NORTHERN TECHNICAL COLLEGE

OPEN DISTANCE AND FLEXIBLE LEARNING

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DIPLOMA

STUDY MANUAL

DIPLOMA IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

CHART 81

STUDY MODULE

ELECTRONICS

MODULE NO. :81-11B

Property of NORTEC (2017)

1
Copyright

Published by the Open Distance and Flexible Learning Unit of

NORTEC, Ndola, Zambia, 2016
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior
permission of the publishers.

Northern Technical
College
Open Distance and Flexible
Learning
P.O Box
250093
Chela
Road
Kansenshi
Ndol
a
Telephone: +260-212-
671699
 Fax: +264 61
2072206/2081
E-mail: [email protected]
Website: www.nortec.edu.zm
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ACRONYMS
AC Alternating Current
DC Direct Current
LASE Light Amplification of Stimulated Emission Radiation
R Light Emitting Diode
LED Resistor Capacitor
RC Resistor Inductor
RL

2
Acknowledgements
The Northern Technical College Open Distance and Flexible Learning Unit
wishes to thank those below for their contribution to this module.
Mr. J. Mulenga Lecturer – Electrical Engineering Mr. C. Mubanga
Lecturer – Electrical Engineering Mr. H. Chifulwa Lecturer –
Electrical Engineering Ms J. B Mulenga Quality Assurance Mr. M.
Nkonde ODFL Coordinator Mr. E. Ng’andwe HOD- Electrical

3
Contents
Acknowledgements.....................................................................................3
Semiconductors.........................................................................................15
PN Junction Application..............................................................................22
Half Wave Rectifier.....................................................................................23
Full Wave Centre- tapped Rectifier.............................................................25
Full Wave Bridge Rectifier...........................................................................28
Clamping and Clipping................................................................................31
The Zener Diode.........................................................................................34
Zener Diode in Clipping Circuits..................................................................39
Bipolar Transistors...................................................................................48
Bipolar Transistor Configurations................................................................49
The Common Base (CB) Configuration........................................................49
The Common Emitter (CE) Configuration....................................................50
The Common Collector (CC) Configuration................................................. 52
Transistor Biasing Methods and DC Circuit Analysis...................................59
Fixed Base Biasing a Transistor...............................................................59
Collector Feedback Biasing a Transistor..................................................60
Dual Feedback Transistor Biasing............................................................62
Transistor Biasing with Emitter Feedback................................................63
Voltage Divider Transistor Biasing...........................................................64
Typical Single Stage Amplifier Circuit.....................................................70
Small Signal Amplifiers...............................................................................70
BJT Amplifier to JFET Amplifier Comparison............................................. 71
Large Signal Amplifiers...............................................................................72
FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS.......................................................................73
The MOSFET...............................................................................................79
Basic MOSFET Structure and Symbol.......................................................81
Depletion-mode MOSFET.............................................................................82
Depletion-mode N-Channel MOSFET and circuit Symbols........................82
Enhancement-mode MOSFET......................................................................83
Enhancement-mode N-Channel MOSFET and Circuit Symbols.................84
The MOSFET Amplifier.................................................................................84

4
 Enhancement-mode N-Channel MOSFET Amplifier..................................85
MOSFET Summary.......................................................................................86
Learning Outcomes.................................................................................................... 90
Use Multistage Amplifiers........................................................................................... 90
Role of Capacitors in Transistor Amplifiers................................................................. 91
RC Coupled Transistor Amplifier................................................................................ 95
Use Differential and Operational Amplifiers.............................................................. 109
Light Emitting Diode Colours.................................................................................... 136
Light Emitting Diodes I-V Characteristics.............................................................. 136
A Typical Seven Segment LED Display................................................................ 137
Opto-coupler............................................................................................................. 138
Photo-diode and Photo-transistor Opto-couplers.................................................. 138
Unijunction Transistor........................................................................................... 143
Thyristors Two Transistor Analogy....................................................................... 149
Thyristor Phase Control............................................................................................ 153
PASSIVE FILTERS................................................................................................... 160
Active High Pass Filter.............................................................................................. 180

References…………………………………………………………………………………209
5
MODULE OVERVIEW

Dear Student,
Welcome to this module in Electronics. Electronics has become indispensable
in our lives. From the time you woke up today up to now, there are many
electronic gadgets that you dealt with knowingly or not. Possibly you listened
to the radio or used your cell-phone this morning. These gadgets are
electronic gadgets. Imagine you are watching your T.V. or listening to your
radio and suddenly there is too much power from ZESCO and this results in
your T.V. or radio to be damaged and when you turn on it does not switch on.
What do you do under the circumstances? Replacing the item by way of
buying or if you take it for repairs it will cost you more than you yourself
repairing it. This module will help you understand the composition and
properties of the electronic components so that in due course you will be
able to maintain and repair electronic equipment.
This module will also prepare you to the application of Electronics in
Entertainment, communication, computer, instrumentation, medical and
automation industries, to mention but a few. You will discover that most
devices that are used in these applications are energised, controlled and
operated by electronic devices. Therefore, it is important that you know
and understand the theories behind electronic circuits and devices.

MODULE PURPOSE
The purpose this module is to equip you with knowledge, skills and
appropriate attitudes in Electronics Engineering to enable you perform
competently in both the formal and informal sector of the economy. Having
gone through this module, you will be able to analyse, design, Install,
supervise, repair and maintain electrical equipment and systems to
acceptable and approved standards.

MODULE LEARNING OUTCOMES

On completion of this module, you will be able to;
1. Use semi conductor theory
2. Apply junction diodes, bipolar, junction transistors and unipolar
transistor (FET's)
3. Use amplifiers
4. Identify special solid state devices
5. Use filters
6
LEARNING TIPS AND STUDY SKILLS
As an adult learner your approach to learning will be different to that from
your school days: you will choose what you want to study, you will have
professional and/or personal motivation for doing so and you will most likely
be fitting your study activities around other professional or domestic
responsibilities.
Essentially you will be taking control of your learning environment. As a
consequence, you will need to consider performance issues related to time
management, goal setting, stress management, etc. Perhaps you will also
need to reacquaint yourself in areas such as essay planning, coping with
exams and using the web as a learning resource.
Your most significant considerations will be time and space i.e. the time you
dedicate to your learning and the environment in which you engage in that
learning.
We recommend that you take time now—before starting your self-study—to
familiarise
yourself with these issues. There are a number of excellent resources on the
web. A
few suggested links are:
http://www.how-to-study.com/;http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/stdyhlp.html;
http://www.howtostudy.org/resources.php
The above links are our suggestions to start you on your way. At the time of
writing these web links were active. If you want to look for more go to
www.google.com and type “self-study basics”, “self-study tips”, “self-study
skills” or similar.

MINIMUM MODULE DURATION

In this module, you are expected to spend at least 180 notional learning
hours spread across one year period.

ASSESSMENTS AND PROGRESSION REQUIREMENTS

In this module, your assessment will include exercises to test your
understanding of the subject matter both orally and short quiz questions as
required. You are therefore expected to;
• Write a total of 6 assignments, 4 tests and 1 mock examination
• pass your continuous assessment (CA) by scoring at least 50% marks
as prescribed by TEVETA

STATEMENT ON ATTENDANCE OF RESIDENTIAL SCHOOL

This module is meant to be studied in three (3) terms. You are expected to
fulfil the following expectations regarding this subject:
• Attend all your residential schools and not less than 90% of your
scheduled classes.

CERTIFICATION BOARD
This module is just one of module requirements to be passed for the student
to progress from level 2 to level 3 upon passing the TEVETA exams.
7
UNIT 1 USING SEMICONDUCTOR THEORY
Unit Introduction
In this unit you will study the chemistry of semi-conductors and how the
diode is made. Don’t bother so much about the terminology in case you
come across it as you read further. You will find others saying the physics of
semiconductors instead of chemistry, well the choice is yours. You will also
look at how the diode is applied.

Unit Outcomes: On completion of this unit, you will be able to:

1. Use properties of Semiconductor crystals
2. Use doped semiconductors
3. Use p-n Junctions

Conductors,Semiconductors and Insulators

Even as you are about to start learning about semiconductors, you'll do
justice by looking at the definition of conductors and insulators as the
subject matter lies in between the two.
Conductors are materials that allow electric current to flow through them.
For you to turn a bulb on, electric current has to flow from the switch
through wires to the bulb and the bulb switches on. A wire is an example of a
conductor. All metallic materials are conductors but the level of conductivity
varies from one kind of material to another. Water also is a conductor of
electricity.
Insulators as you are aware are materials that do not allow electric
current to flow through them. Examples of these include plastics and
wood.
Semi-conductors are materials that exhibit properties of both insulators
and conductors. This means that at one particular time the material will be
behaving as a conductor and at another it will be behaving as an insulator.
An example of this is a
diode. Have you ever heard of this component? No need to worry if you
haven’t because you are going to start learning about it just now. We’ll
start by looking at Properties of Semiconductors.
Having defined conductors, insulators and semi-conductors. Your main focus
now will be on semi-conductors and their associated properties. From the
periodic table you will be able to locate their position. You will recall from your
school days that a periodic
8
table is a one that lists all the elements in nature that have been discovered
and are arranged according to atomic number. Fig 1 shows cut out portion
of the table comprising elements in group III, IV and V and this is what is
what you can see shown below:
III IV V

B5 C6 N7
13 14 15
Al Si Ph
3 3
Ga Ge
1 2 33
As

An5
In49 Sn50 1

Figure 1: Periodical table

You can see that elements in group III are boron(B),
Aluminium(Al),Galium(Ga) and Indium(In). Group IV consists of
Carbon(C), Silicon(Si) Germanium(Ge) and Tin also known as
Strontium(Sn)and lastly GroupV is made up of
Nitrogen(N),Phosporous(Ph),Arsenic(As) and Antimony(An).
Keep this in your memory: semi conductors occurring naturally belong to
elements in groupIV.
Of the natural semiconductors, only silicon and germanium are widely used
because of their superior properties. One major advantage they have is that
even at room temperature you will notice that they start to conduct electric
current and you can only detect this using appropriate equipment. A semi-
conductor will behave either as a conductor or as an insulator depending on
the energy levels being experienced at that particular moment.
The more energy you apply to the semi-conductor the more readily it
conducts the less energy the less it conducts meaning it becomes more of
an insulator.

.
Silicon on the other hand is found to be widely used in the manufacture of
semi conductor devices than germanium because it is able to hold higher
voltages and has better conductivity properties.
9
Elements in group iii of the table are called Trivalent elements whilst those
in group iv are tetravalent elements. Lastly elements of group v are called
pentavalent elements.

Now, from your chemistry lessons, you will recall that all matter is made up
of atoms. What is an atom? An atom is the smallest particle of an element.
If for example you draw the smallest circle you can see with your naked
eye, there will be millions of atoms inside the circle so you can imagine how
small these things are. An atom is composed of electrons (negatively
charged), protons (positively charged) and neutrons (no charge). Electrons
are equal in number to the protons. Shown below in fig2 and fig 3 are the
atomic structures of silicon and germanium.

Figure 2: Silicon atomic structure with 14 electrons

Figure 3: Germanium atomic structure with 32 electrons

10
From the diagram you can see that every atom has a nucleus which is
located at the centre and this nucleus is surrounded by electrons which
move in orbits or shells around the nucleus.

As you can see silicon has 14 electrons and germanium has 32. Let us start
by analysing the way electrons are arranged in all the elements. The first
shell for all atoms can only take a maximum of two electrons, the next a
maximum of 8 and the third can take 18. There is a simple formula we use
2
to determine how electrons will be placed in the orbits which is 2n (two n
squared) where n represents the shell number. You count the shells
beginning from the smallest or inner-most ring going out. So the inner most
ring will be shell 1. So when you get the 1 and replace it in ‘n’ in the formula
your answer is 2 meaning the first shell has 2 electrons. For the second shell
replace 2 in the formula and your answer is 8. For shell 3 the answer is 18.

So for silicon which has 14 electrons the first and second shell take up 10
electrons, the remaining 4 go in the last shell. Germanium with 32 electrons,
the first, second and third shells take up 28 electrons, last four go into the
fourth shell. Don’t confuse yourself by thinking you are supposed to have 64
th
electrons in the 4 shell. 64 is just the maximum number that can be
accommodated but it can be less. So when you calculate the maximum
number of electrons required for the shell the balance is taken to the next
shell.

I am sure you can see from the atomic structures of silicon and germanium
that these form what is known as a Crystalline structure. I am sure you are
wondering what a crystalline structure is. Well a crystalline structure is an
ordered arrangement of atoms in a particular material. These materials are
tetravalent elements. Do you recall what that means? Not to worry, I will
tell you. It means they are materials which has 4 electrons in their
outermost shell. Now, the outermost shell of each atom is called a valence
shell. For this reason, the electrons located in the last shell are also called
11
valence electrons. Therefore, for the rest of the lesson, when I mention
valence electrons, you should recall that I am referring to the shells in the
last orbit of an atom. However, you should remember that an atom
containing less than 8 valence electrons, is an incomplete atom and,
therefore, it is unstable. Do you know what these atoms do to regain
stability? They combine with the neighbouring atoms by sharing 4 electrons
with each other to form a very strong bond, which is known as Covalent
bond. I am sure, you can remember this from your science, not so? Fig 4
below clearly shows covalent bonding am talking about.

Fig 4
Now, consider an atomic structure from another perspective. Orbits in which
the electrons move around in an atom possess energies of varying
proportion. The electrons in the outermost shell of an atom have the highest
energy content as compared to those nearer to the nucleus. In the figures
below, the first orbit represents the first energy level and the second
nd
represents the 2 energy level, so forth and so on.

Note: the radii r1, r2 & r3 correspond to Energy levels

the respective orbit

Figure 5: Energy level diagrams

12
You will notice that each orbit has a fixed amount of energy associated
with it, and, hence the term, Energy Level.
An electron in a single isolated atom possessing definite single energy of
an atom in a solid is greatly influenced by closely packed neighbouring
atoms. This means the electrons in any orbit can have a range of energies
rather than the single energy. This range of energies possessed by an
electron is known as the Energy Band.

Each electron of an atom has single electron energy corresponding to the

orbit in which it exists. For atoms in a solid, the range of energies comes up
because the electrons in different atoms of corresponding orbits experience
different change environment. Now, since they are millions of first orbit
st
electrons, the slightly different energy levels form a band called 1 energy
band. The electrons in this orbit can have any range as permitted by this
band. Similarly, the electrons in the second orbit make up the second energy
band and so on.

Figure 6: Energy band diagram

If you look at the diagram above, you will notice that there are bands that
are worthy of our consideration because they determine the behaviour of
insulators, conductors and semiconductors. These are valence band,
conduction band and forbidden gap. (Not shown on the diagram above).
These three bands are defined as follows:
13
Valence band: This is the range of energies possessed by valence electrons.

Conduction band: This is the range of energies possessed by conduction

electrons.

Forbidden energy gap: This is the separation between the conduction

band and the valence band.

Figure 7: Simplified diagram of the electronic band structure

of metals, semiconductors, and insulators.

Now, consider an atomic structure from another perspective. Orbits in which

the electrons move around in an atom possess energies of varying
proportion. The electrons in the outermost shell of an atom have the highest
energy content as compared to those nearer to the nucleus. In the figures
below, the first orbit represents the first energy level and the second
nd
represents the 2 energy level, so forth and so on.

As for Energy Band gap in Conductors as you can see in fig7 above, the
valence band and the conduction band overlap and because of this, a slight
potential difference causes free electrons to constitute electric current. This
is the reason why conductors
14
are able to readily allow current to flow. Some of the examples of this
are: copper, aluminum, etc.

Energy Band gap in Insulators i.e. between the valence band and the
conduction band is very wide. The gap is about 15eV in terms of energy, the
valence band is filled while the conduction band is empty. Wood, rubber,
mica, etc are some of the examples of insulators. These are non conducting
materials.

For Semiconductors, you will need little energy to push the electrons into
conduction band. The forbidden gap is only 1eV and electrons can easily
overcome this gap if a little energy is applied. This is the reason these
materials are able to conduct at some point and not conduct at other times,
hence the term, semiconductor. Silicon and germanium are best examples.

Doped Semiconductors
As you can see below semiconductors are divided into two classes. These
are shown in the semiconductors family tree in fig.8 below namely intrinsic
and extrinsic semiconductors.

Figure 8: Semiconductors family tree

15
Intrinsic Semiconductors

You refer to a semiconductor as being intrinsic if it only contains those

atoms make up the crystal structure. At absolute zero, the valence band is
completely filled. Conduction takes place as electrons gain enough thermal
energy to overcome the energy gap. As temperature increases, the thermal
energy of the valence electrons increases allowing more of them to breach
the energy gap into the conduction band. Thus, unlike metals, in
semiconductors, the resistance decreases with temperature. When an
electron gains enough energy to escape the electrostatic attraction of the
atom, it leaves behind a vacancy which may be filled be another electron.
The vacancy produced can be thought of as if it were a carrier of positive
charge. These vacancies in the valence band are known as a holes. As
electrons flow through the semiconductor, holes flow in the opposite
direction. If there are n free electrons in an intrinsic semiconductor, then
there must also be n holes. Holes and electrons created in this way are
known as intrinsic charge carriers. The carrier concentration or charge
density defines the number of charge carriers per unit volume. This
relationship can be expressed as n=p where n is the number of electrons
and p the number of holes per unit volume. The variation in the energy gap
between different semiconductor materials means that the intrinsic carrier
concentration at a given temperature also varies.

Figure 9: Intrinsic semiconductor material

16
Extrinsic Semiconductors (N-Type and P-Type)
You can change number of charge carriers of any material by doping it with
impurity atoms. By adding a small fraction of an atom (about 1 in a million)
the number of carriers can be changed altering the conducting properties of
the crystal. For example, suppose that you start with Silicon, which has a
valance of four. That is, it has four electrons in it outer most shell. The atoms
will arrange in such a manner as to reduce the energy required to bond
together. The sharing the electrons with neighboring atoms, as covalent
bonds, each atom can form a stable outer shell of electrons. If an atom with a
valance of five, As (Arsenic), for example, is added at the time of growth, then
an impurity atom can replace one of the Silicon atoms. Four of its five bonds
will become covalently bonded to its neighboring Si atoms. The fifth electron
is weakly bound to the As nucleus and thus very little energy is required to
ionize the atom. The electron can then participate in the conduction process.
By adding atoms of even greater valence than the atoms in host material,
these impurities can be used to donate more than one electron per impurity
atom replaced at a lattice site. You call atom impurity as a donor because it
gives up its weakly bound electrons leaving a positively charged nucleus.
Material doped in this way is often referred to as n-type semiconductors
because the majority carriers are electrons.

When you introduce atoms with a valance one less than that of the atoms in
the host material, such as B (Boron), there are not enough bonds to form a
stable outer shell of electrons. The nucleus however is of a similar potential to
the Silicon atoms. To create a stable shell, the Boron atom has to capture an
electron from a neighboring atom, this causes the vacancy to propagate. The
nucleus of the Boron atom has a similar electrostatic potential to the Silicon
atoms therefore it is possible for an electron to pull from a neighboring Silicon
atom. The capture of an electron from another atom results in the vacancy
being propagated further along the crystal. This propagation can be thought
of as the flow of positive charge since the vacancies move in the opposite
direction to that of the electrons. You call the absence of electrons as holes
and dopant atoms that cause that create the holes are known as acceptor
impurities since they
17
accept charge. Semiconductor material doped in this way is known as p-type.
The diagram below summaries the above discussion. Conductivity of the
respective semiconductor materials is by way of majority charge carriers
constituting current. This means that electrons make up current flow in N-
type and Holes in P-type.

