hands, etc.)

Examples of "scientific' bias:

• measurements

• notions of time
• geometry

• ability to read maps and photographs

• ability to interpret scale

Culturally appropriate training methods:

• storytelling

• analogy

• proverbs, parables (colloquialisms)

• skits

• role plays

• song and dance

• visual aids such as

- models

- photos

- puppets

- drawings

- posters

- flannel boards

- flash cards

- flipcharts

- games, puzzles

TOOLS

General considerations in effective communication:

- People learn by hearing, seeing, tasting, smelling, discussing, doing;

- The more farmers actively participate in training, the more two-way communication
will take place;
- Does the training method relate to a farmer's own experience?

- Is the information timely?

- Is the skill needed?

- Is the innovation affordable?

- Is the language used free of unnecessary technical terms and abstractions?

- Is the tone of the presentation respectful and pleasant?

- Is the audience comfortable (temperature, seating, visibility, hearing range, etc)?

- Is the presentation well rehearsed and organized?

- Are materials locally available and conveniently placed?

- Is a mechanism in place to make sure the desired message was conveyed in the
presentation?

Scale models:

Uses-

• mapping (three dimensional relief features)

• demonstrating the relationship between a system's parts

• reproducing to scale a mechanical part that can be used to practice manual skills

• planning

• promotion of innovations

• problem-solving

• comparative analysis

Audience-

• Farmers, counterparts or children (excellent for use in schools)

Planning considerations-

• choice of scale

• choice of materials (cost, availability)

• permanent or temporary construction

• rain protection

• shade

• accessibility (suitable for audience size)

• portability

• capable of being manipulated (encourages participation)

• culturally acceptable

Making and using other visual aids

There are excellent materials available on making and using visual aids. Refer
especially to:

David Werner and Bill Bower, Helping Health Workers Learn,

The Hesperian Foundation (Post Office Box 1692, Palo Alto, CA. 94302, USA),

1982, Chapters 1116 and 27.

Pam J. Straley and Vyen Ngoc Luong, Community Health Education in Developing
Countries,

Peace Corps (Information Collection and Exchange),

806 Connecticut Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20525, 1978, Part III.

ICE Audiovisual Communications Teaching Aids Packet,

(P8) (PC/ICE) 1982.

Farm visits and troubleshooting

OVERVIEW

Making individual visits to farmers' fields and livestock holding areas is the farmer
training method most widely practiced by extension workers. As such, it requires
special attention.

During farm visits extension field workers are often directly confronted with very
pressing problems. On the spot, the extension agent is asked to make an expert
judgement about (troubleshoot) something plaguing a farmer's plants or animals. The
way the extensionist handles this situation can profoundly affect levels of dependency
in the farmer-agent relationship. The trick in successful troubleshooting is to avoid
taking on "expert" status.

The situation an extension worker faces is somewhat like the interaction between a
doctor and her patients. Given someone who needs medical attention, the doctor has
several choices as to how she responds. She may simply cure the patient with a packet
of pills or an injection and send him on his way. Or she may explain to the patient the
causes of his affliction and the way the cure works, cure him, and send him on his
way hoping to have educated him enough to prevent future illness. Finally, she may
refuse the responsibility for the patient's cure, discuss with him the possible causes of
the disease, and explain to him ways that he might be able to cure himself. With this
the doctor sends him on his way, hopefully more capable of both preventing disease
and curing it without any further assistance from the doctor herself.

The three options for the doctor's response are listed in order of decreasing
dependency in the patient-doctor relationship. The same options may be available to
the extension agent. One difference in the case of the agent is that she is likely not to
have the same degree of expert training as most doctors. The consequence, then, is
that the extensionist is in many instances not qualified to make the type of expert
judgements represented in the first option above. On the other hand, like the doctor,
the extension agent may face situations that she is competent enough to handle and
that are serious enough in nature as to require direct action - a disease outbreak among
a herd of cattle, for instance. In these cases, it is useful for the extension agent to have
practical troubleshooting skills.

The first skills to consider are those of observation and examination. It is essential at
the outset that the agent possess enough technical expertise to be able to distinguish
normal from abnormal conditions. There are lists of signs of plant and animal
diseases, for instance, that an extension agent needs to have either memorized or
readily available for use. In the field, then, the agent watches for abnormal plant color,
lack of uniformity, stunting, wilting and leaf spots. And she physically examines
plants for signs of insect feeding. The steps necessary for a thorough examination
need to be second nature. The way to make them systematic is to practice them daily
and actually record them in field notebooks and worklogs.

The second set of skills involve utilization of resources beyond those of the agent
herself. Included amont these skills are information gathering, description and
networking. When confronted with a problem in the field, the extension agent needs
to know what practices the farmer has used that might have contributed to the
problem, what solutions the farmer may have already attempted in order to get rid of
the problem, and, in more general terms, how much the farmer actually knows about
possible causes and solutions for a given condition. In order to gather this
information, the extensionst needs to utilize the interviewing skills discussed in
Chapter Two. In some cases, information gathered from the farmer and the extension
worker's own skills at diagnosis may still fail to turn up any clearer understanding of a
situation. Being able to accurately describe what conditions exist then becomes a
crucial skill. The agent can carry a description of a problem to a network of technical
support persons, including other farmers, other extension agents, and technical
research stations, to solicit their opinions as to what steps should be taken.

A third set of skills is important when the extension agent does have a clear idea of
what is wrong with a farmer's crops or livestock. It is in this instance that she is most
likely to set herself up as an "expert." Therefore, caution is warranted. The skills
involved include dialogue and use of cross-cultural communication techniques.
Dialoguing entails the artful posing of a series of questions logically sequenced so as
to lead a farmer through the thought process of diagnosing a problem. (See
ILLUSTRATIONS). The key is to keep asking open-ended questions. In cases where
dialogue fails to work, the extensionist can give a careful, straightforward explanation
of a problem, using analogies to other parts of a farmer's experience. Relating a
problem to something'a farmer already knows will help him grasp the solution as
something that is not wholly unfamiliar to him, rather than as something that is
entirely within the foreign, even magical realm of scientific expertise.

ILLUSTRATION

Troubleshooting in a poultry extension program:

Field workers in a livestock extension program directed at poultry farming come

together in a district capital for a meeting at which they discuss how they deal with the
widespread problem of overcrowding in chicken pens.

Agent A simply tells farmers to build new pens for some of the chickens.

Agent B observes the chickens' aggressive behavior and examines several of them that
are afflicted with fungus diseases related to the sanitary conditions in their pens. He
asks the farmer how long the behavior patterns and diseases have been present. He
explains to the farmer how the behavior and disease are related to the size of the pen
and recommends moving some of the chickens to a new location.

Agent C observes the overcrowded pens and tells the farmer that he will return the
next day with a suggestion to improve the health of the flock. He goes home and
prepares a detailed analogy to help explain why it is important to reduce the number
of chickens in the pen. He returns the next day and draws a parallel between the
chickens and a large number of people confined in a closed room. He asks the farmer
to recall the bad air and the heat he has experienced in closed rooms full of people and
says that chickens experience something similar when too many of them are crowded
together in one pen. He then recommends that the farmer build a new pen for the
overflow.

Agent D is unsure whether overcrowding is the problem or not. He counts the number
of chickens in the pen and paces off its size. He asks the farmer to describe the
chickens' behavior and makes some brief notes in his field notebook. He visits other
farmers whose flocks are healthy and compares the density of the chicken population
in their pens. He asks the other farmers if they have observed any of the same sort of
aggressive behavior as the first farmer he visited. The other farmers, it turns out, have
larger pens for a comparable number of birds and have not witnessed agressive
behavior in their flocks. On his next visit to the District Office of the Ministry of
Agriculture, he has his suspicions confirmed by a senior extension officer who tells
him that the disease and behavior of the problem flock are probably related to the
overcrowded conditions in the pens. He returns to the farmer who owns the chickens
and explains what the other farmers and the Ministry official told him. The farmer
decides to build a second pen for some of his hens.

Agent E observes the crowded conditions and guesses right away that they are the
source of the farmer's problems. Rather than tell the farm directly her opinion, she
asks several questions that get the farmer thinking about different possible causes of
the problem. Some of the ideas the farmer has are shown to be wrong when the
extension agent points out exceptions. Others she accepts as possibilities. Finally, the
farmer and the agent have narrowed their list down to two or three potential causes.
They discuss ways the farmer can test them and arrange for follow-up visits by the
agent to see if any of the options have worked. After testing one of the possibilities
and finding that it does not change the condition of his birds, the farmer finally
determines that overcrowded pens are the chief cause of his flock's illnesses.

Dialoguing with a farmer about crop management techniques:

Question to the farmer: What is the problem with these plants?

Answer: They are yellow and their leaves are withered.

Q: Are all of your plants in the same condition?

A: No, some are much healthier.

Q: What can make plants get sick like this?

A: Sometimes the ground is not good; sometimes there are insects.

Q: Why do you wait until this time of year to plant your garden?

A: Because the crops will not grow well without the rains.

Q: Where do the heavy rains go when they hit the ground here? Do they stay in one
place?

A: No, some goes into the ground, but most of the water goes down the hill to the low
part of the plot.
Q: How do the plants in the low part of the plot compare to the sick ones you brought
me here to see?

A: They are much greener and larger than these.

Q: Why do you think that is the case?

A: It could be because there is more water in that part of the plot when it rains.

Q: How can you help these plants on the upper half of the plot grow better?

A: Give them more water by hand.

Q: How often will you water them?

A: Once every day.

Q: If that is not enough, what will you do?

A: I will water morning and evening, twice a day.

NOTE:

• The ultimate cause of the problem here is that the garden plot is unlevel. The more
immediate problem of making his plants healthy is more important to the farmer. The
extension agent in the dialogue is wise to wait until a more appropriate time -- just
prior to the next planting season, for example -to talk to the farmer about levelling off
the plot itself.

• Guard against asking patronizing questions by being thoroughly familiar with a

farmer's knowledge.

TOOLS

Troubleshooting tools for crops extension agents:

-A pocket knife for digging up seeds or slicing plant stems to check for root and stem
rots or insects borers.

-A shovel or trowel for examining plant roots or checking for soil insects or adequate
moisture.

-A pocket magnifying glass to facilitate identification of insects an diseases.