Figure 10: N-type and P-type semiconductor

PN Junction
You form a Pn junction by fusing together the separately formed p-type
semiconductor with an n-type semiconductor.

The P-Type material consists of silicon and a trivalent impurity. The

number of protons and electrons are equal and there is no net charge
meaning it is electrically balanced. This is also true for the N-Type
material.

N-Type material is a composition silicon and a pentavalent impurity. The

fusing of the N and P materials results in the formation of what is known as
the
18
Depletion Region.

Now, you need to understand that at the instant of the PN junction

formation, free electrons near the junction diffuse across (the junction) into
the P region and combine with holes.

Fig 11

Filling a hole makes a negative ion and leaves behind a positive ion on the
N side seen in fig 11. These two layers of positive and negative charges
form the depletion region, as the region near the junction is depleted of
charge carriers.
As electrons diffuse across the junction a point is reached where the negative
charge repels any further diffusion of electrons. The depletion region now
acts as a barrier.
19
Characteristics of PN Junction Diode.

The electric field formed in the depletion region acts as a barrier.

External energy must be applied to get the electrons to move across the
barrier of the electric field.

The potential difference required to move the electrons through the

electric field is called the barrier potential.

Barrier potential of a PN junction depends on the type of

semiconductor material, amount of doping and temperature.

This is approximately 0.7V for silicon and 0.3V for germanium.

Biasing the PN Junction.

Biasing is just the application of a dc voltage to the diode

When you forward bias the diode, it will enable current through the PN
junction.

Bias voltage imparts sufficient energy to the free electrons so they overcome
the barrier potential and move into the P region.

Fig 12

Conduction occurs with electron current in the N-Type material and hole
current in the P-Type material as illustrated in fig 12.

As more electrons and holes flow in the depletion region the number of
positive and negative ions is reduced, causing the depletion region to
narrow.

The energy loss in overcoming the barrier potential results in a voltage drop
across the PN junction equal to the barrier potential.
( 0.7V for Si, 0.3V for Ge.)
20
When a PN junction is forward biased the N region conduction band is
raised to a higher level that overlaps with the P region conduction band.
Fig 13 illustrates this.

Fig 13

Reverse biasing is the connecting of the positive part of the battery to

the cathode and the negative to the anode. When you do this it inhibits
current flow through the junction.
P N

Fig 14
Reverse bias potential attracts the majority carriers away from the PN
junction widening the depletion region as seen in fig 14.

The potential across the depletion region is equal to the bias voltage.

Reverse current can flow through the PN junction due to minority carriers.

Reverse Breakdown.

If the reverse bias voltage is increased to the breakdown voltage, the

reverse current will drastically increase.
This is due to collisions of fast minority carriers with atoms, knocking out
valence electrons. This process avalanches and results in a high reverse
current damaging the PN structure.

21
PN Junction Application
The PN junction diode is widely used in many applications. One of the most
important applications is called Rectification.
For economical reasons, generation and transmission of power is done by AC
means, whose frequency of supply is 50Hz. And AC voltages are used in
many applications such as heating, lighting and electric motors.
However, a dc supply is also needed in various applications. Electronic
circuits use a dc signal. When a dc supply is required, the available AC
supply is rectified (corrected) by means of the diodes.
Therefore, rectification is the process of converting an AC signal voltage
to a DC voltage. There are mainly two (2) types of circuits that are used
in rectification, and these are;
1. Half wave rectification
2. Full wave rectification

The rectifier family tree is as you see in the figure15 below;

Figure 15: Rectifiers family tree

22
Half Wave Rectifier

In a half wave rectifier, only the positive half of a cycle conducts current
while the negative half is suppressed; meaning that no current flows
during the negative cycle. Because of the aforementioned positive cycle,
current flows in one direction only.
The figures below shows the half wave circuitry, the input signal and its
output signal;

Figure 16: Half wave rectifier circuit, input and output

waveform

Circuit operation
During the positive half cycle of input AC voltage, the diode is forward
biased and so it will conduct.
During the negative half cycle of the AC input signal voltage, the diode is
reverse biased and it practically conducts no current.
Therefore, the current flow through the diode is only during the positive
half cycle and the other negative half is suppressed. Notice that the current
in the load is always in the same direction. The DC output voltage is
obtained across RL.
The functions of the transformer are: (i) step up or down the ac input
voltage (ii) to act as an isolator and thus reducing the risk of electric shock.
You will now look at some of the calculations you are expected to carry out.
These are the dc voltage and current, the ac voltage and current and other
parameters following below.
23
Circuit parameters
1. Average value (Vdc, Idc)
At any instance, the input voltage of AC input waveform is given
by Vin = Vmsinwt, where; Vm = maximum value,
sinwt = represents the angular velocity varying magnitude of
Vm.

2. Root Mean Value (Vrms, Irms)

The RMS value of an alternating current is given by that steady d.c
current which when flowing through a given circuit for a given time
produces the same heating effect as produced by the alternating
current when flowing through the same circuit for the same time.

3. Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)

This the peak voltage that appears across a diode when it is reverse
biased. It is one of the most important ratings of a diode that needs to
be considered when dealing with the diode. For a half-wave rectifier,
the PIV is usually equal to the maximum voltage.
PIV = Vm

4. Ripple factor (r)

It is the measure of the AC content in the rectified output voltage. It is
the figure
of merit of a rectifier circuit. It is usually the ratio of the ripple
voltage to the average voltage.
r = 1.21
5. Efficiency (η)
This defined as the ratio of the output power to the input power,
expressed as a percentage. The output power is the dc power and the
input power is the ac
24
 power, which considers the total resistance of the circuit.
Therefore, the efficiency of a half wave is given by,
η = 40.6%
6. Maximum value (Vm)
This is the highest peak value, positive or negative, of an alternating
quantity. It is also known as the amplitude value. It is given by;
Vm = √2.Vs

Full Wave Centre- tapped Rectifier

Like you saw in the half wave circuit, the full wave rectifier circuit produces
an output voltage or current which is DC or has some specified DC
component. Full wave rectifiers have some fundamental advantages over
their half wave rectifier counterparts. The average (DC) output voltage is
higher than for half wave, the output of the full wave rectifier has much less
ripple than that of the half wave rectifier producing a smoother output
waveform.

In a Full Wave Centre- tapped Rectifier circuit two diodes are now used,
one for each half of the cycle.A multiple transformer winding is used whose
secondary winding is split equally into two halves with a common centre tapped
connection, (C). This configuration results in each diode conducting in turn
when its anode terminal is positive with respect to the transformer centre point
C producing an output during both half-cycles, twice that for the half wave
rectifier so it is 100% efficient as shown below.
25
Full Wave Rectifier Circuit

Figure 17: Centre-tapped full wave rectifier

The full wave rectifier circuit consists of two power diodes connected to a
single load resistance (RL) with each diode taking it in turn to supply current
to the load. When point A of the transformer is positive with respect to point
C, diode D1 conducts in the forward direction as indicated by the arrows.
When point B is positive (in the negative half of the cycle) with respect to
point C, diode D2 conducts in the forward direction and the current flowing
through resistor R is in the same direction for both half-cycles. As the output
voltage across the resistor R is the phasor sum of the two waveforms
combined, this type of full wave rectifier circuit is also known as a "bi-phase"
circuit.

As the spaces between each half-wave developed by each diode is now

being filled in by the other diode the average DC output voltage across the
load resistor is now double that of the single half-wave rectifier circuit and is
about 0.637Vmax of the peak voltage, assuming no losses. Where: V MAX is the
maximum peak value in one half of the secondary winding and V RMS is the
rms value.
26
The peak voltage of the output waveform is the same as before for the half-
wave rectifier provided each half of the transformer windings have the
same rms voltage value. To obtain a different DC voltage output different
transformer ratios can be used. The main disadvantage of this type of full
wave rectifier circuit is that a larger transformer for a given power output is
required with two separate but identical secondary windings making this
type of full wave rectifying circuit costly compared to the "Full Wave Bridge
Rectifier" circuit equivalent.

Circuit parameters

The definitions for these circuit parameters are just the same as those for
a half wave rectifier. Therefore, we are not going to define them but we
will just state their formulae;

1. Average value

2. Root mean square

value Vrms =

0.707Vm

3. PIV = 2Vm
4. Efficiency (η) = 81.1% [twice that of a half wave]
5. Ripple factor (r) = 0.48

Apart from the calculations you will need to know the advantages and
disadvantages between the two full wave rectifiers.

Advantages of a centre-tapped full wave rectifier

➢ It has a reduced ripple factor of 0.48

➢ It has increased rectification efficiency double that of a half wave
27
Disadvantages of a centre-tapped full wave rectifier

➢ It is difficult to locate the centre tap on the secondary winding.

➢ It has a small dc output as each diode utilizes only one-half of the input
voltage.
➢ The diodes used must have a high PIV.

Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

Another type of circuit that produces the same output waveform as the full
wave rectifier circuit above is that of the Full Wave Bridge Rectifier. This
type of single phase rectifier uses four individual rectifying diodes connected
in a closed loop "bridge" configuration to produce the desired output. The
main advantage of this bridge circuit is that it does not require a special
centre tapped transformer, thereby reducing its size and cost. The single
secondary winding is connected to one side of the diode bridge network and
the load to the other side as shown below. The Diode Bridge Rectifier

Figure 18: Full wave bridge rectifier

The four diodes labeled D1 to D4are arranged in "series pairs" with only two
diodes conducting current during each half cycle. During the positive half
cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while diodesD3 and
D4 are reverse biased and the current flows through the load as shown
below.
28
The Positive Half-cycle

Figure 19: Bridge circuit during positive cycle

During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in
series, but diodes D1 and D2 switch "OFF" as they are now reverse
biased. The current flowing through the load is the same direction as
before.

The Negative Half-cycle

Figure 20: Bridge circuit during negative half cycle.

As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage

developed across the load is also unidirectional the same as for the previous
two diode full-wave rectifier, therefore the average DC voltage across the load
is 0.637Vmax. However in reality, during each half cycle the current flows
through two diodes instead of just one
29
so the amplitude of the output voltage is two voltage drops ( 2 x 0.7 =
1.4V ) less than the input VMAX amplitude. The ripple frequency is now twice
the supply frequency (e.g. 100Hz for a 50Hz supply)

Picture: Typical Bridge Rectifier

Although we can use four individual power diodes to make a full wave
bridge rectifier, pre-made bridge rectifier components are available "off-the-
shelf" in a range of different voltage and current sizes that can be soldered
directly into a PCB circuit board or be connected by spade connectors.

The image to the right shows a typical single phase bridge rectifier with one
corner cut off. This cut-off corner indicates that the terminal nearest to the
corner is the positive or +ve output terminal or lead with the opposite
(diagonal) lead being the negative or - ve output lead. The other two
connecting leads are for the input alternating voltage from a transformer
secondary winding.

Circuit parameters

All the circuit parameters that are used in centre tapped full wave
rectifier are also applied to a bridge rectifier except for a PIV which is
equal to Vm.

Advantages of a bridge rectifier

➢ The need for centre-tapped transformer is eliminated.

➢ The output is twice that of the centre tap circuit for the secondary
voltage
30
 ➢ The PIV is one-half that of the centre-tapped circuit

Disadvantages of a bridge rectifier

➢ It requires 4 diodes
➢ During each cycle, two diodes which are connected in series operate.
Therefore, the forward voltage drop is twice that of a centre-tap
rectifier.

Clamping and Clipping

Another application of diodes is the clamping and clipping which are

discussed below;

Diode Clamper

A clamping circuit is used to place either the positive or negative peak of a

signal at a desired level. The dc component is simply added or subtracted
to/from the input signal. The clamper is also referred to as a DC restorer and
ac signal level shifter.

In some cases, like a TV receiver, when the signal passes through the
capacitive coupling network, it loses its dc component. This is when the
clamper circuit is used so as to re-establish the dc component into the signal
input. Though the dc component that is lost in transmission is not the same
as that introduced through a clamping circuit, the necessity to establish the
extremity of the positive or negative signal excursion at some reference
level is important.

A clamp circuit adds the positive or negative dc component to the input

signal so as to push it either on the positive side, as illustrated in figure (a) or
on the negative side, as illustrated in figure (b).

The circuit will be called a positive clamper, when the signal is pushed
upward by the circuit. When the signal moves upward, as shown in figure (a),
the negative peak of the signal coincides with the zero level.
31
The circuit will be called a negative clamper, when the signal is pushed
downward by the circuit. When the signal is pushed on the negative side, as
shown in figure (b), the positive peak of the input signal coincides with the
zero level with the zero level. Point downward, the same direction as the dc
shift.

Similarly in the figure shown below, the diode arrow points upward, again the
same direction as the dc shifts. It means that, when the diode points upward.
We have a positive dc clamper

Figure 21: Diode clamped input and output waveform.

For a clamping circuit at least three components — a diode, a capacitor and

a resistor are required.

Diode Clipper

The basic components required for a clipping circuit are – an ideal diode and
a resistor. In order to fix the clipping level to the desired amount, a dc
battery must also be included. When the diode is forward biased, it acts as a
closed switch, and when it is reverse biased, it acts as an open switch.
Different levels of clipping can be obtained by
32
varying the amount of voltage of the battery and also interchanging the
positions of the diode and resistor.

Depending on the features of the diode, the positive or negative region of

the input signal is “clipped” off and accordingly the diode clippers may be
positive or negative clippers.

In a positive clipper, the positive half cycles of the input voltage will be
removed. The circuit arrangements for a positive clipper are illustrated in the
figure given below.

Figure 22: Diode clamping circuit

As seen in the figure22, the diode is kept in series with the load. During the
positive half cycle of the input waveform, the diode ‘D’ is reverse biased,
which maintains the output voltage at 0 Volts. Thus causes the positive half
cycle to be clipped off. During the negative half cycle of the input, the diode
is forward biased and so the negative half cycle appears across the output.

In Figure (b), the diode is kept in parallel with the load. This is the diagram of
a positive shunt clipper circuit. During the positive half cycle, the diode ‘D’ is
forward biased and the diode acts as a closed switch. This causes the diode
to conduct heavily. This causes the voltage drop across the diode or across
the load resistance RL to be zero. Thus
33
output voltage during the positive half cycles is zero, as shown in the output
waveform. During the negative half cycles of the input signal voltage, the
diode D is reverse biased and behaves as an open switch. Consequently the
entire input voltage appears across the diode or across the load resistance
RL if R is much smaller than RL

Actually the circuit behaves as a voltage divider with an output voltage of [R L

/ R+ RL] Vmax = -Vmax when RL >> R

The negative clipping circuit is almost same as the positive clipping

circuit, with only one difference. If the diode in figures (a) and (b) is
reconnected with reversed polarity, the circuits will become for a negative
series clipper and negative shunt clipper respec-tively.

The Zener Diode

In the signal diode tutorial, you saw that a "reverse biased" diode blocks
current in the reverse direction, but will suffer from premature breakdown or
damage if the reverse voltage applied across it is too high. However, the
Zener Diode or "Breakdown Diode" as they are sometimes called, are
basically the same as the standard PN junction diode but are specially
designed to have a low pre-determined Reverse Breakdown Voltage that
takes advantage of this high reverse voltage. The zener diode is the simplest
types of voltage regulator and the point at which a zener diode breaks down
or conducts is called the "Zener Voltage" ( Vz ).

The Zener diode is like a general-purpose signal diode consisting of a

silicon PN junction. When biased in the forward direction it behaves just like
a normal signal diode passing the rated current, but as soon as a reverse
voltage applied across the zener diode exceeds the rated voltage of the
device, the diodes breakdown voltage VB is reached at which point a process
called Avalanche Breakdown occurs in the semiconductor depletion layer
and a current starts to flow through the diode to limit this increase in
voltage.
34
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The point at which the zener voltage triggers the current to flow through the
diode can be very accurately controlled (to less than 1% tolerance) in the
doping stage of the diodes semiconductor construction giving the diode a
specific zener breakdown voltage, ( Vz ) for example, 4.3V or 7.5V. This
zener breakdown voltage on the I-V curve is almost a vertical straight line.

Zener Diode I-V Characteristics

Fig 23
You use the Zener Diode in its "reverse bias" or reverse breakdown mode,
i.e. the diodes anode connects to the negative supply. From the I-V
characteristics curve in fig23 above, you can see that the zener diode has a
region in its reverse bias characteristics of almost a constant negative
voltage regardless of the value of the current flowing through the diode and
remains nearly constant even with large changes

35
in current as long as the zener diodes current remains between the
breakdown current IZ(min) and the maximum current rating IZ(max).

This ability to control itself can be used to great effect to regulate or

stabilise a voltage source against supply or load variations. The fact that the
voltage across the diode in the breakdown region is almost constant turns
out to be an important application of the zener diode as a voltage regulator.
The function of a regulator is to provide a constant output voltage to a load
connected in parallel with it in spite of the ripples in the supply voltage or
the variation in the load current and the zener diode will continue to
regulate the voltage until the diodes current falls below the minimum I Z(min)
value in the reverse breakdown region.

The Zener Diode as a Voltage Regulator

You can use Zener Diodes can be used to produce a stabilised voltage
output with low ripple under varying load current conditions. By passing a
small current through the diode from a voltage source, via a suitable current
limiting resistor (RS), the zener diode will conduct sufficient current to
maintain a voltage drop of Vout. Remember from the previous tutorials that
the DC output voltage from the half or full-wave rectifiers contains ripple
superimposed onto the DC voltage and that as the load value changes so to
does the average output voltage. By connecting a simple zener stabiliser
circuit as shown below across the output of the rectifier, a more stable
output voltage can be produced.
36
 Fig 24

The resistor, RS in fig 24 is connected in series with the zener diode to limit
the current flow through the diode with the voltage source, V S being
connected across the combination. The stabilised output voltage V out is
taken from across the zener diode. The zener diode is connected with its
cathode terminal connected to the positive rail of the DC supply so it is
reverse biased and will be operating in its breakdown condition. Resistor R S
is selected so to limit the maximum current flowing in the circuit.

With no load connected to the circuit, the load current will be zero, ( I L =
0 ), and all the circuit current passes through the zener diode which inturn
dissipates its maximum power. Also a small value of the series resistor R S
will result in a greater diode current when the load resistance R L is
connected and large as this will increase the power dissipation requirement
of the diode so care must be taken when selecting the appropriate value of
series resistance so that the zeners maximum power rating is not exceeded
under this no-load or high-impedance condition.

You must always connect load in parallel with the zener diode, so the voltage
across RL is always the same as the zener voltage, ( V R = VZ ). There is a
minimum zener current for which the stabilization of the voltage is effective
and the zener current must stay above this value operating under load within
its breakdown region at all times. The
37
upper limit of current is of course dependant upon the power rating of the
device. The supply voltage VS must be greater than VZ.

One small problem with zener diode stabiliser circuits is that the diode can
sometimes generate electrical noise on top of the DC supply as it tries to
stabilise the voltage. Normally this is not a problem for most applications
but the addition of a large value decoupling capacitor across the zeners
output may be required to give additional smoothing.

Then to summarise a little. A zener diode is always operated in its reverse

biased condition. A voltage regulator circuit can be designed using a zener
diode to maintain a constant DC output voltage across the load in spite of
variations in the input voltage or changes in the load current. The zener
voltage regulator consists of a current limiting resistor R S connected in series
with the input voltage VS with the zener diode connected in parallel with the
load RL in this reverse biased condition. The stabilized output voltage is
always selected to be the same as the breakdown voltage V Z of the diode.

Example

A 5.0Vstabilised power supply is required to be produced from a 12V DC

power supply input source. The maximum power rating P Z of the zener
diode is 2W. Using the zener regulator circuit above calculate:

a) The maximum current flowing through the zener diode.

b) The minimum value of the series resistor, RS

38
c) The load current IL if a load resistor of 1kΩ is connected across the Zener
diode.

d) The zener current IZ at full load.

Zener Diode in Clipping Circuits

Thus far you have looked at how a zener diode can be used to regulate a
constant DC source but what if the input signal was not steady state DC
but an alternating AC waveform how would the zener diode react to a
constantly changing signal.

Diode clipping and clamping circuits are circuits that are used to shape or
modify an input AC waveform (or any sinusoid) producing a differently
shape output waveform depending on the circuit arrangement. Diode
clipper circuits are also called limiters because they limit or clip-off the
positive (or negative) part of an input AC signal. As zener clipper circuits
limit or cut-off part of the waveform across them, they are mainly used for
circuit protection or in waveform shaping circuits.

For example, if you wanted to clip an output waveform at +7.5V, you would
use a 7.5V zener diode. If the output waveform tries to exceed the 7.5V
limit, the zener diode will "clip-off" the excess voltage from the input
producing a waveform with a flat top still keeping the output constant at
+7.5V. Note that in the forward bias condition a zener diode is still a diode
and when the AC waveform output goes negative below -0.7V, the zener
diode turns "ON" like any normal silicon diode would and clips the output at -
0.7V as shown below.
39
Square Wave Signal

Fig 25 showing square wave generator.

The back to back connected zener diodes can be used as an AC regulator

producing what is jokingly called a "poor man's square wave generator" as
seen in fig 25. Using this arrangement we can clip the waveform between a
positive value of +8.2V and a negative value of -8.2V for a 7.5V zener diode.
If we wanted to clip an output waveform between different minimum and
maximum values for example, +8V and -6V, use would simply use two
differently rated zener diodes.

Note that the output will actually clip the AC waveform between +8.7V and -
6.7V due to the addition of the forward biasing diode voltage, which adds
another 0.7V voltage drop to it. This type of clipper configuration is fairly
common for protecting an electronic circuit from over voltage. The two
zeners are generally placed across the power supply input terminals and
during normal operation, one of the zener diodes is "OFF" and the diodes
have little or no affect. However, if the input voltage waveform exceeds its
limit, then the zeners turn "ON" and clip the input to protect the circuit.
40
In the next tutorial about diodes, you will look at using the forward biased
PN junction of a diode to produce light. You know from the previous
tutorials that when charge carriers move across the junction, electrons
combine with holes and energy is lost in the form of heat, but also some of
this energy is dissipated as photons but you cannot see them.

If you place a translucent lens around the junction, visible light will be
produced and the diode becomes a light source. This effect produces
another type of diode known commonly as the Light Emitting Diode which
takes advantage of this light producing characteristic to emit light
(photons) in a variety of colours and wavelengths. Light Emitting Diodes.

SELF-EVALUATION EXERCISE

1. Define the term semi conductor.

2. Draw the crystalline structures of silicon and germanium.
Compute and assign electrons in each orbit.
3. State the reasons why silicon and germanium are the best
elements for making semi conductor devices and explain why
silicon is the most preferred.
4. Differentiate between energy level and energy band.
5. With the aid of the diagram, give the energy band
description of insulators, conductors and semiconductors.
Also, give examples.
6. Define covalent bonding.
7. Define a donor and acceptor ion.
8. What is doping?
9. Explain the process that leads to the formation of a ‘hole’ in
a p-type semiconductor.

41
ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISE

1. A semiconductor is a material whose electrical conductivity

properties lie in between those of insulators and conductors, e.g.
si & ge.
2. Silicon has 14 electrons. The first shell contains 2, second orbit has
8 and the last 4 are found in the last orbit, as shown in the diagram
below.

Germanium has 32 electrons. If we apply the formula 2n², the results

will be as follows: 2,8,18,4.

3. Silicon and germanium are picked because they require only a little
energy to break their covalent bonds and therefore, they can well
be used as semiconductor materials.
Silicon, on the other hand, is the most preferred because it is able to
hold higher voltages (about 0.7V) and has better electrical
conductivities as compared to germanium.
4. Energy level is the fixed amount of energy associated to particular
orbit while energy band is the range of energies each orbit
contains.
5. For the diagram, refer to figure 7.
42
 Conductors (metals): The valence band and the conduction band
overlap and because of this, a slight potential difference causes free
electrons to constitute electric current. This is the reason why
conductors are able allow current flow. Some of the examples of this
are: copper, aluminum, etc

Insulators: The energy gap between the valence band and the
conduction band is very wide. The gap is about 15eV. In terms of
energy, the valence band while the conduction band is empty. Wood,
rubber, mica, etc are some of the examples of insulators. These are
non conducting materials.

Semiconductors: For this one, the energy required to push the

electrons into conduction band is very small. The forbidden gap is
only 1eV and electrons can easily overcome this gap if a little energy
is applied. This is the reason these materials are able to conduct and
not to conduct at the same time, hence the term, semiconductor.
Silicon and germanium are best examples.

6. A covalent bond is a sharing of electrons between two or more atoms

to form a stable element.
7. A donor is a pentavalent impurity (e.g. Arsenic) used in the in the
formation of an n-type semiconductor because it donates one free
electron to the conduction band of silicon.

An acceptor is a trivalent impurity (e.g. Gallium, Boron) used in the

formation of a p-type semiconductor because holes created can
accept electrons.

8. Doping is defined as the addition of impurities to a pure

semiconductor to alter its conductivity properties.
9. If a small amount of trivalent element (Boron, Aluminum, Gallium,
etc) is added to a pure germanium or silicon atom, a p-type is formed.
Only 3 electrons of a trivalent element combine with 4 valence
electrons of pure Si or Ge atom, leaving one place without an
electron. The empty place created is called a ‘hole’ and it is positively
charged.

43
ACTIVITIES: - You must be able to build a half-wave and full-wave rectifiers
and observe waveforms and also build a simple regulated power supply.
Refer to lab manual.

SUMMARY:- You started by looking at definitions of conductors, insulators

and semiconductors, the we proceeded to look at the physics of
semiconductor till you produced a diode and finally applied it. In the
application you looked at the half wave and the two types of full wave
rectifiers. You also looked at clippers and clampers and lastly the Zener
Diode.

44
REFERENCES
• Applied Electronics by Sedha
• Electronics circuit theory and devices by booylestad
• Principles of electronics by malvino

• Internet
• www.electronicstutorials.ws
• www.wikipedia-free encyclopedia.com
• Electrical Technology Multicolouredn. byB.L Theraja and A.K Theraja,
Publishers S.Chand.
• Principles of Electronics Multicolouredn by V.K Mehta and Rohit Mehta,
Publishers S. Chand.
• Electronic amplifiers by cooper

45
UNIT 2 APPLYING JUNCTION DIODES, BIPOLAR
JUNCTION TRANSISTORS AND UNIPOLAR
TRANSISTORS (FET'S)
Unit Introduction
Just like the diodes you just studied in the previous unit, transistors are
also semiconductor devices. Transistors can be used as amplifiers,
switches and also for logic. You may not understand this term logic as it
applies to electronics but you will encounter it as progress in your
studies.

Unit Outcomes: On completion of this unit, you will be able to:

1. Apply Device Characteristics
2. Apply Bias Arrangement
3. Apply Alternating Current Circuit

Device Concept and Construction

From the previous unit, you learnt that diodes are made up from two pieces
of semiconductor material, either silicon or germanium to form a simple PN-
junction and you also learnt about their properties and characteristics. If you
now join two individual signal diodes back-to-back, this will give you two PN-
junctions connected together in series that share a common P or N terminal.
The fusion of these two diodes produces a three layer, two junction, three
terminal device forming the basis of a Bipolar Junction Transistor, or BJT
for short.

Transistors are three terminal active devices made from different

semiconductor materials that can act as either an insulator or a conductor
by the application of a small signal voltage. The transistor's ability to change
between these two states enables it to have two basic functions: "switching"
(digital electronics) or "amplification" (analogue electronics). Then bipolar
transistors have the ability to operate within three different regions:

• 1. Active Region - the transistor operates as an amplifier and Ic =

β.Ib
46
 Saturatio - the transistor is "fully-ON" operating as a switch
• 2. n and
Ic = I(saturation)
the transistor is "fully-OFF" operating as a switch and
• 3. Cut-off - Ic = 0

Fig 26 Typical Bipolar Transistor

The word Transistor is an acronym, and is a combination of the words

Transfer Varistor used to describe their mode of operation way back in their
early days of development. There are two basic types of bipolar transistor
construction, PNP and NPN, which basically describes the physical
arrangement of the P-type and N-type semiconductor materials from which
they are made. You will need to master how to tell them apart in terms of
symbols and construction.

The Bipolar Transistor basic construction consists of two PN-junctions

producing three connecting terminals with each terminal being given a name
to identify it from the other two. These three terminals are known and
labeled as the Emitter ( E ), the Base ( B ) and the Collector ( C ) respectively.

Bipolar Transistors are current regulating devices that control the amount of
current flowing through them in proportion to the amount of biasing voltage
applied to their base terminal acting like a current-controlled switch. The
principle of operation of the two transistor types PNP and NPN, is exactly the
same the only difference being in their biasing and the polarity of the power
supply for each type.
47
Bipolar Transistor Construction

Fig 27 showing bipolar construction and symbols

The construction and circuit symbols for both the PNP and NPN bipolar
transistor are given above with the arrow in the circuit symbol always
showing the direction of "conventional current flow" between the base
terminal and its emitter terminal as shown in fig27. The arrow will help you
identify whether it’s a PNP or NPN you are dealing with.The direction of the
arrow always points from the positive P-type region to the negative N-type
region for both transistor types, exactly the same as for the standard diode
symbol.
48
Bipolar Transistor Configurations

As the Bipolar Transistor is a three terminal device, there are basically

three possible ways you can connect it within an electronic circuit with one
terminal being common to both the input and output. Each of these three
methods of connection respond differently to its input signal within a circuit
as the static characteristics of the transistor vary with each circuit
arrangement. As you see shown below are the three configurations and their
associated performances namely

Common Base Configuration has Voltage Gain but no Current

• 1. - Gain.
Common Emitter
• 2. Configuration - has both Current and Voltage Gain.
Common Collector - has Current Gain but no Voltage
• 3. Configuration Gain.

The Common Base (CB) Configuration

As its name suggests, in the Common Base or grounded base

configuration, the BASE connection is common to both the input signal AND
the output signal with the input signal being applied between the base and
the emitter terminals. The corresponding output signal is taken from
between the base and the collector terminals as shown with the base
terminal grounded or connected to a fixed reference voltage point. Fig 28
below shows the CB configuration. The input current flowing into the emitter
is quite large as its the sum of both the base current and collector current
respectively therefore, the collector current output is less than the emitter
current input resulting in a current gain for this type of circuit of "1" (unity)
or less, in other words the common base configuration "attenuates" the
input signal.
49
 Fig 28 The Common Base Transistor Circuit

This type of amplifier configuration is a non-inverting voltage amplifier circuit,

in that the signal voltages Vin and Vout are in-phase. This type of transistor
arrangement is not very common due to its unusually high voltage gain
characteristics. Its output characteristics represent that of a forward biased
diode while the input characteristics represent that of an illuminated photo-
diode. Also this type of bipolar transistor configuration has a high ratio of
output to input resistance or more importantly "load" resistance (RL) to
"input" resistance (Rin) giving it a value of "Resistance Gain". Then the
voltage gain (Av) for a common base configuration is therefore given as:

Common Base
Voltage Gain

Where: Ic/Ie is the current gain, alpha (α) and RL/Rin is the resistance gain.

The common base circuit is generally only used in single stage amplifier
circuits such as microphone pre-amplifier or radio frequency (Rf) amplifiers
due to its very good high frequency response.

The Common Emitter (CE) Configuration

In the Common Emitter or grounded emitter configuration, you apply input

signal between the base, while the output is taken from between the collector
and the emitter as shown. This type of configuration is the most commonly
used circuit for transistor
50
based amplifiers and which represents the "normal" method of bipolar
transistor connection. Fig 29 shows the CE. The common emitter amplifier
configuration produces the highest current and power gain of all the three
bipolar transistor configurations. This is mainly because the input
impedance is LOW as it is connected to a forward-biased PN-junction, while
the output impedance is HIGH as it is taken from a reverse-biased PN-
junction.

The Common Emitter Amplifier Circuit

Fig 29 The Common Emitter Amplifier Circuit

In this type of configuration, the current flowing out of the transistor must be
equal to the currents flowing into the transistor as the emitter current is given
as Ie = Ic + Ib. Also, as the load resistance (RL) is connected in series with the
collector, the current gain of the common emitter transistor configuration is
quite large as it is the ratio of Ic/Ib and is given the Greek symbol of Beta, (β).
As the emitter current for a common emitter configuration is defined as Ie = Ic
+ Ib, the ratio of Ic/Ie is called Alpha, given the Greek symbol of α. Note: that
the value of Alpha will always be less than unity.

Since the electrical relationship between these three currents, Ib, Ic and Ie is
determined by the physical construction of the transistor itself, any small
change in the base current (Ib), will result in a much larger change in the
collector current (Ic). Then, small changes in current flowing in the base will
thus control the current in the emitter-collector circuit. Typically, Beta has a
value between 20 and 200 for most general purpose transistors.
51
By combining the expressions for both Alpha, α and Beta, β the
mathematical relationship between these parameters and therefore the
current gain of the transistor can be given as:

Where: "Ic" is the current flowing into the collector terminal, "Ib" is the
current flowing into the base terminal and "Ie" is the current flowing out of
the emitter terminal.

Then to summarise, this type of bipolar transistor configuration has a

greater input impedance, current and power gain than that of the common
base configuration but its voltage gain is much lower. The common emitter
configuration is an inverting amplifier circuit resulting in the output signal
o
being 180 out-of-phase with the input voltage signal.

The Common Collector (CC) Configuration

In the Common Collector or grounded collector configuration, the collector is

now common through the supply. The input signal is connected directly to the
base, while the output is taken from the emitter load as shown. This type of
configuration is commonly known as a Voltage Follower or Emitter Follower
circuit. The emitter follower configuration is very useful for impedance matching
applications because of the
52
very high input impedance, in the region of hundreds of thousands of
Ohms while having a relatively low output impedance.

Fig 30 The Common Collector Transistor Circuit

The common
emitter
configuration
has a current
gain
approximately
equal to the β
value of the
transistor
itself.
In the common collector configuration the load resistance is situated in
series with the
emitter so its current is equal to that of the emitter current. As the emitter
current is
the combination of the collector AND the base current combined, the load
resistance in
this type of transistor configuration also has both the collector current and
the input
current of the base flowing through it. Then the current gain of the circuit is
given as:

The Common Collector Current Gain

53
This type of bipolar transistor configuration is a non-inverting circuit in that
the signal voltages of Vin and Vout are in-phase. It has a voltage gain that is
always less than "1" (unity). The load resistance of the common collector
transistor receives both the base and collector currents giving a large
current gain (as with the common emitter configuration) therefore,
providing good current amplification with very little voltage gain. You will
notice as you refer to other studying materials that this is the least used
configuration.

Natural Family Characteristics

The forward biased junction

in the BJT follows the same
curve as you saw for the
forward biased diode. This set of
characteristics obeys the same
exponential relationship as the
diode, has the same turn on
voltage (0.7V for Si
o
and 0.2V for Ge at 25 C), and
exhibits

the same temperature

o
dependence (-2.0 mV/ C for Si
o
and –2.5 mV/ C for Ge).

The general form of the base-emitter

characteristics are presented to the
right and shows the behavior of the
emitter current (iE) as a function of
the voltage between base and
emitter (vBE), at a given
temperature, when the voltage
betweenthe collectorand emitter
(vCE) is held constant.
The inverse of the slope of the curve
about a specified operating point
54
(Q-point) is the dynamic
resistance (also referred to as
the emitter resistance) of the
transistor – which is just r d. Fig
31 illustrates.

By making the following assumptions: Fig 31

the collector current is approximately equal to the emitter current (i.e.,

β>>1),
26mV
r =r =
d e
I
CQ

The actual iC-vBE characteristics behave identically to the curve above, but
have a scaling factor of α (I0 in the equation above becomes αI0). However,
since usually α ≈ 1, this is generally disregarded. Similarly, the iB-vBE
characteristics have the same appearance, but with a scaled current of I 0/β.
Finally, the curves for a pnp transistor will look the same, but the polarity
on the base-emitter voltage will be switched (v BE becomes –vBE=vEB).

The second set of

characteristics we’re going to
be interested in is illustrated
to the right as a family of iC-vCE
curves Each of the curves in
this family illustrates the
dependence of the collector
current (iC) on the collector
emitter voltage (vCE) when the
base current (iB) has a
constant value (i.e., vBE is held
constant).

There are three distinct

Fig 32
regions of these characteristics that are of importance:
As the magnitude of vCE decreases, there comes a point when the collector
voltage becomes less than the base voltage. When this happens, the
transistor leaves the linear region of operation and enters the saturation
region, which is highly nonlinear and is not usable for amplification.
55
The cutoff region of operation occurs for base currents near zero. In the
cutoff region, the collector current approaches zero in a nonlinear manner
and is also avoided for amplification applications.
The linear region is where we want to be for amplification. In the linear (or
active) region the curves would ideally be horizontal straight lines,
indicating that the collector behaves as a constant current source
independent of the collector voltage, as illustrated in the hybrid-π model (i C
= βiB). Practically, these curves have a slight positive slope. If these curves
are extended to the left along the –vCE axis, they will converge to a point
known as the Early voltage, shown as –VA in the figure33 below .

Fig 33

The Early Voltage (note that VA > 0), is a figure of merit that is dependent
on the particular transistor and defines how close to ideal the ideal
behaves (for an ideal curve, the Early Voltage would be infinity). The
magnitude of the Early voltage typically falls in the range of 50 – 100V for
practical devices.

Using the value of VA, we can define the output resistance of the
-1
transistor (ro in the hybrid-π model or hoe in the h-parameter model)
for a specific value of collector current. Although ro is strictly defined as
the inverse of the partial derivative of iC with respect to vCE at a constant
value of iB the same result is achieved by taking the inverse of the slope
of the curve and realizing that
VA >> VCE:
56
 r
o

=
V

A
IC .

The characteristic curves for a transistor provide a powerful

tool in the design and analysis of transistor circuits. Figure
34 illustrates a simple transistor circuit. By using KVL
around the collector to emitter
Fig 34
loop (remember that the other side of VCC is tied to
ground), by using the approximation that iC ≈ iE, and by
restricting ourselves to the dc values of circuit parameters,

VCC= IC (RC + RE ) + VCE .

By defining the two extremes in this equation; i.e., when

IC = 0, VCE= VCC and
VCE=0, IC=VCC/(RE+RC);

The endpoints of the dc load line are defined as illustrated in the figure 35 below .The
dc load line is determined by the resistors RC and RE in the circuit, where the quantity
RE+RC has been given the designation Rdc, or dc circuit resistance, in the calculation
of ICC. The intersection of the dc load line with a specific iB curve defines the quiescent
point (Q-point) for circuit operation in terms of IBQ, ICQ and VCEQ.
Fig 35 showing DC loadline

57
Bias Arrangement

Transistor Biasing is the process of setting a transistors DC operating

voltage or current conditions to the correct level so that any AC input signal
can be amplified correctly by the transistor.

A transistors steady state of operation depends a great deal on its base

current, collector voltage, and collector current and therefore, if a
transistor is to operate as a linear amplifier, it must be properly biased to
have a suitable operating point.