-A reliable soil pH test kit for checking both topsoil and subsoil pH; especially useful
in areas of high soil acidity. Kits using litmus paper are generally unreliable. The
Hellige Truog kit is one of the best.

-Disease, insect and hunger signs guides which can be hand written if conveniently
sized booklets are not available.

Troubleshooting steps:

1. Know signs of abnormal conditions; supplement knowledge with additional

training if necessary.

2. Assemble useful tools.

3. Observe and examine and consult with farmer.

4. Consult with other farmers and local agriculturalists.

5. Consult outside experts and resources.

Appropriate problem-solving options: (Consider in order)

-Non-action (Can the farmer handle the problem on her own? Is she turning to an
extension agent out of force of habit?)

-Dialogue leading to farmer controlled experimentation.

-Preceding a response with time to prepare an appropriate training method.

-Making recommendations after patiently explaining their rationale.

-Intervening directly in cases of extreme need and attempting a follow-up at a later

date.

"A Guide To Troubleshooting Common Crop Problems", Traditional Field Crops

Manual, M-13, David Leonard. C/O ICE. Page 333 and afterwards.

On - farm demonstrations

OVERVIEW

On-farm demonstrations are effective means of reducing the risks farmers perceive.
They are designed to take new innovations out of the 'unreal', scientific realm of the
research station and place them firmly within the bounds of a farmer's everyday
experience. They are used first to display the results of adopting a new practice and
then to give the farmer an opportunity to practice new methods. Both types of
demonstrations serve to make clear to a farmer exactly what is entailed in opting for a
new farming innovation.

Chapter One describes the research-extension chain. Result demonstrations are the
link in that chain at which the active promotion of innovations in farming practices
begins. Practically speaking, result demonstrations are side by side comparisons of
new and traditional techniques. They are conducted in farmer's own fields or barns to
show that experimental results can be reproduced locally. Even though crop farming
examples will be used throughout this section, result demonstrations can be very
creatively employed by livestock extension agents as well. (See Chapter Three under
"Testing Recommendations").

On the surface, a result demo might seem fairly straightforward, but there are actually
a number of factors that can serve to reduce their effectiveness. First, the
demonstration must produce results that are visible and significant enough to convince
farmers to try the new practice themselves. If the practice is, for instance, not fully
tested before hand under local conditions, the demonstration runs a high risk of
failure.

Second, the innovation has to satisfy the farmer's own criteria in terms of the other
risks associated with it. That is, it must promise an immediate return, fall within the
farmer's financial means, and suit prevailing cultural patterns, to name but three.

Third, the demonstration should not be run by an extension agent. Farmers will be
more impressed by results obtained by their peers than by supposed agricultural
experts. Fourth, the farmer on whose land a result demonstration is conducted cannot
be extremely wealthy or progressive; nor should the plots receive an undue amount of
attention and care. The idea of the demonstration is to show a group of farmers what
results can be obtained by a normal farmers under normal conditions. Hence, the
choice of demonstration farmer needs to be made with care, the site should be typical
of surrounding lands and the crop itself must be managed at a realistic level. Any
other arrangement will undermine the demonstration's effectiveness.

In setting up a result demo with a cooperating farmer, it is important to establish who

is responsible for the labor involved in maintaining plots and who will provide
necessary inputs. In order to make the demo credible, the farmer must do most of the
actual work. Inputs are a stickier problem. Ideally, the demonstration farmer will
provide his own. Realistically, there may be some instances where the extension
service might need to donate inputs as a courtesy for a farmer's cooperation. Two
questions need to be considered: Will a gift of inputs have a negative effect on the
agent-farmer relationship? How will other farmers perceive such a gift? Whatever the
choice, arrangements must be made explicit at the outset.

The next set of practical considerations in setting up a demonstration focus on the

plot: its location, its layout and its size. A conspicuous or readily noticeable site is
crucial in attracting maximum attention. Locations near roads or footpaths or on the
immediate outskirts of a village are ideal. Visibility is the key factor in plot layout.
When viewing from the most prominent vantage point, from a road, for example, the
traditional and improved plots should be side by side rather than front and back. Signs
can be erected to attract further attention and provide explanations of the
demonstration. (Note that signs need to meet the visual literacy levels of a majority of
the farmers observing the demonstration).

The size of the plot may be influenced by several factors: the labor constraints of the
demo farmer and the amount of land she has available; the size of the group that will
eventually observe the formal presentation of results; the type of crop; and the overall
impression the demonstration is intended to create. In general, the plot should be large
enough to be impressive without being to large to take in both parts of the
demonstration with a single glance. Rough estimates suggest that one or two hundred
square meters would be enough for an effective demo of field crops, with less area
required for demonstrations with vegetables.

Throughout the planting and maintenance operations connected with the demo, the
farmer needs to be thoroughly familiarized with the what, why, when and how of what
is going on. In particular the extension agent should chek that needed inputs are
prepared and applied on time. The entire process needs to be documented accurately
so that results can be adequately explained when the demonstration is completed.
Rainfall figures for the duration of the demonstration crop's growing cycle, for
example, are of crucial significance.

If the demonstration farmer has been adequately trained during the course of the
growing season, she can play a central role in the use of the demo as a promotional
tool by providing testimony to a particular method's effectiveness. There may be
opportunities early on in the demonstration garden's growth cycle for her to show
preliminary results to some of her neighbors. Pointing out differences in plant size and
color at various stages serve to heighten interest in a demo as it progresses towards
completion.