Establishing the correct operating point requires the proper selection of

bias resistors and load resistors to provide the appropriate input current
and collector voltage conditions. The correct biasing point for a bipolar
transistor, either NPN or PNP, generally lies somewhere between the two
extremes of operation with respect to it being either “fully-ON” or “fully-
OFF” along its load line. This central operating point is called the
“Quiescent Operating Point”, or Q-point for short.

When a bipolar transistor is biased so that the Q-point is near the middle of
its operating range, that is approximately halfway between cut-off and
saturation, it is said to be operating as a Class-A amplifier. This mode of
operation allows the output current to increase and decrease around the
amplifiers Q-point without distortion as the input signal swings through a
o
complete cycle. In other words, the output current flows for the full 360 of
the input cycle.

So how do we set this Q-point biasing of a – The correct

transistor? the transistor is achieved using a process biasingof Base
know commonly as Bias.

The function of the “DC Bias level” or “no input signal level” is to correctly
set the transistors Q-point by setting its Collector current ( I C ) to a
constant and steady state value without an input signal applied to the
transistors Base.
58
This steady-state or DC operating point is set by the values of the circuits
DC supply voltage ( Vcc ) and the value of the biasing resistors
connected the transistors Base terminal.

Since the transistors Base bias currents are steady-state DC currents, the
appropriate use of coupling and bypass capacitors will help block bias
current setup for one transistor stage affecting the bias conditions of the
next. Base bias networks can be used for Common-base (CB), common-
collector (CC) or common-emitter (CE) transistor configurations. In this
simple transistor biasing tutorial we will look at the different biasing
arrangements available for a Common Emitter Amplifier.

Biasing Methods and DC Circuit Analysis

One of the most frequently used biasing circuits for a transistor circuit is
with the self-bias of the emitter-bias circuit where one or more biasing
resistors are used to set up the initial DC values of transistor currents, ( I B ),
( IC ) and ( IE ).

The following are five examples of transistor Base bias configurations

from a single supply ( Vcc ).
Fixed Base Biasing a Transistor

Fig 32 Fixed Base Biasing a Transistor

59
The circuit shown is called as a “fixed base bias circuit”, because the
transistors base current, IB remains constant for given values of Vcc, and
therefore the transistors operating point must also remain fixed. This two
resistor biasing network is used to establish the initial operating region of the
transistor using a fixed current bias.

This type of transistor biasing arrangement is also beta dependent biasing

as the steady-state condition of operation is a function of the transistors
beta β value, so the biasing point will vary over a wide range for transistors
of the same type as the characteristics of the transistors will not be exactly
the same.

The emitter diode of the transistor is forward biased by applying the

required positive base bias voltage via the current limiting resistor R B.
Assuming a standard bipolar transistor, the forward base-emitter voltage
drop will be 0.7V. Then the value of RB is simply: (VCC – VBE)/IB where IB is
defined as IC/β.

With this single resistor type of biasing method the biasing voltages and
currents do not remain stable during transistor operation and can vary
enormously. Also the temperature of the transistor can adversely effect the
operating point.

Collector Feedback Biasing a Transistor

Fig 33
The type of self biasing collector feedback configuration is another beta
dependent biasing method that requires only two resistors to provide the
necessary DC bias for the

60
transistor. The collector to base feedback configuration ensures that the
transistor is always biased in the active region regardless of the value of
Beta (β) as the DC base bias voltage is derived from the collector voltage,
VC providing good stability.

In this circuit shown in fig 33 above, the base bias resistor, R B is connected
to the transistors collector C, instead of to the supply voltage rail, Vcc. Now
if the collector current increases, the collector voltage drops, reducing the
base drive and thereby automatically reducing the collector current to keep
the transistors Q-point fixed. Then this method of collector feedback biasing
produces negative feedback as there is feedback from the output to the
input through resistor, RB.

The biasing voltage is derived from the voltage drop across the load
resistor, RL. So if the load current increases there will be a larger voltage
drop across RL, and a corresponding reduced collector voltage, V C which
will cause a corresponding drop in the base current, I B which in turn,
brings IC back to normal.

The opposite reaction will also occur when transistors collector current
becomes less. Then this method of biasing is called self-biasing with the
transistors stability using this type of feedback bias network being generally
good for most amplifier designs.
61
 Dual Feedback Transistor Biasing

Fig 34 Dual Feedback Transistor Biasing

Adding an additional resistor to the base bias network of the previous

configuration improves stability even more with respect to variations in
Beta, (β) by increasing the current flowing through the base bias resistors
as illustrated in fig 34.

The current flowing through RB1 is generally set at a value equal to about
10% of collector current, IC. Obviously it must also be greater than the
base current required for the minimum value of Beta, β.

One of the advantages of this type of self biasing configuration is that

the resistors provide both automatic biasing and Rf feedback at the
same time.

62
 Transistor Biasing with Emitter Feedback

Fig 35

Fig 35 shows a type of transistor biasing configuration, often called self-

emitter biasing, uses both emitter and collector-base feedback to stabilize
the collector current even more as resistors RB and RE as well as the emitter-
base junction of the transistor are all effectively connected in series with the
supply voltage, VCC.

The downside of this emitter feedback configuration is that the output has
reduced gain because of the base resistor connection as the collector
voltage determines the current flowing through the feedback resistor, R B
producing what is called “degenerative feedback”.

The current flowing from the emitter, IE (which is a combination of IC + :IB)

causes a voltage drop to appear across RE in such a direction, that it
forward biases the emitter-base junction.

So if the emitter current increases, voltage drop IR E also increases. Since the
polarity of this voltage reverse biases the emitter-base junction, I B
automatically decrease. Therefore the emitter current increase less than it
would have done had there been no self biasing resistor.

63
Resistor values are generally set so that the voltage drop across emitter
resistor RE is approximately 10% of V CC and the current flowing through
resistor RB1 is 10% of the collector current IC.

This type of transistor biasing configuration works best at relatively low

power supply voltages.

Voltage Divider Transistor Biasing

Fig 36

The common emitter transistor is biased using a voltage divider network to

increase stability. The name of this biasing configuration comes from the
fact that the two resistors RB1 and RB2 form a voltage or potential divider
network with their center point connecting the transistors base terminal
directly across the supply as you see in fig 36.

This voltage divider configuration is the most widely used transistor biasing
method, as the emitter diode of the transistor is forward biased by the
voltage dropped across resistor RB2. Also, voltage divider network biasing
makes the transistor circuit independent of changes in beta as the voltages
at the transistors base, emitter, and collector are dependant on external
circuit values.
64
To calculate the voltage developed across resistor R B2 and therefore the
voltage applied to the base terminal we simply use the voltage divider
formula for resistors in series.

Generally the voltage drop across resistor RB2 is much less than for resistor
RB1. Then clearly the transistors base voltage V B with respect to ground,
will be equal to the voltage across RB2.The current flowing through resistor
RB2 is generally set at 10 times the value of the required base current I B so
that it has no effect on the voltage divider current or changes in Beta.

The goal of Transistor Biasing is to establish a known Q-point in order for

the transistor to work efficiently and produce an undistorted output signal.
Correct biasing of the transistor also establishes its initial AC operating
region with practical biasing circuits using either a two or four-resistor bias
network.

In bipolar transistor circuits, the Q-point is represented by (V CE, IC ) for the

NPN transistors or ( VEC, IC ) for PNP transistors. The stability of the base
bias network and therefore the Q-point is generally assessed by
considering the collector current as a function of both Beta (β) and
temperature.

Here we have looked briefly at five different configurations for “biasing a

transistor” using resistive networks. But we can also bias a transistor using
either silicon diodes, zener diodes or active networks all connected to the
base terminal of the transistor or by biasing the transistor from a dual
power supply.

Apply Alternating Current Examples. (Single Stage Amplifier)

Figure 37. A common-emitter amplifier with voltage-divider bias.

65
DC Analysis:

To analyze the amplifier, you must first determine the dc bias

values. To do this, develop a dc equivalent circuit is by replacing the
coupling and bypass capacitors with opens (a capacitor appears open to dc).
DC equivalent circuit for the amplifier in Figure 37 is shown in Figure 37

Figure 38 DC equivalent circuit for the amplifier in Figure 37

The AC Equivalent Circuit:

To analyze the ac signal operation of an amplifier, an ac equivalent
circuit is developed as follows:

The capacitors C1, C2, and C3 are replaced by short circuit.

The dc source is replaced by a ground and is called ac ground.

What you see ac equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 39. Note that both R C
and R1 have connected to ac ground because in the actual circuit, they are
connected to VCC which is ac ground. In ac analysis, the ac ground and the
actual ground are treated as the same point electrically. Ground is the
common point in the circuit as you can see in fig 39.

66
 Figure 39. AC equivalent circuit for the amplifier in Figure 37

From Figure 39, you can use the simplified-r e transistor model to analyze this
common-emitter amplifier with voltage-divider bias, and then the equivalent
circuit is shown in Figure 40

Figure 40 AC equivalent circuit for the amplifier in Figure 37 using the

simplified-re transistor model

67
Figure 41 Determining Zo.

Zo is nothing but output impedance/resistance and Zi is input

impedance/resistance.
The two vertical lines between R1 and R2 means these components are in
parallel.
68
-Example 1: For the network of Figure 42. Determine re, Zi, Zo and Av.

Figure 42 For Example 1.

Solution:

69
Typical Single Stage Amplifier Circuit

Fig 43 Typical Single Stage Amplifier Circuit

Small Signal Amplifiers

• Small Signal Amplifiers are also known as Voltage Amplifiers.

• Voltage Amplifiers have 3 main properties, Input Resistance,
Output Resistance and Gain.
• The Gain of a small signal amplifier is the amount by which the
amplifier
“Amplifies” the input signal.
• Gain is a ratio of input divided by output, therefore it has no units
but is given the symbol (A) with the most common types of
transistor gain being, Voltage Gain (Av), Current Gain (Ai) and
Power Gain (Ap)
• The power Gain of the amplifier can also be expressed in Decibels or
simply dB
70
 • In order to amplify all of the input signal distortion free in a
Class A type amplifier, DC Base Biasing is required.
• DC Bias sets the Q-point of the amplifier half way along the load line.
• This DC Base biasing means that the amplifier consumes power even
if there is no input signal present.
• The transistor amplifier is non-linear and an incorrect bias setting
will produce large amounts of distortion to the output waveform.
• Too large an input signal will produce large amounts of distortion due
to clipping, which is also a form of amplitude distortion.
• Incorrect positioning of the Q-point on the load line will
produce either Saturation Clipping or Cut-off Clipping.
• The Common Emitter Amplifier configuration is the most common
form of all the general purpose voltage amplifier circuit using a Bipolar
Junction Transistor.
• The Common Source Amplifier configuration is the most common
form of all the general purpose voltage amplifier circuit using a
Junction Field Effect Transistor.

BJT Amplifier to JFET Amplifier Comparison

Common Emitter Common

Source
Parameter
Amplifier Amplifier

Voltage Gain, ( AV ) Medium/High Medium/High

Current Gain, ( Ai ) High Very High

Power Gain, ( AP ) High Very High

Input Resistance, ( Rin
) Medium Very High
Output Resistance, ( Rout )
Medium/High Medium/High

o o
Phase Shift 180 180
71
 Large Signal Amplifiers

• Large Signal Amplifiers are also known as Power Amplifiers.

• Power Amplifiers can be sub-divided into different Classes, for
example:
• Class A Amplifiers – where the output device conducts for all of
the input cycle.
• Class B Amplifiers – where the output device conducts for only
50% of the input cycle.
• Class AB Amplifiers – where the output device conducts for
more than 50% but less than 100% of the input cycle.
An ideal Power Amplifier would deliver 100% of the available DC power
to the
load.
Class A amplifiers are the most common form of power amplifier but
only have an efficiency rating of less than 40%.
Class B amplifiers are more efficient than Class A amplifiers at
around 70% but produce high amounts of distortion.
Class B amplifiers consume very little power when there is no
input signal present.
By using the “Push-pull” output stage configuration, distortion can
be greatly reduced.
However, simple push-pull Class B Power amplifiers can produce
high levels of Crossover Distortion due to their cut-off point biasing.
Pre-biasing resistors or diodes will help eliminate this crossover
distortion. Class B Power Amplifiers can be made using Transformers
or Complementary
Transistors in its output stage.

Evaluation:

- State the three transistor configurations.

- Draw the three transistor configurations.
- Name the transistor configuration used as a buffer and why.

72
FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS

As you can see the heading on the board, we will be looking at field effect
transistor, abbreviated as fets. We have just complete our study of the
bipolar junction transistor bjt. Please take cognizance of the fact that a bjt
is a current controlled device. the output (o/p) characteristics of the device
are controlled by the base current and not base voltage. However, in the
fet, the o/p characteristics are controlled by the input voltage which
creates an electric field and not by the input (i/p) current. This is the
biggest difference between the two.

If I may ask, does

Jfet and Mosfet basic types of fets?
anyone know the two

Yes Andrew,
lets hear from you.

Correct. That’s
good.
Someone’s
reading ahead I

For starters, we shall begin by looking at the Jfet and the we shall come to
the Mosfets in due course.

JFET-Junction Field Effect Transistor

As already mentioned, JFETs are of two types viz N-channel JFETs and P-
channel JFETs. Generally N-channel JFETs are preferred. N-channel and P-
channel JFETs are shown in fig.JFC below

73
 Fig. JFC

JFET-junction-field-effect-transistor

Basic Construction.

Its structure is quite simple. In an N-channel JFET an N-type silicon bar,

referred to as the channel, has two smaller pieces of P-type silicon material
diffused on the opposite sides of its middle part, forming P-N junctions, as
illustrated in fig. The two P-N junctions forming diodes or gates are
connected internally and a common terminal, called the gate terminal, is
brought out. Ohmic contacts (direct electrical connections) are made at the
two ends of the channel—one lead is called the source terminal S and the
other drain terminal D.

The silicon bar behaves like a resistor between its two terminals D and S. The
gate terminal is analogous to the base of an ordinary transistor(BJT). It is
used to control the flow of current from source to drain. Thus, source and
drain terminals are analogous to emitter and collector terminals respectively
of a BJT.
74
In figure the gate is P-region, while the source and the drain are N-regions.
Because of this, a JFET is similar to two diodes. The gate and the source form
one of the diodes, and the drain form the other diode. These two diodes are
usually referred as the gate-source diode and the gate-drain diode. Since
JFET is a silicon device, it takes only 0.7 volts for forward bias to get
significant current in either diode.

With the gate terminal not connected, and a potential applied (+ ve at the
drain and – ve at the source), a current called the drain current, ID flows
through the channel located between the two P-regions. This current consists
of only majority carriers-electrons in this case. P-channel JFET is similar in
construction to N-channel JFET except that P-type semiconductor material is
sandwiched between two N-type junctions, as shown in figure. In this case
majority carriers are holes.

Standard Notations. Worth noting FET notations are as follows :

Source. The terminal through which the majority carriers enter the channel,
is called the source terminal S and the conventional current entering the
channel at S is designated as Ig.

Drain. The terminal, through which the majority carriers leave the channel,
is called the drain terminal D and the conventional current leaving the
channel at D is designated as ID.

The drain-to-source voltage is called V DS, and is positive if D is more positive

than source S

Gate. There are two internally connected heavily doped impurity regions
formed by alloying, by diffusion, or by any other method available to create
two P-N junctions. These impurity regions are called the gate G. A voltage
VGS is applied between the gate and source in the direction to reverse-bias
the P-N junction. Conventional current entering the channel at G is
designated as IG.
75
Channel. The region between the source and drain, sandwiched between
the two gates is called the channel and the majority carriers move from
source to drain through this channel.

Fig. JFSS Schematic Symbols-JFET

Schematic Symbols of JFET.

The schematic symbols for N-type and P-type JFETs are shown in figure
respectively. The vertical line in the symbol may be thought as channel
and source S and drain D connected to the line. Fig JFP shows polarity of
JFET.

Note that the direction of the arrow at the gate indicates the direction in
which the gate current flows when the gate junction is forward biased. Thus
for the N-channel JFET, the arrow at the gate junction points into the device
and in P-channel JFET, it is away from the device.

Fig. JFP Polarity conventions JFET

76
The polarities for N-channel and P-channel JFET’s are shown in figures above.
In both of the cases the voltage between the gate and source is such that
the gate is reverse biased. In other words, this component is operated with
the input voltage reverse biased and this is what renders it to have a very
high input impedance. The drain and source terminals are interchangeable,
that is either end can be used as a source and the other end as a drain. The
source terminal is always connected to that end of the drain voltage supply
which provides the necessary charge carriers, that is, in an N-channel JFET
source terminal, S is connected to the negative end of the drain voltage
supply.

Fig. JFB

Fig JFB shows JFET with and without bias voltage.

Operation of JFET

For purposes of discussion, we will consider an N-channel JFET only, I hope that
is alright with you. Any questions or any concerns? Good! No questions so we
move on. The reason for considering N channel only is because whether you
use P or N channel circuit operation is basically the same. P stands for positive
and N? You know. We know
77
t
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that if for instance have a positive input voltage applied to the N chn, then,
you will need a negative input voltage for a positive chn.

(i) When neither any bias is applied to the gate (i.e. when V GS = 0) nor any
voltage to the drain w.r.t. source (i.e. when VDS = 0), the depletion regions
around the P-N junctions , are of equal thickness and symmetrical.

(ii) When positive voltage is applied to the drain terminal D w.r.t. source
terminal S without connecting gate terminal G to supply, as illustrated in fig.
9.4, the electrons (which are the majority carriers) flow from terminal S to
terminal D whereas conventional drain current I D flows through the channel
from D to S. Due to flow of this current, there is uniform voltage drop across
the channel resistance as we move from terminal D to terminal S. This
voltage drop reverse biases the diode. The gate is more
“negative” with respect to those points in the channel which are nearer to D
than to S.
Hence, depletion layers penetrate more deeply into the channel at points
lying closer to D than to S. Thus wedge-shaped depletion regions are formed,
as shown in figure.
 -
when Vds is applied. The size of the depletion layer formed determines the
width of the channel and hence the magnitude of current I D flowing through
the channel.

layers gets reduced causing decrease in resistance and , therefore, increase

in drain current ID.(The gate-source voltage VGS at which drain current ID is
cut-off completely (pinched off) is called the pinch-off voltage Vp. It is also to
be noted that the amount of reverse bias is not the same throughout the
length of the P-N junction. When the drain current flows through the channel,
there is a voltage drop along its length. The result is that the reverse bias at
the drain end is more than that at the source end making the width of
depletion layer more at the drain. To see how the width of the channel varies
with the variation in gate.

List five advantages of FETS over BJT’s.

78
The MOSFET
The MOSFET – Metal Oxide Silicon FET.
As well as the Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET), there is another type
of Field Effect Transistor available whose Gate input is electrically
insulated from the main current carrying channel and is therefore called
anInsulated Gate Field Effect Transistor or IGFET. The most common
type of insulated gate FET which is used in many different types of
electronic circuits is called the Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect
Transistor orMOSFET for short.

The IGFET or MOSFET is a voltage controlled field effect transistor that

differs from a JFET in that it has a “Metal Oxide” Gate electrode which is
electrically insulated from the main semiconductor n-channel or p-channel
by a very thin layer of insulating material usually silicon dioxide, commonly
known as glass.

This ultra thin insulated metal gate electrode can be thought of as one plate
of a
capacitor. The isolation of the controlling Gate makes the input resistance of
theMOSFET extremely high way up in the Mega-ohms ( MΩ ) region thereby
making it
almost infinite.

As the Gate terminal is isolated from the main current carrying channel
“NO current flows into the gate” and just like the JFET and the MOSFET also
acts like a voltage controlled resistor were the current flowing through the
main channel between the Drain and Source is proportional to the input
voltage. Also like the JFET, the MOSFETs very high input resistance can
easily accumulate large amounts of static charge resulting in the MOSFET
becoming easily damaged unless carefully handled or protected.