The main presentation of results should, however, be conducted at harvest time. The
farmer should be prepared to help the extension agent through four steps: an
explanation of the new practice focusing on amount of labor required, materials
needed and changes from traditional methods; a conservative estimate of costs and
returns; a question and answer period; and an offer of follow-up visits to other farmers
interested in adopting the new practice themselves.

This follow-up often takes the form of a second type of demonstration the method
demonstration. Method demonstrations allow farmers to learn by doing. The extension
agent physically demonstrates a practice - how to determine a goat's age, for instance,
by checking its teeth - and asks the farmer to try the same practice herself. The agent
watches and corrects the farmer until she can do the practice properly, and then moves
on to the next step of the demonstration.
Only one topic is covered at a time in a method demo. Checking a goat's teeth is one
aspect of the topic: "Determining what livestock to buy at an auction." Goat buying
and goat breeding are different topics. Each method demo is timed to coincide with
the operations farmers are involved with in theirs individual farming cycles. Planting
demonstrations are conducted a week or two before most farmers begin planting;
weeding demonstrations are conducted just before the optimum time in a plant's
growth cycle to do a complete weeding operation, In this way, a series of method
demonstrations serve to span an entire growing season and keep the extension agent in
close contact with his clients.

Being successful in conducting a method demo requires close attention to detail. The
site and time of demonstration should be selected on the basis of audience comfort.
Shade, heat, and sight lines are three important considerations. Materials for the
demonstration should be locally available and arranged conveniently for use in the
demonstration. The best way to make sure that nothing will be forgotten is to prepare
a written plan (see ILLUSTRATIONS and TOOLS). This may include the step by
step sequence of the demo itself as well as lists of materials needed and major points
to be covered. Once the plan is written, the extension agent needs to rehearse the
presentation in its entirety. Only by actually walking through a demonstration can the
agent be sure that nothing has been left out

When actually conducting the presentation, it is important to encourage as much

farmer participation as possible. Points at which farmers can be directly involved
should be indicated in the written plan. Other means of accomodating farmer learning
styles are to continue to relate new material being presented to a farmer's previous
experience and to carefully choose vocabulary with which the farmer is already
familiar. Some technical terms may prove very difficult to translate without
considerable thought beforehand. A good way to check to make sure that the audience
is following a presentation is to pose questions to farmers at regular intervals. The
demonstrator can also repeat steps where necessary. Finally, it is important for either
the extension agent or one of the farmers to summarize the main points of a
presentation at its conclusion.

The ILLUSTRATIONS and TOOLS sections which follow can be supplemented by a

review of the adult learning principles and cross-cultural communication techniques
contained in other sections of this chapter.

ILLUSTRATIONS

1. Layout of a result demonstration (from Chapter 2):

Road

2. Written plan for a method demonstration:

• Demonstration title: Garlic Onions are Easy to Grow for Food and Profit.

• Why is this demonstration important to your audience?

a. Garlic onions grow easily.

b. Garlic onions provide a good food addition for the home.

c. There is an available market for a good crop of garlic onions.

• Materials needed for this demonstration.

Equipment and supplies:

1. Planting plot

2. Hoe

3. Hand rake

4. Stick one foot long

5. Stick four inches long

6. String

7. Pegs
8. One oil tin of well-rotted farinyard manure

9. Garlic onion bulbs

Visual aids and handouts:

1. Pamphlet on "Planting Garlic Onions"

2. Sample onion bulbs

• Presenting the Demonstration

Step by step activities Key points

I. Mark out the first row. Use a string and pegs to mark the row. Make sure the
string is tight.
II. Measure second row one Use stick 1 ft. long to measure spacing.
foot from the first row.
III. Additional rows are laid out Keep rows straight using string and pegs.
at the same spacing.
IV. Make the planting furrows Use hoe to dig furrows along the line of the string.
1" deep.
V. Place farmyard manure in Use well-rotted manure.
furrows to the level of the
ground.
VI. Mix the manure into the Prevents burning of the bulbs.
furrow soil.
VII. Mark the planting spaces Use 4" stick to lay out the spaces.
along the furrow.
VIII. Plant the bulbs at the 4" Bulb point must be up. Firm soil around each bulb.
spaces in the furrows with the
point of the bulb up.

• Summary of points made during the demonstrations:

1. Garlic onions can be planted during the long and the short rains.

2. The planting space is 4" between plants in the row, and the rows are one foot apart.

3. Furrows are dug and filled with well-rotted manure to the level of the ground.

4. The manure is mixed in the furrows with the soil.

5. A single bulb is placed at each 4" space in the furrow.

6. The point of the bulb is upward.

7. The soil is firmed around the bulb for fast germination.

• Plans for followup:

1. Visit the farmers who have indicated an interest in planting onions and assist them
as necessary.

2. Visit again before harvest tiem and assist with marketing the crop.

(Previous ILLUSTRATION taken from: Agricultural Extension Training : A Course

Manual for Extension Training Programs, by J.D. Fisher, R.A. Wesselmann, and
others; USAID Kenya, 1968 (Reprinted April, 1970; I.C.E., Peace Corps;
Washington), pp. 9-16)

TOOLS

Guidelines for planning and conducting an effective result demonstration:

1. Choose an appropriate (minimal risk) innovation.

2. Choose a cooperative farmer whose management techniques will be imitated by her

peers.

3. Agree with the farmer on who is responsible for labor and inputs.

4. Choose a conspicuous location.

5. Lay out the demo plots for maximum visibility. (Use signs to attract attention.)

6. Choose a suitable size for the demonstration plots.

7. Work closely with the cooperating farmer on managing the demonstration.

8. Keep accurate records (including rainfall) of factors that might influence the
outcome of a demonstration so as to be able to accurately interpret results.

9. Show preliminary results of the demonstration to other farmers periodically to help

build interest in the demonstration's outcome.

10. Time the final presentation of results to coincide with the harvest.

11. Include in the final presentation the following steps:

- An explanation of the new practice(s)

- A conservative estimate of costs and returns

- An opportunity for the audience to raise questions about the demo

- An offer of follow-up visits to farmers interested in adopting the new practice

themselves.

Guidelines for planning and conducting an effective method demonstration:

1. Plan to demonstrate only one topic at a time.

2. Time demonstrations to correspond with farming operations being carried out in the
field.

3. Sequence method demos to span the entire farming cycle.

4. Consider ways to make the audience comfortable as they view the demonstration.

5. Prepare a written plan for the demonstration including:

- a step by step sequence of what will happen in the demonstration

- a list of materials needed

- a summary of major points covered in the demo.

6. Incorporate participation of farmers into the demonstration whenever possible.

7. Choose analogies and vocabulary that will help the farmer tie the new information
to things she has already experienced.

8. Check periodically throughout a demonstration to make sure the audience is

following the presentation by posing questions to them.

9. Repeat steps where necessary.

10. Make sure mayor points of the demonstration are summarized.

11. Arrange for follow-up visits to farmers interested in trying the new method.

A checklist for all types of demonstrations:

I. The subject: Yes No

1. Is the farmer ready to use the improved practice to be demonstrated?
2. Does he need the skill or practice?
 3. Can he afford it?
4. Have you selected a title that appeals to him?
5. Have you planned to teach only one thing at a time?
6. Have you collected all available information on the subject?
7. Have you decided which language or vernacular you will use?
8. Are you certain the practice or skill to be taught is not too difficult for
him to learn?
II. Plans made for the period before the meeting:
1. Have you arranged the time and date for your meeting?
2. Have you arranged for the demonstration site?
3. Will each farmer who attends your demonstration be able to see your
actions?
4. Have you assembled all of the materials you will be needing?
5. Are you planning your demonstrations to relate to the farmer's
experiences?
6. Have you practiced your demonstration until you can do it to
perfection?
7. Have you developed your demonstration using a standard plan?
8. Did you write down each step?
9. Have you listed all of the key points?
10. Are your instructions written in a simple, under-standable manner?
11. Were signs and/or posters used to direct the farmers to your
demonstration?
III. Plans made for the period during the meeting. Plan before the
meeting, check results after the meeting).
1. Did you present your demonstration with enthusiasm?
2. Did you act yourself?
3. Did you talk to your audience?
4. Was your demonstration explained to the farmers, step-by-step?
5. Are you certain you were understood.
6. Did you allow time for questions from the audience?
7. Did you repeat steps when necessary?
 8. Did you assist the slower persons when they fell behind?
9. Were faster persons used to assist you?
10. Were the important steps summarized at the conclusion of your
demonstrations?
11. Were final questions encouraged?
12. Was reference material handed out at the conclusion of your
demonstration?
13. Were the farmers told where to get additional advice?
14. Was there a list made of attending farmers?
15. Was your meeting held without conflict of other meetings?
16. Were photographs taken of activities at the meeting?
17. Were records kept of the meeting for future use?
18. Were credit and recognition given to local farmers who contributed to
your demonstration?
IV. Plans made for the period following the meeting:
1. When the farmers left the meeting, did they know what to do on their
own farm?
2. Were plans made for the next meeting?
3. Were they told what material? if any, would be needed for the next
meeting?
4. Were they told to be thinking of the problems involved for the subject
of the next meeting?
5. Was any publicity given to your meeting by the press, news release or
radio?
• Press
• News Release
• Radio
V. Plans made for the followup:
1. Have the farmers changed over to use of the new practice that you
demonstrated?
2. Will you provide additional assistance if requested?
3. Have the farmers called on you for further assistance in using your
new practice?
Field days

OVERVIEW

Field days are special events. A series of demonstration skits, speeches and other
activities focused on a central theme are strung out over the course of a day to
promote new practices and bring recognition to successful farmers and agricultural
workers in a particular area. The prevailing mood is festive and the atmosphere is not
unlike that of a country fair. The point of such a day is to call attention to new and
exciting developments in agriculture.

This is done by inviting special guests, cooking a big meal, preparing a day's worth of
interesting presentations to watch and take part in and bringing in perhaps some
musicians for everyone's enjoyment. It is not expected that farmers leave a field day
having learned a great deal of specific information. The meal and the other special
features tend to work against that possibility. It is hoped instead that farmers leave
with new interests and new concepts of what is possible after seeing what their
neighbors have been able to accomplish in their work.