Like the previous JFET tutorial, MOSFETs are three terminal devices with a
Gate, Drain and Source and both P-channel (PMOS) and N-channel (NMOS)
MOSFETs are available. The main difference this time is that MOSFETs are
available in two basic forms:

• Depletion Type – the transistor requires the Gate-Source voltage, ( V GS

) to switch the device “OFF”. The depletion mode MOSFET is equivalent
to a “Normally Closed” switch.
• Enhancement Type – the transistor requires a Gate-Source voltage,
( VGS ) to switch the device “ON”. The enhancement mode MOSFET is
equivalent to a “Normally Open” switch.

79
The symbols and basic construction for both configurations of MOSFETs
are shown below in fig. MOS.

Fig. MOS

The four MOSFET symbols above show an additional terminal called the
Substrate and is not normally used as either an input or an output
connection but instead it is used for grounding the substrate. It connects to
the main semiconductive channel through a diode junction to the body or
metal tab of the MOSFET. Usually in discrete type MOSFETs, this substrate
lead is connected internally to the source terminal. When this is the case, as
in enhancement types it is omitted from the symbol for clarification.

The line between the drain and source connections represents the
semiconductive channel. If this is a solid unbroken line then this represents a
“Depletion” (normally-ON) type MOSFET as drain current can flow with zero
gate potential. If the channel line is shown dotted or broken it is an
“Enhancement” (normally-OFF) type MOSFET as zero
80
drain current flows with zero gate potential. The direction of the arrow
indicates whether the conductive channel is a p-type or an n-type
semiconductor device.

Basic MOSFET Structure and Symbol

Fig. BMS

The construction of the Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET is very different to

that of the Junction FET. Both the Depletion and Enhancement type
MOSFETs use an electrical field produced by a gate voltage to alter the flow
of charge carriers, electrons for n-channel or holes for P-channel, through
the semiconductive drain-source channel. The gate electrode is placed on
top of a very thin insulating layer and there are a pair of small n-type
regions just under the drain and source electrodes. Fig BMS above shows th
physical contruction

You saw in the previous tutorial, that the gate of a junction field effect
transistor, JFET must be biased in such a way as to reverse-bias the pn-
junction. With a insulated gate MOSFET device no such limitations apply so
it is possible to bias the gate of a MOSFET in either polarity, positive (+ve)
or negative (-ve).

This makes the MOSFET device especially valuable as electronic switches

or to make logic gates because with no bias they are normally non-
conducting and this high gate input resistance means that very little or no
control current is needed as MOSFETs are voltage controlled devices. Both
the p-channel and the n-channel MOSFETs are available in two basic forms,
the Enhancement type and the Depletion type.

81
Depletion-mode MOSFET
The Depletion-mode MOSFET, which is less common than the
enhancement mode types is normally switched “ON” (conducting) without
the application of a gate bias voltage. That is the channel conducts when
VGS = 0 making it a “normally-closed” device. The circuit symbol shown
above for a depletion MOS transistor uses a solid channel line to signify a
normally closed conductive channel.

For the n-channel depletion MOS transistor, a negative gate-source

voltage, -VGS will deplete (hence its name) the conductive channel of its
free electrons switching the transistor “OFF”. Likewise for a p-channel
depletion MOS transistor a positive gate-source voltage, +V GS will deplete
the channel of its free holes turning it “OFF”.

In other words, for an n-channel depletion mode MOSFET: +V GS means more

electrons and more current. While a -VGS means less electrons and less
current. The opposite is also true for the p-channel types. Then the
depletion mode MOSFET is equivalent to a “normally-closed” switch.

Depletion-mode N-Channel MOSFET and circuit

Symbols

Fig NMOS showing N channel performance characteristics graph.

82
 Fig DEMOS showing symbols of demosfet.
The depletion-mode MOSFET is constructed in a similar way to their JFET
transistor counterparts were the drain-source channel is inherently
conductive with the electrons and holes already present within the n-type
or p-type channel. This doping of the channel produces a conducting path
of low resistance between the Drain and Sourcewith zero Gate bias.

Enhancement-mode MOSFET
The more common Enhancement-mode MOSFET or eMOSFET, is the
reverse of the depletion-mode type. Here the conducting channel is lightly
doped or even undoped making it non-conductive. This results in the device
being normally “OFF” (non-conducting) when the gate bias voltage, V GS is
equal to zero. The circuit symbol shown above for an enhancement MOS
transistor uses a broken channel line to signify a normally open non-
conducting channel.

For the n-channel enhancement MOS transistor a drain current will only flow
when a gate voltage ( VGS ) is applied to the gate terminal greater than the
threshold voltage (VTH ) level in which conductance takes place making it a
transconductance device.

The application of a positive (+ve) gate voltage to a n-type eMOSFET

attracts more electrons towards the oxide layer around the gate thereby
increasing or enhancing (hence its name) the thickness of the channel
allowing more current to flow. This is why this kind of transistor is called an
enhancement mode device as the application of a gate voltage enhances the
channel.

Increasing this positive gate voltage will cause the channel resistance to
decrease further causing an increase in the drain current, I D through the
channel. In other words, for an n-channel enhancement mode MOSFET: +V GS
turns the transistor “ON”, while a
83
zero or -VGS turns the transistor “OFF”. Then, the enhancement-mode
MOSFET is equivalent to a “normally-open” switch.

The reverse is true for the p-channel enhancement MOS transistor. When
VGS = 0 the device is “OFF” and the channel is open. The application of a
negative (-ve) gate voltage to the p-type eMOSFET enhances the channels
conductivity turning it “ON”. Then for an p-channel enhancement mode
MOSFET: +VGS turns the transistor “OFF”, while -VGSturns the transistor
“ON”.

Enhancement-mode N-Channel MOSFET and Circuit

Symbols

Fig Emos showing enhancement mode symbols.

Enhancement-mode MOSFETs make excellent electronics switches due to
their low “ON” resistance and extremely high “OFF” resistance as well as
their infinitely high input resistance due to their isolated gate. Enhancement-
mode MOSFETs are used in integrated circuits to produce CMOS type Logic
Gates and power switching circuits in the form of as PMOS (P-channel) and
NMOS (N-channel) gates. CMOS actually stands for Complementary MOS
meaning that the logic device has both PMOS and NMOS within its design.

The MOSFET Amplifier

Just like the previous Junction Field Effect transistor, MOSFETs can be used
to make single stage class “A” amplifier circuits with the enhancement
mode n-channel MOSFET common source amplifier being the most popular
circuit. The depletion mode MOSFET amplifiers are very similar to the JFET
amplifiers, except that the MOSFET has a much higher input impedance.
84
This high input impedance is controlled by the gate biasing resistive
network formed byR1 and R2. Also, the output signal for the enhancement
mode common source MOSFET amplifier is inverted because when V G is
low the transistor is switched “OFF” and VD(Vout) is high. When VG is high
the transistor is switched “ON” and VD (Vout) is low as shown in Fig NCMA.

Enhancement-mode N-Channel MOSFET Amplifier

Fig. NCMA

The DC biasing of this common source (CS) MOSFET amplifier circuit is

virtually identical to the JFET amplifier. The MOSFET circuit is biased in class
A mode by the voltage divider network formed by resistors R1 and R2. The
AC input resistance is given as RIN = RG = 1MΩ.

Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors are three terminal active
devices made from different semiconductor materials that can act as either
an insulator or a conductor by the application of a small signal voltage. The
MOSFETs ability to change between these two states enables it to have two
basic functions: “switching” (digital electronics) or “amplification” (analogue
electronics). Then MOSFETs have the ability to operate within three different
regions:

• 1. Cut-off Region – with VGS < Vthreshold the gate-source voltage is lower
than the threshold voltage so the MOSFET transistor is switched “fully-
OFF” and
IDS = 0, the transistor acts as an open circuit
85
• 2. Linear (Ohmic) Region – with VGS > Vthreshold and VDS < VGS the
transistor
is in its constant resistance region and behaves as a voltage-controlled
resistor
whose resistive value is determined by the gate voltage, V GS
• 3. Saturation Region – with VGS > Vthreshold the transistor is in its
constant
current region and is switched “fully-ON”. The current I DS = maximum as
the
transistor acts as a closed circuit

MOSFET Summary
The Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor, or MOSFET for short,
has an extremely high input gate resistance with the current flowing through
the channel between the source and drain being controlled by the gate
voltage. Because of this high input impedance and gain, MOSFETs can be
easily damaged by static electricity if not carefully protected or handled.

MOSFET’s are ideal for use as electronic switches or as common-source

amplifiers as their power consumption is very small. Typical applications for
metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistors are in Microprocessors,
Memories, Calculators and Logic CMOS Gates etc.

Also, notice that a dotted or broken line within the symbol indicates a
normally “OFF” enhancement type showing that “NO” current can flow
through the channel when zero gate-source voltage V GS is applied.

A continuous unbroken line within the symbol indicates a normally “ON”

Depletion type showing that current “CAN” flow through the channel with
zero gate voltage. For p-channel types the symbols are exactly the same for
both types except that the arrow points outwards.
86
 SELF-EVALUATION EXERCISE

1) Draw symbols for NPN and PNP transistor.

2) Explain pinch-off voltage.
3) Why should mosfets be handled with care.
4) Identify the bias applied to the input of the jfet and explain why this is so.

87
 Solutions to Self Evaluation Exercise

1)

PNP and NPN

2) Pinch-off voltage is the minimum value of Vds at which Id stops increasing.

3) Mosfets should be handled with care because SiO 2 which is the metal
oxide can be damaged by static electricity from your body.

4) The input to the jfet is applied reverse biased. This is to achieve control
the drain current flowing through the channel.

88
ACTIVITIES: - You must be able to build amplifiers using both bjts and fets
and observe waveforms. You must be able to plot input and output
characteristics. Refer to lab manual.

SUMMARY:- You’ve looked at the various transistor configurations, voltage

and current gain, input and output characteristics for bjts and fets.

89
UNIT 3 USING AMPLIFIERS

INTRODUCTION.
In this unit you will look at the transistor as an amplifier in a multistage system. The
single stage amplifier has already been covered under learning outcome number 3
UNIT 2, Alternating Current Examples up to subunit Large signal amplifiers.

Learning Outcomes
1 Use Single and Multistage Amplifiers
2 Use Differential and Operational Amplifiers
3 Use Oscillator

Use Multistage Amplifiers

A transistor circuit containing more than one stage of amplification is known as
multistage transistor amplifier.
In a multistage amplifier, a number of single amplifiers are connected in *cascade
arrangement i.e. output of first stage is connected to the input of the second stage
through a suitable coupling device and so on. The purpose of coupling device (e.g. a
capacitor, transformer etc.) is (i) to transfer a.c. output of one stage to the input of the
next stage and (ii) to isolate the d.c. conditions of one stage from the next stage. Fig.
MSA below shows the block diagram of a 3-stage amplifier. Each stage consists of one
transistor and associated circuitry and is coupled to the next stage through a coupling
device. The name of the amplifier is usually given after the type of coupling used. e.g.
Name of coupling Name of multistage amplifier
RC coupling R-C coupled amplifier
Transformer coupling Transformer coupled amplifier
Direct coupling Direct coupled amplifier

FIG.MSA

90
(i) In RC coupling, a capacitor is used as the coupling device. The capacitor connects
the output of one stage to the input of the next stage in order to pass the a.c. signal on
while blocking the d.c. bias voltages. (ii) In transformer coupling, transformer is used as
the coupling device. The transformer coupling provides the same two functions (viz. to
pass the signal on and blocking d.c.) but permits in addition impedance matching.
(iii) In direct coupling or d.c. coupling, the individual amplifier stage bias conditions are
so designed that the two stages may be directly connected without the necessity for d.c.
isolation.
Role of Capacitors in Transistor Amplifiers

Regardless of the manner in which a capacitor is connected in a transistor amplifier, its

behaviour towards d.c. and a.c. is as follows. A capacitor blocks d.c. i.e. a capacitor
behaves as an “open” to d.c. Therefore, for d.c. analysis, we can remove the capacitors
from the transistor amplifier circuit. A capacitor offers reactance (= 1/2πfC) to a.c.
depending upon the values of f and C. In practical transistor circuits, the size of
capacitors is so selected that they offer negligible (ideally zero) reactance to the range
of frequencies handled by the circuits. Therefore, for a.c. analysis, we can replace the
capacitors by a short i.e. by a wire. The capacitors serve the following two roles in
transistor amplifiers :
1-As coupling capacitors
2- As bypass capacitors 1. As coupling capacitors. In most applications, you will not
see a single transistor amplifier. Rather we use a multistage amplifier i.e. a number of
transistor amplifiers are connected in series or cascaded. The capacitors are commonly
used to connect one amplifier stage to another. When a capacitor is used for this
purpose, it is called a coupling capacitor. Fig. MSA2 below shows the coupling
capacitors (CC1; CC2 ; CC3 and CC4) in a multistage amplifier. A coupling capacitor
performs the following two functions :
It blocks d.c. i.e. it provides d.c. isolation between the two stages of a multistage
amplifier.

91
 Fig. Msa2

Important Terms
In the study of multistage amplifiers, we shall frequently come across the terms gain,
frequency response, decibel gain and bandwidth. These terms stand discussed below :
(i) Gain. The ratio of the output *electrical quantity to the input one of the amplifier
is called its gain.

The gain of a multistage amplifier is equal to the product of gains of individual stages.
For instance, if G1, G2 and G3 are the individual voltage gains of a three-stage amplifier,
then total voltage gain G is given by :
*G = G1 × G2 × G3
It is worthwhile to mention here that in practice, total gain G is less than G1 × G2 × G3
due to the loading effect of next stages.
(ii) Frequency response. The voltage gain of an amplifier varies with signal
frequency. It is because reactance of the capacitors in the circuit changes with signal
frequency and hence affects the output voltage. The curve between voltage gain and
signal frequency of an amplifier is known as frequency response. Fig. FRG shows the
frequency response of a typical amplifier. The gain of the amplifier increases as the
frequency increases from zero till it becomes maximum at fr, called resonant
frequency. If the frequency of signal increases beyond fr, the gain decreases.

92
 Fig FRG

The performance of an amplifier depends to a considerable extent upon its frequency

response. While designing an amplifier, appropriate steps must be taken to ensure that
gain is essentially uniform over some specified frequency range. For instance, in case
of an audio amplifier, which is used to amplify speech or music, it is necessary that all
the frequencies in the sound spectrum (i.e. 20 Hz to 20 kHz) should be uniformly
amplified otherwise speaker will give a distorted sound output. (iii) Decibel gain.
Although the gain of an amplifier can be expressed as a number, yet it is of great
practical importance to assign it a unit. The unit assigned is bel or decibel (db).
The common logarithm (log to the base 10) of power gain is known as
bel power gain i.e.

Power gain = log 10 (Pout /Pin) bel

∴ Power gain = 10 log10 (Pout /Pin) decibel dB

When the gains are expressed in db, the overall gain of a multistage amplifier is the
sum of gains of individual stages in db. Thus referring to Fig. AG below,

93
Gain as
= VV12 × VV2 3
number

Gain in db = 20 log10 VV12 ×

VV2 3

= 20 log10 V 2 + 20
log10 V3

= 1st stage gain in + 2nd stage gain db

Fig. AG
However, absolute gain is obtained by multiplying the gains of individual stages. Obviously, it is
easier to add than to multiply.

It is clear from the above example that by expressing the gain in db, calculations have
become very simple.
Example In an amplifier, the output power is 1.5 watts at 2 kHz and 0.3 watt at 20 Hz,
while the input power is constant at 10 mW. Calculate by how many decibels gain at 20
Hz is below that at 2 kHz ?

Solution. db power gain at 2 kHz. At 2 kHz, the output power is 1.5 W and input
power is 10 mW.
1.5 W
∴ Power gain in db = 10 log10 10 mW = 21.76
db power gain at 20 Hz. At 20Hz, the output power is 0.3 W and input power is 10 mW.
0.3 W
∴ Power gain in db = 10 log10 10 mW = 14.77

94
Fall in gain from 2 kHz to 20 Hz = 21.76 − 14.77 = 6.99 db
Example A certain amplifier has voltage gain of 15 db. If the input signal voltage is
0.8V, what is the output voltage ?
Solution.
db voltage gain = 20 log10 V2/V1
or 15 = 20 log10 V2/V1
or 15/20 = log10 V2/V1
or 0.75 = log10 V2/0.8
Taking antilogs, we get,
Antilog 0.75 = Antilog (log10
V2/0.8)
or 100.75 = V2/0.8
0.75
∴ V2 = 10 × 0.8 =
4.5 V
RC Coupled Transistor Amplifier
This is the most popular type of coupling because it is cheap and provides excellent
audio fidelity over a wide range of frequency. It is usually employed for voltage
amplification. FigRCA shows two stages of an RC coupled amplifier. A coupling
capacitor CC is used to connect the output of first stage to the base (i.e. input) of the
second stage and so on. As the coupling from one stage to next is achieved by a
coupling capacitor followed by a connection to a shunt resistor, therefore, such
amplifiers are called resistance - capacitance coupled amplifiers.
The resistances R1, R2 and RE form the biasing and stabilisation network. The emitter
bypass capacitor offers low reactance path to the signal. Without it, the voltage gain of
each stage would be lost. The capacitor C c transmits a.c. signal but blocks d.c. This
prevents d.c. interference between various stages and shifting of the operating point.

95
 Fig RCA

Operation. When a.c. signal is applied to the base of the first transistor, it appears in
the amplified form across its collector load RC. The amplified signal developed across
RC is given to base of next stage through coupling capacitor CC. The second stage does
further amplification of the signal. In this way, the cascaded (one after another) stages
amplify the signal and the overall gain is considerably increased.
It may be mentioned here that total gain is less than the product of the gains of
individual stages. It is because when a second stage is made to follow the first stage,
the effective load resistance of first stage is reduced due to the shunting effect of the
input resistance of second stage. This reduces the gain of the stage which is loaded by
the next stage. For instance, in a 3-stage amplifier, the gain of first and second stages
will be reduced due to loading effect of next stage. However, the gain of the third stage
which has no loading effect of subsequent stage, remains unchanged. The overall gain
shall be equal to the product of the gains of three stages.
Frequency response. Fig.FR below shows the frequency response of a typical RC
coupled amplifier. It is clear that voltage gain drops off at low (< 50 Hz) and high (> 20
kHz) frequencies whereas it is uniform over mid-frequency range (50 Hz to 20 kHz).
This behaviour of the amplifier is briefly explained below :
(i) At low frequencies (< 50 Hz), the reactance of coupling capacitor CC is quite
high and hence very small part of signal will pass from one stage to the next stage.
Moreover, CE cannot shunt the emitter resistance RE effectively because of its large
reactance at low frequencies. These two factors cause a falling of voltage gain at low
frequencies.

96
 Fig. FR

(ii) At high frequencies (> 20 kHz), the reactance of CC is very small and it
behaves as a short circuit. This increases the loading effect of next stage and serves
to reduce the voltage gain. Moreover, at high frequency, capacitive reactance of base-
emitter junction is low which increases the base current. This reduces the current
amplification factor β. Due to these two reasons, the voltage gain drops off at high
frequency.
(iii) At mid-frequencies (50 Hz to 20 kHz), the voltage gain of the amplifier is
constant. The effect of coupling capacitor in this frequency range is such so as to
maintain a uniform voltage gain. Thus, as the frequency increases in this range,
reactance of CC decreases which tends to increase the gain. However, at the same
time, lower reactance means higher loading of first stage and hence lower gain.
These two factors almost cancel each other, resulting in a uniform gain at mid-
frequency.
Advantages
-It has excellent frequency response. The gain is constant over the audio frequency
range
which is the region of most importance for speech, music etc.
-It has lower cost since it employs resistors and capacitors which are cheap.
-The circuit is very compact as the modern resistors and capacitors are small
and extremely light.
Disadvantages
-The RC coupled amplifiers have low voltage and power gain. It is because the low
resistance presented by the input of each stage to the preceding stage decreases
the effective load resistance (RAC) and hence the gain.