Field days can be used in several different contexts. On a purely local level, a field
day can be staged through the collective efforts of a group of agricultural workers and
a handful of farmers for other people in town. In this case, it serves as a glorified
result demonstration. Its chief function is to generate interest within the community,
but it can also work to raise the status of the agricultural workers and innovative
farmers in the area.

A second use of a field day moves beyond a single village to neighboring vilages.
Invitations are sent to a group of farmers in an area that the extension agent feels
would be well-suited for an expansion of his extension efforts. In this case, the
secondary benefit goes to the entire host community, which is viewed by its neighbors
as being industrious and possessing of special levels of agricultural expertise.

The third situation appropriate for a field day involves Ministry of Agriculture and
other government officials and celebrities from out of town. The intent in staging a
field day for these people can be twofold. First, it is a chance for the agricultural
workers in town to gain much needed recognition from their superiors. Second, it may
be an opportunity for a town to lobby officials for additional services. In the latter
case, a serious commitment to agriculture is demonstrated during the course of the
day, and a well-articulated request for special attention brings the day to a close.

In all three of these cases, it is in the best interests of field day planners to create
favorable impressions for their guests. Audience comfort and enjoyment and effective
presentations are of utmost importance. The initial consideration is the selection of an
appropriate and timely theme to suit the target audience, e.g. improvements in
management practices for traditional (locally-and perennially-grown) crops. The next
concern is to come up with a list and sequence of demonstrations, booths, activities
and other events and feature devoted to the theme. This is followed by logistics, e.g.,
routing of guests through the course of the day, meals and refreshments,
entertainment, and clean-up. A decision has to be made, for instance, to route quests
through demonstrations in a single, large group in several smaller groups, or
individually. This will depend on how large a turn-out is expected and how many
people are involved in organizing the day. For all of the different tasks,
responsibilities need to be clearly designated.

Highly orchestrated events such as these are especially prone to being upset by
unforeseen problems. Contingency plans should be made for late arrivals, rain or slow
moving groups. In general, field days tend to move more slowly than they are meant
to. That being the case, it is often useful to choose someone to monitor the progress of
the day overall. This person can than be responsible for setting any contingency plans
in motion should they prove necessary.

The work involved in putting on a field day can be divided into stages. There are
initial meetings at which decisions are made concerning field day topics, guests and
the division of responsibilities among planners. These are followed by a period of
early preparation during which presentations are rehearsed, invitations are sent out
and meetings are held about routing of guests (see TOOLS section). Then come last
minute preparations such as cooking, assembling materials for demonstrations and
clearing brush from paths where guests will walk. Finally, the field day itself is held:
someone greets the guests, demonstrations are given, a big meal is eaten, and someone
thanks the guests for coming and sends them home while a clean-up crew goes to
work. Follow-up contacts are then initiated and continued over the course of the next
few weeks or months.

In everything that happens, the thrust of the day is enjoyment and excitement. To keep
the appropriate tempo, then, individual presentations should not exceed half an hour
and the entire sequence of activities before the day-ending feast should be completed
in under three hours. Note that sufficient time is necessary at both the beginning and
end of the day for guests to travel to and from their homes. This often means that
special accomodations - water, shade, chairs - will be necessary to deal with extremes
of weather.

ILLUSTRATION

A field day schedule:

POST HARVEST TECHNOLOGIES

Schedule

9:00-10:00 Guests arrive from nearby villages.

a.m.
 10:00 Welcome by master of ceremonies.
10:30 Guided tours of demonstrations - Guests will be escorted in
three groups around the village to observe the first of three sets
of demonstrations:
I. Threshing and milling of grains
II. Drying of grains, vegetables and fruits
III. Storage of grains, vegetables and fruits
11:15 All three groups will meet for refreshments under the large
cotton tree.
11:45 Groups will observe their second set of demonstrations.
12:30 Groups will observe their third set of demonstrations.
1:30 A meal will be served under the large cotton tree.
2:30 Closing remarks by the master of ceremonies

• A list of responsibilities to be covered by field day planners:

- Invitations

- Clear paths and standing/sitting area around demonstration sites (see below)

- Set up and moving of benches and chairs

- Master or Mistress of Ceremonies

- Guides

- Demonstrators

- Refreshments and water

- Troubleshooting

- Entertainment

- Meal preparation

- Clean-up

- Follow-up

• See Chapter Six MANAGEMENT for planning tools.

• See the previous subchapter for TOOL checklist for all kinds of demonstrations

Considerations in preparing a route for guests:

• Clear obstacles such as roots, stumps and rocks and cut back over-hanging branches.

• Cut the trail wide enough for two people to walk side by side.

• Clear an area around each demonstration larger than that which would fit the
expected tour groups comfortably.

• Avoid trails that double back on each other in an "5" pattern so that demonstrations
compete with each other for farmers' attention.

• Avoid steep and tiring trails.

• Build sturdy bridges over streams or marshy areas.

• Avoid areas that do not drain well.

Mass media

OVERVIEW

Vehicles of information normally classed under the heading of "mass media" -

television, radio, newspapers, magazines, newsletters -- can be used by extension
agents. Usually, Peace Corps extensionists involved in mass communication efforts
adapt other training methods to a larger audience size. Role plays and dramas are
shifted from verandahs and village clearings to stages where a hundred or more
people can view them simultaneously. Poster designs originally intended only for
local use can prove successful enough at calling attention to some new aspect of
agriculture to warrant mass production and distribution through Ministry channels
over a much wider area.