97
-They have the tendency to become noisy with age, particularly in moist climates.
-Impedance matching is poor. It is because the output impedance of RC coupled
amplifier is several hundred ohms whereas the input impedance of a speaker is only a
few ohms. Hence, little power will be transferred to the speaker. Applications.
The RC coupled amplifiers have excellent audio fidelity over a wide range of
frequency. Therefore, they are widely used as voltage amplifiers e.g. in the initial
stages of public address system. If other type of coupling (e.g. transformer coupling) is
employed in the initial stages, this results in frequency distortion which may be
amplified in next

stages. However, because of poor impedance RC Coupled Amplifiers matching,

RC coupling is rarely used in the final stages.

Note. When there is an even number of cascaded stages (2, 4, 6 etc), the output signal
is not inverted from the input. When the number of stages is odd (1, 3, 5 etc.), the
output signal is inverted from the input.
Example 11.11 A single stage amplifier has a voltage gain of 60. The collector load RC
= 500
Ω and the input impedance is 1kΩ. Calculate the overall gain when two such stages are
cascaded through R-C coupling. Comment on the result.

Solution. The gain of second stage remains 60 because it has no loading effect of any
stage. However, the gain of first stage is less than 60 due to the loading effect of the
input impedance of second stage.
∴ Gain of second stage = 60

Effective load of first stage = RC || Rin = = 333 Ω

Gain of first stage = 60 × 333/500 = 39.96 Total gain = 60 × 39.96 = 2397 Comments.
The gain of individual stage is 60. But when two stages are coupled, the gain is not 60 ×
60 = 3600 as might be expected rather it is less and is equal to 2397 in this case. It is
because the first stage has a loading effect of the input impedance of second stage and
consequently its gain is reduced. However, the second stage has no loading effect of
any subsequent stage. Hence, the gain of second stage remains 60.

98
11.6 Transformer-Coupled Amplifier

The main reason for low voltage and power gain of RC coupled amplifier is that the
effective load (RAC) of each stage is decreased due to the low resistance presented by
the input of each stage to the preceding stage. If the effective load resistance of each
stage could be increased, the voltage and power gain could be increased. This can be
achieved by transformer coupling. By the use of impedance-changing properties of
transformer, the low resistance of a stage (or load) can be reflected as a high load
resistance to the previous stage.

Transformer coupling is generally employed when the load is small. It is mostly used for
power amplification. Fig.TC below shows two stages of transformer coupled amplifier. A
coupling transformer is used to feed the output of one stage to the input of the next
stage. The primary P of this transformer second stage renders amplification in an
exactly similar manner.

Frequency response. The frequency response of a transformer coupled amplifier is

shown in Fig.TCFR below. It is clear that frequency response is rather poor i.e. gain is
constant only over a small range of frequency. The output voltage is equal to the
collector current multiplied by reactance of primary. At low frequencies, the reactance of
primary begins to fall, resulting in decreased gain.

Fig. TCFR
At high frequencies, the capacitance between turns of windings acts as a bypass
condenser to reduce the output voltage and hence gain. It follows, therefore, that there
will be disproportionate amplification of frequencies in a complete signal such as music,
speech etc. Hence, transformer-coupled amplifier introduces frequency distortion.

99
 Fig. TC

When an a.c. signal is applied to the base of the first transistor , it appears in the
amplified form across primary p of the coupling transformer. The voltage developed
across primary is transferred to the input of the next stage by transformer secondary as
shown in fig. TC above.

It may be added here that in a properly designed transformer, it is possible to achieve a

fairly constant gain over the audio frequency range. But a transformer that achieves a
frequency response comparable to RC coupling may cost 10 to 20 times as much as
the inexpensive RC coupled amplifier.

Advantages Transformer Coupling.

- No signal power is lost in the collector or base resistors.
- An excellent impedance matching can be achieved in a transformer coupled
amplifier. It is easy to make the inductive reactance of primary equal to the output
impedance of the transistor and inductive reactance of secondary equal to the
input impedance of next stage.
- Due to excellent impedance matching, transformer coupling provides higher gain.
As a matter of fact, a single stage of properly designed transformer coupling can
provide the gain of two stages of RC coupling. Disadvantages
- It has a poor frequency response i.e. the gain varies considerably with frequency.
- The coupling transformers are bulky and fairly expensive at audio frequencies.
- Frequency distortion is higher i.e. low frequency signals are less amplified as
compared to the high frequency signals.

100
 - Transformer coupling tends to introduce hum in the output.
Applications.
- Transformer coupling is mostly employed for impedance matching. In general,
the last stage of a multistage amplifier is the power stage. Here, a concentrated
effort is made to transfer maximum power to the output device e.g. a
loudspeaker. For maximum power transfer, the impedance of power source
should be equal to that of load. Usually, the impedance of an output device is a
few ohms whereas the output impedance of transistor is several hundred times
this value. In order to match the impedance, a step-down transformer of proper
turn ratio is used. The impedance of secondary of the transformer is made equal
to the load impedance and primary impedance equal to the output impedance of
transistor. Fig. 11.17 illustrates the impedance matching by a stepdown
transformer. The output device (e.g. speaker) connected to the secondary has a
small resistance RL. The load RL′ appearing on the primary side will be:

Multistage Amplifier Analysis

You will use the two-stage capacitively coupled amplifier in Fig CCA below. Notice that
both stages are identical common-emitter amplifiers with the output of the first stage
capacitively coupled to the input of the second stage. Capacitive coupling prevents the
dc bias of one stage from affecting that of the other but allows the ac signal to pass
without attenuation at the frequency of operation. Notice, also, that the transistors are
labeled Q1 and Q2.

Loading Effects: In determining the voltage gain of the first stage, you must consider
the loading effect of the second stage. Because the coupling capacitor C 3 effectively
appears as a short at the signal frequency, the total input resistance of the second
stage presents an ac load to the first stage.

101
Looking from the collector of Q 1, the two biasing resistors in the second stage, R 5 and
R6, appear in parallel with the input resistance at the base of Q 2. In other words, the
nd
signal at the collector of Q1 “sees” R3, R5, R6, and Zb (2 stage) of the second stage all
in parallel to ac ground. Thus, the effective ac collector resistance of Q 1 is the total of all
these resistances in parallel, as Figure CCA1 and CCA2 illustrate.

Figure CCA A two-stage common-emitter amplifier.

Figure CCA1 AC equivalent circuit of the two-stage common-emitter amplifier.

102
Figure CCA2 showing AC equivalent of first stage, showing loading from second stage
input resistance.

Voltage Gain of the First Stage:

From FigureCCA2, the ac collector resistance of the first stage is

Here, for both stages: IE = 1.05 mA, re = 23.8 Ω, and re(2nd stage) = 3.57 k Ω.
Therefore the effective ac collector resistance of the first stage is

Therefore the base-to-collector voltage gain of the first stage is

103
Voltage Gain of the Second Stage:

From Figure AG1, the second stage has no load resistor, so the ac collector
resistance is R7, and the gain is

nd
Figure AG1 the AC equivalent circuit of 2 stage common-emitter amplifier.
Overall Voltage Gain:
The overall amplifier gain with no load on the output is

The overall voltage gain can be expressed in dB as follows:

C Voltage in the Capacitively Coupled Multistage Amplifier:

Since both stages are identical and R1 = R5, R2 = R6, R3 = R7, and R4 = R8, therefore the
dc voltages for Q1 and Q2 are the same.

104
Example
For the two-stage common emitter amplifier capacitor coupled amplifier example
shown in Fig.CCAE below

(a) Determine the voltage gain (Av) of each stage.

(b) Determine the overall voltage gain (AvT) of this multistage amplifier.

(c) Draw the waveform of output voltage (Vout).

Fig.CCAE

Solution:(a) Step 1: DC Analysis:

Fig.CCAE1 d.c equivalent circuit

105
As R1 = R5, R2 = R6, R3 = R7, and R4 = R8, therefore the dc voltages for Q1 and Q2 are the same.
Step 2: AC analysis:

st
For 1 state

Fig.CCAE2 a.c equivalent circuit for first stage.

106
Fig.CCAE3 Equivalent a.c .circuit for second stage

Fig.CCAE4 Out Voltage Waveform

.

107
REFERENCES
• Applied Electronics by Sedha
• Electronics circuit theory and devices by booylestad
• Principles of electronics by malvino

• Internet
• www.electronicstutorials.ws
• www.wikipedia-free encyclopedia.com
• Electrical Technology Multicolouredn. byB.L Theraja and A.K
Theraja, Publishers S.Chand.
• Principles of Electronics Multicolouredn by V.K Mehta and
Rohit Mehta, Publishers S. Chand.
• Electronic amplifiers by cooper

108
Use Differential and Operational Amplifiers
You use Operational Amplifiers to perform mathematical functions such as addition,
subtraction, integration and differentiation where as Differential amplifiers among
other applications you’ll use to compare signals.

Basic concept of feedback

Feedback has become a well-known concept. This is a process where you get a
portion of the output and send it back to the input.

Negative feedback is the process of coupling the output back to the input in such
a way as to cancel some of the input.

Positive feedback is the process of coupling the output back to the input in such a
way as to increase the input. This causes oscillation, sometimes intentionally as in
oscillators. Very often the oscillations are not desired but surprisingly they exist.

Compensation means the prevention of unwanted oscillation.

Operational amplifiers (op-amp) Universal symbol is shown in Fig. OAS1.

Fig.OAS2 shows a mini-DIP (Dual-In line Package) and Fig. OAS3 shows the pin
connections.

Fig. OAS1. Universal symbol of operational amplifier.

Fig. OAS2. Mini-DIP integrated circuit.

109
 Fig. OAS3. The 411 pin connections.

Op-amps have two inputs and a single output.

( and (-) are noninverting and inverting inputs respectively, and they concern
relative phase of output signal with respect to input signal; are the same for (+)
input and are opposite for (-) input.

Inside the IC (Integrated Circuit) there are transistors, resistors and capacitors.
For instance inside the 411 from Fig. OAS2 and Fig. OAS3 there is 24 transistors,
11 resistors and 1 capacitor.

The dot shows you the corner from which to begin counting the pin numbers.

You use the Offset-null terminals are for external correction of small asymmetry,
which is unavoidable in manufacturing process. Producers always give precise
advice how to perform this correction.

Op-amps have very big gain factor and are devoted for work with external
feedback.

An open-loop input-output characteristic is shown in Fig. OAG.

110
 Vout

(+)
Vcc

Vin

Vcc(-)

Fig. OAG. Open loop input output characteristic of an op-amp.

The golden rules

i. The op-amp voltage gain is so high that a fraction of milivolt between the input
(+) (-)
terminals causes that the output swing over its full range, form Vcc to Vcc .

-
ii. The inputs draw almost no current (very, very small, for instance 0.1nA=0.1*10
9
A)

iii. The output (with external feedback) attempts to make zero the voltage difference
between inputs.

Basic Op-Amps circuits

Inverting amplifier

The circuit is shown in Fig. IA.

R
2

_
intput R 1
A
+ output
B

Fig.IA. Inverting amplifier.

111
Point B is at ground, so the point A is also (see iii). This point A is called virtual
ground.

The voltage across R1 is Vin and the voltage across R 2 is Vout, therefore:
Vout / R2Vin / R1 .

Voltage gain of the inverting amplifier is G R 2.

R
1

Input impedance Zin R1 because point A is at ground level. It is usually about a

couple of k . It is rather small value and small input impedance is an undesired
feature of inverting amplifier. The output impedance is a couple of ohms.

Noninverting amplifier

The circuit is shown in Fig. NIA.

Fig. NIA. Noninverting amplifier.

The analysis is:

VA comes from a voltage divider: VA Vout R 1

R1 R 2

Accordingly to (iii) Vin VA

V R R R
Voltage gain of the noninverting amplifier is: G out 1 2 1 2

V R R
in 1 1

12
The input impedance is infinite (about 10 or more). The output impedance is a
couple of ohms.

112
Differential and summing amplifiers

The circuit in Fig. DA is a differential amplifier with voltage gain G R2

R
. This circuit
1

requires precise matching the resistors to achieve exact output value.

Fig. DA. Classic differential amplifier.

A summing amplifier is in Fig. SA It is just a variation of the inverting amplifier. Point

X is a virtual ground, so the input current is i V 1 V 2 V 3 1 V1 V2 V3 . Therefore
R R R R
the output is Vout i*R (V1 V2 V3 ) .

Fig.SA. An example of summing amplifier.

Integrator and differentiator

Op-amps allow making nearly perfect integrators. An example is shown in Fig. INTA.

113
 Fig. INTA Integrator.

Vin
Input current flows through C and because the (-) input is virtual ground the
R
V C dV 1 Vindt
same current flows from the output, therefore: in out and Vout .
R dt RC

Differentiators are similar to integrators, but with R and C reversed as Fig. DIF
shows.

_
intput C
+ output

Fig. DIF. Differentiator.

Since the inverting input is at ground, the change of input voltage

produces a current i C dV in and dV
in .
produces the output voltage Vouti * RRC
dt dt

114
Comparator

It is very common to want to know which of two signals is larger, or to know when a
given signal exceeds a fixed, desired value. A device, which compares two values, is
called comparator. The simplest form of comparator is a high-gain differential
amplifier made with an op-amp (it is not forbidden to design it from individual
transistors, but what for?). It is shown in Fig. C.

V
1 _

+ V
output
V
2

Fig. C. Comparator.

The op-amp goes to positive or negative saturation according to the difference

5-6
between both the inputs. Because the voltage gain is typically 10 therefore just
a fraction of milivot between two inputs will cause the output to be saturated:

V V 0V V ( )
1 2 out CC
V V 0V V ( )
1 2 out CC

Although an ordinary op-amp can be used as a comparator (and very often it is)
there are special integrated circuits intended for use as comparators. The special
chips are designed for very fast response. They are compared with self-explanatory
parameter called propagation delay versus input overdrive.

115
USE OSCILLATORS
Sinusoidal Oscillator

An electronic device that generates sinusoidal oscillations of desired frequency

is known as a sinusoidal oscillator.

Although we speak of an oscillator as “generating” a frequency, it should be

noted that it does not create energy, but merely acts as an energy converter. It
receives d.c. energy and changes it into a.c. energy of desired frequency. The
frequency of oscillations depends upon the constants of the device.

It may be mentioned here that although an alternator produces sinusoidal

oscillations of 50Hz, it cannot be called an oscillator. Firstly, an alternator is a
mechanical device having rotating parts whereas an oscillator is a non-rotating
electronic device. Secondly, an alternator converts mechanical energy into a.c.
energy while an oscillator converts d.c. energy into a.c. energy. Thirdly, an
alternator cannot produce high frequency oscillations whereas an oscillator can
produce oscillations ranging from a few Hz to several MHz.

Advantages

Although oscillations can be produced by mechanical devices (e.g. alternators),

but electronic oscillators have the following advantages :

- An oscillator is a non-rotating device. Consequently, there is little wear

and tear and hence longer life.

- Due to the absence of moving parts, the operation of an oscillator is quite

silent.

- An oscillator can produce waves from small (20 Hz) to extremely high
frequencies (> 100 MHz).

- The frequency of oscillations can be easily changed when desired.

116
 - It has good frequency stability i.e. frequency once set remains constant
for a considerable period of time.

- It has very high efficiency.

Types of Sinusoidal Oscillations

Sinusoidal electrical oscillations can be of two types viz damped oscillations and
undamped oscillations.

(i) Damped oscillations.

The electrical oscilla-tions
whose amplitude goes on
decreasing
with time are called
damped oscillations.
Fig. DO (i) shows
waveform of damped
electrical oscillations. (i) Fig DO (ii)Obviously the electrical system in which
these oscillations are generated has losses and some energy is lost during
each oscillation.
Further, no means are provided to compensate for the losses and consequently
the amplitude of the generated wave decreases gradually. It may be noted that
frequency of oscillations remains unchanged since it depends upon the
constants of the electrical system.
(ii) Undamped oscillations. The electrical oscillations whose amplitude
remains constant with time are called undamped oscillations. Fig. DO (ii) shows
waveform of undamped electrical oscillations. Although the electrical system in
which these oscillations are being generated has also losses, but now right
amount of energy is being supplied to overcome the losses. Consequently, the
amplitude of the generated wave remains constant. It should be emphasised
that an oscillator is required to produce undamped electrical oscillations for
utilising in various electronics equipment.

Oscillatory Circuit
A circuit which produces electrical oscillations of any desired frequency is
known as an oscillatory circuit or tank circuit.

117
A simple oscillatory circuit consists of a capacitor (C) and inductance coil (L) in
parallel as shown in Fig.OC below.. This electrical system can produce
electrical oscillations of frequency determined by the values of L and C. To
understand how this comes about, suppose the capacitor is charged from a d.c.
source with a polarity as shown in Fig. OC (i).
(i) In the position shown in Fig. OC (i), the upper plate of capacitor has deficit of
electrons and the lower plate has excess of electrons. Therefore, there is a
voltage across the capacitor and the capacitor has electrostatic energy.

Fig. OC
(ii) When switch S is closed as shown in Fig. OC (ii) , the capacitor will
discharge through inductance and the electron flow will be in the direction
indicated by the arrow. This current flow sets up magnetic field around the coil.
Due to the inductive effect, the current builds up slowly towards a maximum
value. The circuit current will be maximum when the capacitor is fully
discharged. At this instant, electrostatic energy is zero but because electron
motion is greatest (i.e. maximum current), the magnetic field energy around the
coil is maximum. This is shown in Fig. OC (ii). Obviously, the electrostatic
energy across the capacitor is completely converted into magnetic field energy
around the coil.

(iii) Once the capacitor is discharged, the magnetic field will begin to collapse
and produce a counter e.m.f. According to Lenz's law, the counter e.m.f. will
keep the current flowing in the same direction. The result is that the capacitor is
now charged with opposite polarity, making upper plate of capacitor negative
and lower plate positive as shown in Fig. OC (iii).
(iv) After the collapsing field has recharged the capacitor, the capacitor now
begins to discharge; current now flowing in the opposite direction. Fig. OC (iv)
shows capacitor fully discharged and maximum current flowing.

118
The sequence of charge and discharge results in alternating motion of electrons
or an oscillating current. The energy is alternately stored in the electric field of
the capacitor (C) and the magnetic field of the inductance coil (L). This
interchange of energy between L and C is repeated over and again resulting in
the production of oscillations.

11.3.3.4 Frequency of oscillations. The frequency of oscillations in the tank circuit

is determined by the constants of the circuit viz L and C. The actual frequency of
oscillations is the resonant frequency (or natural frequency) of the tank circuit given
by :
1
fr = 2π LC

It is clear that frequency of oscillations in the tank circuit is inversely

proportional to L and C. This can be easily explained. If a large value of
capacitor is used, it will take longer for the capacitor to charge fully and also
longer to discharge. This will lengthen the period of oscillations in the tank
circuit, or equivalently lower its frequency. With a large value of inductance, the
opposition to change in current flow is greater and hence the time required to
complete each cycle will be longer. There-fore, the greater the value of
inductance, the longer is the period or the lower is the frequency of oscillations
in the tank circuit.

119
 Undamped Oscillations from Tank Circuit

As discussed before, a tank circuit produces damped oscillations. However, in

practice, we need continuous undamped oscillations for the successful
operation of electronics equipment. In order to make the oscillations in the tank
circuit undamped, it is necessary to supply correct amount of energy to the tank
circuit at the proper time intervals to meet the losses. Thus
referring back to Fig. OC any energy which
would be applied to the circuit must have a
polarity conforming to the existing polarity at the
instant of application of energy. If the applied
energy is of opposite polarity, it would op-pose
the energy in the tank circuit, causing stoppage
of oscillations. Therefore, in order to
make the oscillations Fig.UO in the tank circuit undamped, the following conditions
must be fulfilled
:
(i) The amount of energy supplied should be
such so as to meet the losses in the tank
circuit and the a.c. energy removed from the
circuit by the load. For instance, if losses in LC
circuit amount to 5 mW and a.c. output being
taken is 100 mW, then power of 105 mW
should be continuously supplied to the circuit.

(ii) The applied energy should have the same frequency as that of the
oscillations in the tank circuit.

(iii) The applied energy should be in phase with the oscillations set up in
the tank circuit i.e. it should aid the tank circuit oscillations.

120
If these conditions are fulfilled, the circuit will produce continuous undamped
output as shown in Fig. UO above.
Positive Feedback Amplifier — Oscillator
A transistor amplifier with proper positive feedback can act as an oscillator i.e.,
it can generate oscillations without any external signal source. Fig. FN shows a
transistor amplifier with positive

Fig. FN
feedback. Remember that a positive feedback amplifier is
one that produces a feedback voltage (Vf ) that is in
phase with the original input signal. As you can see, this
condition is met in the circuit shown in Fig. 14.5. A phase
shift of 180° is produced by the amplifier and a further
phase shift of 180° is introduced by feedback network.
Consequently, the signal is shifted by 360° and fed to the
input i.e., feedback voltage is in phase with the input
signal. Positive
(i) We note that the circuit shown in Fig. FN is producing Feedback
oscillations in the output. However, this circuit has an Amplifier
input signal. This is inconsistent with our definition of an
oscillator i.e., an oscillator is a circuit that produces
oscillations without any external signal source.

Fig. FNC

121
(ii) When we open the switch S of Fig. FN, we get the circuit shown in Fig. FNC.
This means the input signal (Vin) is removed. However, Vf (which is in phase
with the original signal) is still applied to the input signal. The amplifier will
respond to this signal in the same way that it did to Vin i.e., Vf will be amplified
and sent to the output. The feedback network sends a portion of the output
back to the input. Therefore, the amplifier receives another input cycle and
another output cycle is produced. This process will continue so long as the
amplifier is turned on. Therefore, the amplifer will produce sinusoidal output with
no external signal source. The following points may be noted carefully :

(a) A transistor amplifer with proper positive feedback will work as an oscillator.
(b) The circuit needs only a quick trigger signal to start the oscillations. Once
the
oscillations have started, no external signal source is needed.
(c) In order to get continuous undamped output from the circuit, the following
condition must be met :
mv Av= 1
voltage gain of amplifer without
where Av= feedback
mv= feedback fraction

This relation is called Barkhausen criterion.

Colpitt’s Oscillator
Fig. CO shows a Colpitt's oscillator. It uses two capacitors and placed across a
common inductor L and the centre of the two capacitors is tapped. The tank
circuit is made up of C1, C2 and L. The frequency of oscillations is determined
by the values of C1, C2 and L and is given by ;
1
f = 2 Π LCT ....(i)

C 1 C2
where CT =
C1 + C2

122
 Fig. CO

Note that C1 − C2 − L is also the feedback circuit that produces a phase shift of 180°.

Circuit operation. When the circuit is turned on, the capacitors C1 and C2 are
charged. The capacitors discharge through L, setting up oscillations of frequency
determined by exp. (i). The output voltage of the amplifier appears across C1 and
feedback volt-
age is developed across C2. The voltage across it is 180° out of phase with the
voltage developed across C1 (Vout) as shown in Fig FC. It is easy to see that
voltage fed back (voltage across C2 ) to the transistor provides positive feedback.
A phase shift of 180° is produced by the transistor and a further phase shift of 180°
is pro
duced by C1 − C2 voltage divider. In this way, feedback is properly phased to
produce continuous undamped oscillation.

Fig .FC

Feedback fraction mν. The amount of feedback voltage in Colpitt’s

oscillator depends upon feedback fraction mν of the circuit. For this circuit,
Vf X c2 C 1

Feedback fraction,
V X
mν = out = c1 = C2
C1
C
or mν = 2

123
Example . Determine the (i) operating frequency and (ii) feedback fraction for
Colpitt's oscillator shown in Fig.COE
Solution.
(i) Operating Frequency. The operating frequency of the circuit is always equal
to the resonant frequency of the feedback network. As noted previously, the
capacitors C1 and C2 are in series.
∴ CT = CC = 0.001× 0.01 = 9.09 × 10−4 μF
1 2

C1 + C2 0.001+ 0.01
−12
= 909 × 10 F
−6
L = 15 μH = 15 × 10 H
1
∴ Operating frequency, f = 2π LC
T
1
−6 −12
= 2π 15 × 10 × 909 × 10 Hz
3
= 1361 × 10 Hz = 1361 kHz
(ii) Feedback fraction
C
mv = 1 = 0.001 = 0.1

C2 0.01
The RF choke decouples any ac signal on the power lines from affecting the output
signal.
Referring to Fig. CO above, it is clear that C1 and C2 are in series. Therefore, total
capacitance CT is given by;

= C 1 C2 T
C1 C2

Referring to Fig. CO, the circulating current for the two capacitors is the same.
Futher, capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to capacitance.

Fig. COE

124
Example. A 1 mH inductor is available. Choose the capacitor values in a
Colpitts oscillator so that
f = 1 MHz and mv = 0.25.
Solution.
C1
Feedback fraction, mv =
C2
C1
or 0.25 =C ∴ C2 = 4C1
2
1
Now f = 2π LC
T
1 1 –12
or CT = 2 = −3 62
= 25. 3×10 F
L(2 πf ) (1 × 10 ) (2 π × 1 × 10 )
=25.3 pF
C1 C2
∵C
CC 1
2

or C+C =25.3 pF T =C+ C

1 2 1 2

C2
C2
or 1+ C = 25.3
1
C2
or 1+4 = 25.3 ∴ C2 = 25.3 × 5 = 126.5 pF

and C1 =C2/4 = 126.5/4 = 31.6 pF

125
Hartley Oscillator

The Hartley oscillator is similar to Colpitt’s oscillator with minor modifications.

Instead of using tapped capacitors, two inductors L1 and L2 are placed across a
common capacitor C and the centre of the inductors is tapped as shown in Fig.
14.13. The tank circuit is made up of L1, L2 and C. The frequency of oscillations
is determined by the values of L1, L2 and C and is given by :
1
f= 2π CL ...(i)
T

where LT= L1 + L2 + 2M
Here M= mutual inductance between L1 and L2
Note that L1 − L2 − C is also the feedback network that produces a phase shift of 180°.

-+

Circuit operation. When the circuit is turned on,

the capacitor
is charged. When this capacitor is fully charged, it
discharges through
coils L1 and L2 setting up oscillations of frequency .
(i). The output voltage of the amplifier appears
across L1 and Fig. FC
feedback voltage across L2. The voltage across L2
is 180° out of
phase with the voltage developed across L1 (Vout)
as shown in Fig FC.
It is easy to see that voltage fedback (i.e., voltage
across L2) to
the transistor provides positive feedback. A phase
shift of 180° is
produced by the transistor and a further phase shift

126
 of 180° is
produced by L1 − L2 voltage divider. In this way,
feedback is properly phased to produce
continuous undamped oscillations.

Feedback fraction m v. In Hartley oscillator, the feedback voltage is across

L2 and output volt-age is across L1.
XL
Vf 2 L2
V X
∴ Feedback fraction, mν = out = L1 = L1
L2
or mν =
L 1
Example Calculate the (i) operating frequency and (ii) feedback fraction for Hartley oscillator
shown in Fig. HO below. The mutual inductance between the coils, M = 20 μH.
Solution.
(i) L1 =1000 μH ;L2 = 100 μH ; M = 20 μH
∴ Total inductance, LT =L1 + L2 + 2M
−6
=1000 + 100 + 2 × 20 = 1140 μH = 1140 × 10 H
−12
Capacitance, C =20 pF = 20 × 10 F

Fig.HO

∴ Operating frequency, f = 1 = 1 Hz
−6 −12
2π LT C 2π 1140 × 10 × 20 × 10
3
= 1052 × 10 Hz = 1052 kHz
(ii) Feedback fraction, m = L2 = 100 μH = 0.1
v
L1 1000 μH
Example A 1 pF capacitor is available. Choose the inductor values in a Hartley oscillator so
that f = 1 MHz and mv = 0.2.
Solution.
L2
Feedback fraction, mv = L1

127
 L2
or ∴ L1 = 5L2
0.2 = L1
1
Now f = 2π LTC
1 1
or L = C (2 π f ) 2 = (1 × 10 − 12 ) (2 π × 1 × 10 6 )2
T

–3
= 25.3 × 10 H = 25.3 mH
or L1 + L2 =25.3 mH (∵ LT = L1 + L2)
or 5L2 + L2 =25.3 ∴ L2 = 25.3/6 = 4.22 mH
and
L1 =5 L2 = 5 × 4.22 = 21.1 mH

Principle of Phase Shift Oscillators

One desirable feature of an oscillator is that it should feed back energy of
correct phase to the tank circuit to overcome the losses occurring in it. In the
oscillator circuits discussed so far, the tank circuit employed inductive (L) and
capacitive (C) elements. In such circuits, a phase shift of 180º was obtained
due to inductive or capacitive coupling and a further phase shift of 180º was
obtained due to transistor properties. In this way, energy supplied to the tank
circuit was in phase with the generated oscillations. The oscillator circuits
employing L-C elements have two general drawbacks. Firstly, they suffer from
frequency instability and poor waveform. Secondly, they cannot be used for
very low frequencies because they become too much bulky and expensive.

Good frequency stability and waveform can be obtained from oscillators

employing resistive and capacitive elements. Such amplifiers are called R-C or
phase shift oscillators and have the additional advantage that they can be used
for very low frequencies. In a phase shift oscillator, a phase shift of 180º is
obtained with a phase shift circuit instead of inductive or capacitive coupling. A
further phase shift of 180º is introduced due to the transistor properties. Thus,
energy supplied back to the tank circuit is assured of correct phase.

Phase shift circuit. A phase-shift circuit essentially consists of an R-C network.

Fig. PSC (i) shows a single section of RC network. From the elementary theory
of electrical engineering, it can be shown that alternating voltage V across R
o
leads the applied voltage V1 by φ . The value of φ depends upon the values of
R and C. If resistance R is varied, the value of φ also changes. If R were
o
reduced to zero, V will lead V1 by 90 i.e. φ = 90º. However,

128
adjusting R to zero would be impracticable because it would lead to no voltage
across R.
Therefore, in practice, R is varied to such a value that makes V′ to lead V by
60º.
1 1

Fig. PSC
Fig. PSC (ii) shows the three sections of RC network. Each section produces a
phase shift of 60º. Consequently, a total phase shift of 180º is produced i.e.
voltage V2 leads the voltage V1 by 180º.

Phase Shift Oscillator

Fig.PSO below shows the circuit of a phase shift oscillator. It consists of a
conventional single transistor amplifier and a RC phase shift network. The
phase shift network consists of three sections R1C1, R2C2 and R3C3. At some
particular frequency f0, the phase shift in each RC section is 60º so that the total
phase-shift produced by the RC network is 180º. The frequency of oscillations
is given by :

1
f0 = 2π RC 6 ...(i)

where R1 = R2 = R3 = R
C1 = C2 = C3 = C

Fig. PSO

129
Circuit operation. When the circuit is switched on, it produces oscillations of
frequency deter-mined by exp. (i). The output E0 of the amplifier is fed back to
RC feedback network. This network produces a phase shift of 180º and a
voltage Ei appears at its output which is applied to the transistor amplifier.

Obviously, the feedback fraction m = Ei /E0. The feedback phase is correct. A

phase shift of 180º is produced by the transistor amplifier. A further phase shift
of 180º is produced by the RC network. As a result, the phase shift around the
entire loop is 360º.

Advantages

(i) It does not require transformers or inductors.

(ii) It can be used to produce very low frequencies.

(iii) The circuit provides good frequency stability.

Disadvantages

(i) It is difficult for the circuit to start oscillations as the feedback is generally small.
(ii) The circuit gives small output.

Example In the phase shift oscillator shown in Fig. PSO, R1 = R2 = R3 = 1MΩ

and C1 = C2 = C3 = 68 pF. At what frequency does the circuit oscillate ?
Solution. 6
R = R = R = R = 1 MΩ = 10 Ω
2 −12
C= C 1 = C 3= C = 68 pF = 68 × 10 F
Frequency of 1 2 3

oscillations is
1
fo=
2π RC 6
1
6 −12
= 2π × 10 × 68 × 10 6 Hz
= 954 Hz

Example A phase shift oscillator uses 5 pF capacitors. Find the value of R to

produce a frequency of 800 kHz.
Solution.
1
fo = 2π RC 6

130
 1 1
3 −12
or R =2 π f C 6 = 2π × 800 × 10 × 5 × 10 × 6
o

3
= 16.2 × 10 Ω = 16.2 kΩ

Wien Bridge Oscillator

The Wien-bridge oscillator is the standard oscillator circuit for all frequencies in
the range of 10 Hz to about 1 MHz. It is the most frequently used type of audio
oscillator as the output is free from circuit fluctuations and ambient temperature.
Fig. WBO below shows the circuit of Wien bridge oscillator. It is essentially a
two-stage amplifier with R-C bridge circuit. The bridge circuit has the arms
R1C1,

R3, R2C2 and tungsten lamp Lp. Resistances R 3 and Lp are used to stabilise the
amplitude of the output. The transistor T1 serves as an oscillator and amplifier
while the other transistor T2 serves as an inverter (i.e. to produce a phase shift
of 180º). The circuit uses positive and negative feedbacks. The positive
feedback is through R1C1, C2R 2 to the transistor T1. The negative feedback is
through the voltage divider to the input of transistor T2. The frequency of
oscillations is determined by the series element R1C1 and parallel element R2C2
of the bridge.

1
f = CRC
1 2
2π R1 2

If R1 = R2 = R
and C1 = C2 = C, then,

f = 1...(i)
2π RC

131
 Fig. WBO

When the circuit is started, bridge circuit produces oscillations of frequency

determined by exp. (i). The two transistors produce a total phase shift of 360º
so that proper positive feedback is ensured. The negative feedback in the circuit
ensures constant output. This is achieved by the temperature sensitive tungsten
lamp Lp. Its resistance increases with current. Should the amplitude of output
tend to increase, more current would provide more negative feedback. The
result is that the output would return to original value. A reverse action would
take place if the output tends to decrease.

Advantages

(i) It gives constant output.

(ii) The circuit works quite easily.

(iii) The overall gain is high because of two transistors.

(iv) The frequency of oscillations can be easily changed by using a potentiometer.

Disadvantages

(i) The circuit requires two transistors and a large number of components.

(ii) It cannot generate very high frequencies.

132
Example In the Wien bridge oscillator shown in Fig. WBO above, R1 = R2 = 220
kΩ and C1 = C2 = 250 pF. Determine the frequency of oscillations.
Solution. 3
R =R = R = 220 kΩ = 220 × 10 Ω
1 2
−12
C =C = C = 250 pF = 250 × 10 F
1 2

1
Frequency of oscillations, f = 2π RC
1
= 2π × 220 × 10 3 × 250 × 10−12 Hz
=2892 Hz

133
UNIT 4 IDENTIFYING SPECIAL SOLID STATE DEVICES
Introduction:
Solid state devices are circuits or devices built using solid materials. In this unit you
will look at solid state devices and their applications. You will learn how for instance
light is produced in a light emitting diode or a laser diode.

Unit Outcomes: At the end of this unit you should be able to

1 Identify Light Emitting Diodes
2 Identify Laser Diode
3 Identify Unijunction Transistor
4 Identify thyristors
LIGHT EMITTING DIODES

Light Emitting Diodes or LED´s, are among the most widely used of all the different
types of semiconductor diodes available today and are commonly used in TV’s and
colour displays.

They are the most visible type of diode, that emit a fairly narrow bandwidth of either
visible light at different coloured wavelengths, invisible infra-red light for remote
controls or laser type light when a forward current is passed through them.

The “Light Emitting Diode” or LED as it is more commonly called, is basically just a
specialised type of diode as they have very similar electrical characteristics to a PN
junction diode. This means that an LED will pass current in its forward direction but
block the flow of current in the reverse direction.

Light emitting diodes are made from a very thin layer of fairly heavily doped
semiconductor material and depending on the semiconductor material used and
the amount of doping, when forward biased an LED will emit a coloured light at a
particular spectral wavelength.

When the diode is forward biased, electrons from the semiconductors conduction
band recombine with holes from the valence band releasing sufficient energy to
produce photons which emit a monochromatic (single colour) of light. Because of this
thin layer a reasonable number of these photons can leave the junction and radiate
away producing a coloured light output. Fig LC below showing LED construction.

134
 Fig LC LED Construction

Then we can say that when operated in a forward biased direction Light Emitting
Diodes are semiconductor devices that convert electrical energy into light energy.

The construction of a Light Emitting Diode is very different from that of a normal
signal diode. The PN junction of an LED is surrounded by a transparent, hard plastic
epoxy resin hemispherical shaped shell or body which protects the LED from both
vibration and shock.

Surprisingly, an LED junction does not actually emit that much light so the epoxy
resin body is constructed in such a way that the photons of light emitted by the
junction are reflected away from the surrounding substrate base to which the diode is
attached and are focused upwards through the domed top of the LED, which itself
acts like a lens concentrating the amount of light. This is why the emitted light
appears to be brightest at the top of the LED.

However, not all LEDs are made with a hemispherical shaped dome for their epoxy
shell. Some indication LEDs have a rectangular or cylindrical shaped construction
that has a flat surface on top or their body is shaped into a bar or arrow. Generally,
all LED’s are manufactured with two legs protruding from the bottom of the body.

Also, nearly all modern light emitting diodes have their cathode, ( – ) terminal
identified by either a notch or flat spot on the body or by the cathode lead being
shorter than the other as the anode ( + ) lead is longer than the cathode (k).

Unlike normal incandescent lamps and bulbs which generate large amounts of heat
when illuminated, the light emitting diode produces a “cold” generation of light which
leads to high efficiencies than the normal “light bulb” because most of the generated
energy radiates away within the visible spectrum. Because LEDs are solid-state
devices, they can be extremely small and durable and provide much longer lamp life
than normal light sources.

135
Light Emitting Diode Colours
So how does a light emitting diode get its colour. Unlike normal signal diodes
which are made for detection or power rectification, and which are made from
either Germanium or Silicon semiconductor materials, Light Emitting Diodes are
made from exotic semiconductor compounds such as Gallium Arsenide (GaAs),
Gallium Phosphide (GaP), Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP), Silicon Carbide
(SiC) or Gallium Indium Nitride (GaInN) all mixed together at different ratios to
produce a distinct wavelength of colour.

Different LED compounds emit light in specific regions of the visible light spectrum
and therefore produce different intensity levels. The exact choice of the
semiconductor material used will determine the overall wavelength of the photon
light emissions and therefore the resulting colour of the light emitted.

Light Emitting Diodes I-V Characteristics.

Fig SS
Fig.SS above Light Emitting Diode (LED) Schematic symbol and I-V Characteristics
Curves showing the different colours available.
Before a light emitting diode can “emit” any form of light it needs a current to flow
through it, as it is a current dependant device with their light output intensity being
directly proportional to the forward current flowing through the LED.