Media within the realm of possibility for extension work can use include periodicals,
ag fairs and radio. Periodicals can be used as discussion starters in farmer meetings
where at least a portion of those present are literate. Agricultural fairs are conducted
in many developing countries to encourage agricultural development. Volunteers can
make use of these fairs by encouraging some of the farmers in certain areas to
compete for prizes in farm produce competitions. Such prizes can be a valuable form
of reward and recognition for a farmer's achievements. Radio provides the most
exciting opportunity of any of the standard mass communication devices. This
medium can be put to use as a simple information vehicle - to relay announcements of
upcoming farmer meetings in an area, for example, or it can be employed in more
creative ways. Extensionists with experience in radio broadcasting and production
may be able to work within Ministry channels to produce simple and yet highly
effective advertisments on the radio for new techniques. Serialized skits, songs and
humorous stories are very popular in countries where national radio stations receive
widespread attention.

ILLUSTRATION

A serialized radio dialogue promoting new agricultural practices:

(Suggestions: Keep the format of the dialogue simple, and do not alter it until the
advertisment has caught on. Use the same actors' voices throughout the serial. Use the
same piece of music throughout the serial as a theme song.)

Tape 1 (January 15 - February 15) Popular song is heard, ten seconds. Music fades.

"Juan, aren't you going to the fields today to clear a new patch of ground for planting
this year?

"No, Felipe. I won't need to clear away brush this year. Since I started applying cow
dung and grain husks to my garden, I haven't had to move to a new location every
time the rains come.'

"You mean cow dung and grain husks can help your garden?"

"Yes, you mix it in the soil as you plant and the ground yields better harvests."

"Digs mio, Juan! I don't know where you get these ideasl"

Music comes up as radio announcer intones: "Contact your Ministry of Agriculture

extension agent today."

Music up full.

(60 sec.)

Tape 2 (February 15 - March 15) Popular song is heard, ten seconds. Music fades.

"Juan, aren't you going to the fields today to set traps for the rodents eating our
garden?"

"No, Felipe. Last year I built a fence around my garden and it is keeping the animals
away very effectively."

"You mean the fence you built is strong enough to keep all the rodents away?"

"Yes, I used wire to build the fence and rodents cannot grew through it?"

"Digs Mio Juan! I don't know where you get these ideas!"
Music comes up as radio announcer intones: "Contact your Ministry of Agriculture
extension agent today.

Music up full.

(60 sec.)

Tape 5 (May 1 - May 30)

"Juan, aren't you going to the market today to sell your vegetables?"

"No, Felipe. I dried many of my vegetables this year in the sun and am keeping them
for my own use rather than selling them."

"You mean drying vegetables in the sun can keep them from spoiling quickly?"

"Yes, by cutting them thin and drying them on racks I can keep them for up to three
months."

"Dios Mio, Juan! I don't know where you get these ideas!".

Music comes up as radio announcer intones: "Contact your Ministry of Agriculture

extension agent today."

Music up full.

(60 sec.)

List of mass communication techniques suited to the extension agent's role in working
with small farmers.

• Role plays and skits for large audiences.

• Posters for widespread distribution

• Culturally appropriate signs in a few strategic locations.

• Use of periodicals in discussion groups.

• Agricultural fairs.

• Radio serials.

• Newsletters.

P-8 Audio-visual Communications Teaching Aids, P.C. ICE.

 Facilitation and Different Facilitations Methodology for Training session in
the field Level (Modified)
Md.Kabir Hossain, Deputy Director, DAE,Cox’s Bazar

Introduction

Facilitations methods are the tools & techniques used to create situations in which
communication can take place between the rural people & the extension
professionals. These are the methods of imparting new knowledge & skills to the
rural people by drawing their attention towards such technologies, thereby arousing
their interest and helping them to have a successful experience of the new practice.
A proper understanding of these methods and their selection for a particular type of
work is necessary.

Facilitations Methods

1 According to use

One way of classifying the Facilitations methods is according to their use &
nature of contact vis-a-vis interpersonal, group and mass communication. Based
upon the nature of contact, they are classified into following categories:

1.1 Individual-contact methods

Facilitations methods under this category provide opportunities for face-to-face or

person-to-person contact between the rural people and the extension professionals.
These methods are very effective in teaching new skills and creating goodwill
between farmers and the extension professionals.

1.2 Group-contact methods

Under this category, the rural people or farmers are contacted in a group which
usually consists of 20 to 25 persons. These groups are usually formed around a
common interest. These methods also involve a face-to-face contact with the
people and provide an opportunity for the exchange of ideas, for discussions on
problems and technical recommendations. In this way, the future course of action
is finalized.

1.3 Mass or community-contact methods

An extension professional has to approach a large number of people for

disseminating information and helping them to use it. This can be done through
mass-contact methods conveniently. These methods are more useful for making
people aware of the new technologies, quickly.

Table 1 Classification of Facilitations methods according to their use

Individual Group contacts Mass contacts

contacts
Farm & home Method and result demonstration Print media (viz.
visits Newspapers, magazines,
leaflets, posters,
pamphlets, circular letters
bulletins)
Office calls Group meetings, discussions Electronic media (viz.
Radio, television, cell-
phones)
Telephone calls Conferences, seminars, Internet-based media
workshops, etc.
Personal letters Field trips, field days, campaign Exhibitions, dairy mela

2 According to form

Facilitations methods are also classified according to their forms, such as written,
spoken & audio-visual. Some of the important methods under each of these 3
categories are listed in table 10.2.
Table 2 Classification of extension-teaching methods according to their form
Written Spoken Object or visual
Bulletins General & special meetings Result demonstrations
Leaflets, folders, Farm & home visits Demonstration plots
news articles
Personal letters Official calls Motion-pictures or
movies, charts
Circular letters Telephone calls, radio Slides & film-strips,
models, exhibits

A brief description of some of the extension methods which are commonly used by
extension professionals is given below:

2.1 Farm & home visit

Farm & home visit constitutes the direct or face-to-face contact by an extension
professional with the farmer or the members of his family. During these visits,
information is exchanged or discussed. The visits may be to get acquainted with
the problems of the farmers. Such visits provide an opportunity for a two-way
communication.

2.2 Method demonstration

It is used to show the technique of doing things or carrying out new practices
e.g. clean milk production, paneer making, ghee making, etc. This method is
usually used for groups of people.

2.3 Result demonstration

Result demonstration is meant for proving the advantages of recommended

practices and to demonstrate their applicability to the local conditions. It is
conducted by a farmer under the direct supervision of an extension professional. It
is designed to teach others, in addition to the person who conducts the
demonstration. It helps the farmers to learn by seeing & doing. This method can be
used to show the superiority of practices, such as dahi culture, value addition,
hygienic handling of animals, etc.

2.4 Group discussion

All the farmers cannot be contacted by extension professionals individually

because of their large number. It is convenient & feasible to contact them in
groups. This method is commonly known as group discussion. It is used to
encourage & stimulate the people to learn more about the problems that concern
the community through discussion. It is a good method of involving the local
people in developing local leadership & in deciding on a plan of action in a
democratic way.

2.5 Exhibition

An exhibition is a systematic display of information, actual specimens, models,

posters, photographs, and charts, etc. in a logical sequence. It is organised for
arousing the interest of the clientele in the things displayed. It is one of the best
media for reaching a large number of people, especially illiterate & semi-literate
people. Exhibitions are used for a wide range of topics, such as planning a model
village, showing high-yielding breeds of cattle and buffaloes, new agricultural
implements and the best products of village industries.

2.6 Campaign
Campaign is used to focus the attention of the people on a particular problem, e.g.
milk adulteration, vaccination and prevention of animal diseases, tick control etc.
Through this method, maximum number of farmers can be reached in the shortest
possible time. It builds up community confidence and involves the people
emotionally in a programme.

2.7 Field tour

Conducted tours for farmers are used to convince them and to provide them with
an opportunity of seeing the results of new practices and products, skills, etc. and
to give them an idea regarding the suitability & application of these things in their
own area. Such tours may also be arranged to enable the rural people to visit places
& institutions (connected with the problems of rural life), such as research
institutions, training institutions, agricultural universities, model villages, areas of
advanced developments, leading private farms, exhibitions, and agricultural &
cattle fairs/dairy mela.

2.8 Print media

Newspapers, magazines, bulletins, leaflets, folders, pamphlets and wall news-

sheets are another set of mass media for communicating information to a large
number of literate people. They are used for communicating general & specific
information on a programme of technology or a practice. Small folders, leaflets &
pamphlets are used to give specific recommendations about a practice, such as
clean milk production, vaccination schedule, detection of milk adulterants, etc.

2.9 Radio

It is one of the most powerful media of communication. It is a mass medium of

communication and can reach a large number of people at any given time
involving the least expense. Extension professionals use the radio for
communicating information on new methods & techniques, giving timely
information about the control of animal diseases such as foot & mouth disease
(FMD), animal pests, weather, market news, etc. For this purpose, talks, group
discussions, folk-songs, dialogues & dramas are usually broadcast. There are radio
programmes broadcast by All India Radio (AIR), FM (frequency modulated) radio,
community radio, etc.

2.10 Television
It combines both audio & visual impact and is very suitable for the dissemination
of agriculture & dairy information. It is more useful in teaching to do a specific
job. A beginning has been made in India for using this medium for development
programmes and it is expected that its use will become more extensive in the
coming years. At present, along with the Government-owned channel
(Doordarshan), several other private channels are telecasting various kinds of
entertainment and developmental programmes to reach the viewers.

2.11 Leaflet

A leaflet is a single sheet of paper used to present information on only one

developmental idea in a concise manner, using simple language.

2.12 Folder

A folder is a single piece of paper folded once or twice, and, when opened, the
material is presented in sequence.

2.13 Pamphlet

A pamphlet is an unbound single sheet of paper that is printed on both sides,

printed in colours with action photographs, giving full information about a topic in
greater length than in folders or leaflets.

2.14 Bulletin

A bulletin is a publication of around 20 pages, with the primary objective of giving

complete information which the intended readers can apply to their own situation.

2.15 Booklet

When the extension material exceeds 20 pages and is less than 50 pages, it is called
booklet.