136
 As the LED is to be connected in a forward bias condition across a power supply it
should be current limited using a series resistor to protect it from excessive
current flow. Never connect an LED directly to a battery or power supply as it will
be destroyed almost instantly because too much current will pass through and
burn it out.

From the table above we can see that each LED has its own forward voltage drop
across the PN junction and this parameter which is determined by the semiconductor
material used, is the forward voltage drop for a specified amount of forward
conduction current, typically for a forward current of 20mA.

In most cases LEDs are operated from a low voltage DC supply, with a series
resistor, RSused to limit the forward current to a safe value from say 5mA for a simple
LED indicator to 30mA or more where a high brightness light output is needed.

A 7-segment LED display provides a very convenient way when decoded properly
of displaying information or digital data in the form of numbers, letters or even alpha-
numerical characters and as their name suggests, they consist of seven individual
LEDs (the segments), within one single display package.Fig. SSD below showing
seven segment display.

In order to produce the required numbers or characters

from 0 to 9 and A to Frespectively, on the display the correct combination of LED
segments need to be illuminated. A standard seven segment LED display
generally has eight input connections, one for each LED segment and one that
acts as a common terminal or connection for all the internal segments.

• The Common Cathode Display (CCD) – In the common cathode display,

all the cathode connections of the LEDs are joined together and the individual
segments are illuminated by application of a HIGH, logic “1” signal.
• The Common Anode Display (CAD) – In the common anode display, all the
anode connections of the LEDs are joined together and the individual segments are
illuminated by connecting the terminals to a LOW, logic “0” signal.

A Typical Seven Segment LED Display.

137
 Fig.SSD

Opto-coupler
Finally, another useful application of light emitting diodes is Opto-coupling. An opto-
coupler or opto-isolator as it is also called, is a single electronic device that consists
of a light emitting diode combined with either a photo-diode, photo-transistor or photo-
triac to provide an optical signal path between an input connection and an output
connection while maintaining electrical isolation between two circuits.

An opto-isolator consists of a light proof plastic body that has a typical breakdown
voltages between the input (photo-diode) and the output (photo-transistor) circuit of
up to 5000 volts. This electrical isolation is especially useful where the signal from
a low voltage circuit such as a battery powered circuit, computer or microcontroller,
is required to operate or control another external circuit operating at a potentially
dangerous mains voltage.

Photo-diode and Photo-transistor Opto-couplers

Fig DOI

138
The two components used in an opto-isolator, an optical transmitter such as an infra-
red emitting Gallium Arsenide LED and an optical receiver such as a photo-transistor
are closely optically coupled and use light to send signals and/or information between
its input and output. This allows information to be transferred between circuits without
an electrical connection or common ground potential.

Opto-isolators are digital or switching devices, so they transfer either “ON-OFF”

control signals or digital data. Analogue signals can be transferred by means of
frequency or pulse-width modulation.Refer fig DOI.

The LASER diode

is of prime importance in Optical memories, Fiber optic communications, Military
applications,Laser Surgical procedures, CD players, Printers etc. Various forms
of lasers like Gallium Arsenide laser, Helium Neon laser, Carbon dioxide laser etc
are used in various applications. CD players use laser technology to read the
optically recorded data in the form of Bits and Pits on the CD.

Fig LD
LASER is a narrow beam of photons emitted by specially made laser diodes. Laser
Diode is similar to an ordinary LED but it generates a beam of high intensity light. A
laser is a device in which a number of atoms vibrate to produce a beam of radiation in
which all the waves have single wavelength and are in phase with each other. Fig LD
showing light from laser diode.

Fig LDC showing light propagation from different sources.

139
Laser light is and can be focused as a pencil beam. The beam of a typical laser has
4x0.6mmMonochromaticwidening at a distance of 15 meters. Like an LED, laser
diode converts electrical energy into light energy.

Inversion Electronics Semiconductor or Injection Laser

How it Works
In these Lasers, a population of electron-hole pairs is produced by applying a voltage
of the laser diode has polished ends so that the emitted photons and all the photons
in the beam are coherent. The photons thus generated are in phase with the previous
photons across its pn junction. Laser beam is then available from the semiconductor
region. The pn junction. This results in a pencil beam.

Fig LDL showing how light is produced in laser.

Applications of Laser

Laser diodes can be switched on and off at frequencies as high as 1GHz, making them
ideal in Telecommunication applications. Since laser generates heat on hitting the
body tissue, it is an ideal solution to heal sensitive parts like Retina of eye and brain.
Laser can be used to pinpoint the lesions so that nearby tissues are not affected as in the
case of surgery.

Fig LDI showing diode image.

140
A Word of Caution

Laser is a high intensity penetrating beam and is extremely dangerous when

focused on to the eye. Low cost Laser pointers are now available in the market and
some people handle them carelessly and may even give to children to play with. A
Laser pointer with output power higher than 5mW is harmful. Take care while
handling laser printers.

141
Identify Unijunction Transistor
The Unijunction Transistor does not belong to the thyristor family because it only has
a single pn junction.
The UJT is a three-terminal device whose basic construction is shown below in Fig
UJT

The Unijunction Transistor or UJT for short, is another solid state three terminal
device that can be used in gate pulse, timing circuits and trigger generator
applications to switch and control either thyristors and triacs for AC power control type
applications.

Like diodes, unijunction transistors are constructed from separate P-type and N-type
semiconductor materials forming a single (hence its name Uni-Junction) PN-junction
within the main conducting N-type channel of the device.

Although the Unijunction Transistor has the name of a transistor, its switching
characteristics are very different from those of a conventional bipolar or field effect
transistor as it cannot be used to amplify a signal but instead is used as a ON-OFF
switching transistor. UJT’s have unidirectional conductivity and negative impedance
characteristics acting more like a variable voltage divider during breakdown.

Like N-channel FET’s, the UJT consists of a single solid piece of N-type
semiconductor material forming the main current carrying channel with its two
outer connections marked as Base 2 ( B2 ) and Base 1 ( B1 ). The third connection,
confusingly marked as the Emitter ( E ) is located along the channel. The emitter
terminal is represented by an arrow pointing from the P-type emitter to the N-type
base.

The Emitter rectifying p-n junction of the unijunction transistor is formed by fusing the
P-type material into the N-type silicon channel. However, P-channel UJT’s with an N-
type Emitter terminal are also available but these are little used.

The Emitter junction is positioned along the channel so that it is closer to terminal
B2than B1. An arrow is used in the UJT symbol which points towards the base
indicating that the Emitter terminal is positive and the silicon bar is negative material.
Below shows the symbol, construction, and equivalent circuit of the UJT.

142
Unijunction Transistor Symbol and Construction

Fig UJT
Notice that the symbol for the unijunction transistor looks very similar to that of the
junction field effect transistor or JFET, except that it has a bent arrow representing the
Emitter( E ) input. While similar in respect of their ohmic channels, JFET’s and UJT’s
operate very differently and should not be confused.

So how does it work? We can see from the equivalent circuit above, that the N-type
channel basically consists of two resistors RB2 and RB1 in series with an equivalent
(ideal) diode, D representing the p-n junction connected to their center point. This
Emitter p-n junction is fixed in position along the ohmic channel during manufacture
and can therefore not be changed.

Resistance RB1 is given between the Emitter, E and terminal B1, while resistance RB2 is
given between the Emitter, E and terminal B2. As the physical position of the p-n
junction is closer to terminal B2 than B1 the resistive value of RB2 will be less than RB1.

The total resistance of the silicon bar (its Ohmic resistance) will be dependent upon
the semiconductors actual doping level as well as the physical dimensions of the N-
type silicon channel but can be represented by RBB. If measured with an ohmmeter,
this static resistance would typically measure somewhere between about 4kΩ and
10kΩ’s for most common UJT’s such as the 2N1671, 2N2646 or the 2N2647.

These two series resistances produce a voltage divider network between the two
base terminals of the unijunction transistor and since this channel stretches
from B2 to B1, when a voltage is applied across the device, the potential at any point
along the channel will be in proportion to its position between terminals B2 and B1. The
level of the voltage gradient therefore depends upon the amount of supply voltage.

When used in a circuit, terminal B1 is connected to ground and the Emitter serves as
the input to the device. Suppose a voltage VBB is applied across the UJT
between B2 and B1 so that B2 is biased positive relative to B1. With zero Emitter input

143
applied, the voltage developed across RB1 (the lower resistance) of the
resistive voltage divider can be calculated as:

Unijunction Transistor RB1 Voltage

For a unijunction transistor, the resistive ratio of RB1 to RBB shown above is called the
intrinsic stand-off ratio and is given the Greek symbol: η (eta). Typical standard
values of η range from 0.5 to 0.8 for most common UJT’s.

If a small positive input voltage which is less than the voltage developed across
resistance, RB1 ( ηVBB ) is now applied to the Emitter input terminal, the diode p-n
junction is reverse biased, thus offering a very high impedance and the device does
not conduct. The UJT is switched “OFF” and zero current flows.

However, when the Emitter input voltage is increased and becomes greater
than VRB1 (orηVBB + 0.7V, where 0.7V equals the p-n junction diode volt drop) the p-n
junction becomes forward biased and the unijunction transistor begins to conduct. The
result is that Emitter current, ηIE now flows from the Emitter into the Base region.

The effect of the additional Emitter current flowing into the Base reduces the resistive
portion of the channel between the Emitter junction and the B1 terminal. This
reduction in the value of RB1 resistance to a very low value means that the Emitter
junction becomes even more forward biased resulting in a larger current flow. The
effect of this results in a negative resistance at the Emitter terminal.

Likewise, if the input voltage applied between the Emitter and B1 terminal decreases
to a value below breakdown, the resistive value of RB1 increases to a high value. Then
Unijunction Transistor can be thought of as a voltage breakdown device.

So we can see that the resistance presented by RB1 is variable and is dependant on
the value of Emitter current, IE. Then forward biasing the Emitter junction with respect
toB1 causes more current to flow which reduces the resistance between the Emitter,
E andB1.

In other words, the flow of current into the UJT’s Emitter causes the resistive value
ofRB1 to decrease and the voltage drop across it, VRB1 must also decrease, allowing
more current to flow producing a negative resistance condition.

144
Unijunction Transistor Applications
Now that we know how a unijunction transistor works, what can they be used for. The
most common application of a unijunction transistor is as a triggering device
for SCR’s and TRIACs but other UJT applications include sawtoothed generators,
simple oscillators, phase control, and timing circuits. The simplest of all UJT circuits is
the Relaxation Oscillator producing non-sinusoidal waveforms.

In a basic and typical UJT relaxation oscillator circuit, the Emitter terminal of the
unijunction transistor is connected to the junction of a series connected resistor and
capacitor, RC circuit as shown below.

Unijunction Transistor Relaxation Oscillator

Fig RO showing ujt as a relaxation oscillator.

When a voltage (Vs) is firstly applied, the unijunction transistor is “OFF” and the
capacitor C1 is fully discharged but begins to charge up exponentially through
resistorR3. As the Emitter of the UJT is connected to the capacitor, when the
charging voltageVc across the capacitor becomes greater than the diode volt drop
value, the p-n junction behaves as a normal diode and becomes forward biased
triggering the UJT into conduction. The unijunction transistor is “ON”. At this point the
Emitter to B1 impedance collapses as the Emitter goes into a low impedance
saturated state with the flow of Emitter current through R1 taking place.

As the ohmic value of resistor R1 is very low, the capacitor discharges rapidly through
the UJT and a fast rising voltage pulse appears across R1. Also, because the
capacitor discharges more quickly through the UJT than it does charging up through
resistor R3, the discharging time is a lot less than the charging time as the capacitor
discharges through the low resistance UJT.

145
When the voltage across the capacitor decreases below the holding point of the p-n
junction ( VOFF ), the UJT turns “OFF” and no current flows into the Emitter junction
so once again the capacitor charges up through resistor R3 and this charging and
discharging process between VON and VOFF is constantly repeated while there is a
supply voltage, Vs applied.

UJT Oscillator Waveforms

Fig RO showing input and output waveforms.

Then we can see that the unijunction oscillator continually switches “ON” and “OFF”
without any feedback. The frequency of operation of the oscillator is directly affected
by the value of the charging resistance R3, in series with the capacitor C1 and the
value of η. The output pulse shape generated from the Base1 (B1) terminal is that of
a sawtooth waveform and to regulate the time period, you only have to change the
ohmic value of resistance, R3 since it sets the RC time constant for charging the
capacitor.

The time period, T of the sawtoothed waveform will be given as the charging time
plus the discharging time of the capacitor. As the discharge time, τ1 is generally
very short in comparison to the larger RC charging time, τ2 the time period of
oscillation is more or less equivalent to T ≅ τ2. The frequency of oscillation is
therefore given by ƒ = 1/T.

UJT Oscillator Example No1

The data sheet for a 2N2646 Unijunction Transistor gives the intrinsic stand-off
ratio ηas 0.65. If a 100nF capacitor is used to generate the timing pulses, calculate
the timing resistor required to produce an oscillation frequency of 100Hz.

146
1. The timing period is given as:

2. The value of the timing resistor, R3 is calculated as:

Then the value of charging resistor required in this simple example is calculated
as95.3kΩ’s to the nearest preferred value. However, there are certain conditions
required for the UJT relaxation oscillator to operate correctly as the resistive value
of R3 can be too large or too small.

For example, if the value of R3 was too large, (Megohms) the capacitor may not
charge up sufficiently to trigger the Unijunction’s Emitter into conduction but must also
be large enough to ensure that the UJT switches “OFF” once the capacitor has
discharged to below the lower trigger voltage.

Likewise if the value of R3 was too small, (a few hundred Ohms) once triggered the
current flowing into the Emitter terminal may be sufficiently large to drive the device
into its saturation region preventing it from turning “OFF” completely. Either way the
unijunction oscillator circuit would fail to oscillate.

147
Identify THYRISTORS

In many ways the Silicon Controlled Rectifier, SCR or the Thyristor as it is more commonly
known, is similar in construction to the transistor.

It is a multi-layer semiconductor device, hence the “silicon” part of its name. It

requires a gate signal to turn it “ON”, the “controlled” part of the name and once “ON”
it behaves like a rectifying diode, the “rectifier” part of the name. In fact the circuit
symbol for the thyristor suggests that this device acts like a controlled rectifying diode
as seen in fig.TS

Fig.TS
Thyristor Symbol
However, unlike the diode which is a two layer ( P-N ) semiconductor device, or the
transistor which is a three layer ( P-N-P, or N-P-N ) device, the Thyristor is a four
layer ( P-N-P-N ) semiconductor device that contains three PN junctions in series,
and is represented by the symbol as shown below in fig. scr.

Like the diode, the Thyristor is a unidirectional device, that is it will only conduct
current in one direction only, but unlike a diode, the thyristor can be made to operate
as either an open-circuit switch or as a rectifying diode depending upon how the
thyristors gate is triggered. In other words, thyristors can operate only in the
switching mode and cannot be used for amplification.

The silicon controlled rectifier SCR, is one of several power semiconductor devices
along with Triacs (Triode AC’s), Diacs (Diode AC’s) and UJT’s (Unijunction
Transistor) that are all capable of acting like very fast solid state AC switches for
controlling large AC voltages and currents. So for the Electronics student this makes
these very handy solid state devices for controlling AC motors, lamps and for phase
control.

148
The thyristor is a three-terminal device labelled: “Anode”, “Cathode” and “Gate” and
consisting of three PN junctions which can be switched “ON” and “OFF” at an extremely
fast rate, or it can be switched “ON” for variable lengths of time during half cycles to
deliver a selected amount of power to a load. The operation of the thyristor can be best
explained by assuming it to be made up of two transistors connected back-to-back as a
pair of complementary regenerative switches as shown.

A Thyristors Two Transistor Analogy

Fig.SCR

The two transistor equivalent circuit shows that the collector current of the NPN
transistor TR2 feeds directly into the base of the PNP transistor TR1, while the
collector current of TR1 feeds into the base of TR2. These two inter-connected
transistors rely upon each other for conduction as each transistor gets its base-emitter
current from the other’s collector-emitter current. So until one of the transistors is
given some base current nothing can happen even if an Anode-to-Cathode voltage is
present.

When the thyristors Anode terminal is negative with respect to the Cathode, the
centreN-P junction is forward biased, but the two outer P-N junctions are reversed
biased and it behaves very much like an ordinary diode. Therefore a thyristor blocks
the flow of reverse current until at some high voltage level the breakdown voltage
point of the two outer junctions is exceeded and the thyristor conducts without the
application of a Gate signal.

This is an important negative characteristic of the thyristor, as Thyristors can be

unintentionally triggered into conduction by a reverse over-voltage as well as high
temperature or a rapidly rising dv/dt voltage such as a spike.

149
If the Anode terminal is made positive with respect to the Cathode, the two outer P-
Njunctions are now forward biased but the centre N-P junction is reverse biased.
Therefore forward current is also blocked. If a positive current is injected into the base
of the NPN transistor TR2, the resulting collector current flows in the base of
transistorTR1. This in turn causes a collector current to flow in the PNP transistor, TR 1
which increases the base current of TR2 and so on.

Fig TI showing image of typical Thyristor

Very rapidly the two transistors force each other to conduct to saturation as they are
connected in a regenerative feedback loop that can not stop. Once triggered into
conduction, the current flowing through the device between the Anode and the
Cathode is limited only by the resistance of the external circuit as the forward
resistance of the device when conducting can be very low at less than 1Ω so the
voltage drop across it and power loss is also low.

Then we can see that a thyristor blocks current in both directions of an AC supply in
its “OFF” state and can be turned “ON” and made to act like a normal rectifying diode
by the application of a positive current to the base of transistor, TR2 which for a silicon
controlled rectifier is called the “Gate” terminal.

The operating voltage-current I-V characteristics curves for the operation of a Silicon
Controlled Rectifier are given as:

150
Thyristor I-V Characteristics Curves

Fig TIV showing voltage against current characteristic graph.

Once the thyristor has been turned “ON” and is passing current in the forward
direction (anode positive), the gate signal looses all control due to the regenerative
latching action of the two internal transistors. The application of any gate signals or
pulses after regeneration is initiated will have no effect at all because the thyristor is
already conducting and fully-ON.

Unlike the transistor, the SCR can not be biased to stay within some active region
along a load line between its blocking and saturation states. The magnitude and
duration of the gate “turn-on” pulse has little effect on the operation of the device
since conduction is controlled internally. Then applying a momentary gate pulse to
the device is enough to cause it to conduct and will remain permanently “ON” even if
the gate signal is completely removed.

Therefore the thyristor can also be thought of as a Bistable Latch having two stable
states “OFF” or “ON”. This is because with no gate signal applied, a silicon controlled
rectifier blocks current in both directions of an AC waveform, and once it is triggered
into conduction, the regenerative latching action means that it cannot be turned “OFF”
again just by using its Gate.

So how do we turn “OFF” the thyristor?. Once the thyristor has self-latched into its
“ON” state and passing a current, it can only be turned “OFF” again by either
removing the supply voltage and therefore the Anode (IA) current completely, or by
reducing its Anode to Cathode current by some external means (the opening of a
switch for example) to below a value commonly called the “minimum holding current”,
I H.

151
The Anode current must therefore be reduced below this minimum holding level long
enough for the thyristors internally latched PN-junctions to recover their blocking state
before a forward voltage is again applied to the device without it automatically self-
conducting. Obviously then for a thyristor to conduct in the first place, its Anode
current, which is also its load current, IL must be greater than its holding current value.
That is IL > IH.

Since the thyristor has the ability to turn “OFF” whenever the Anode current is
reduced below this minimum holding value, it follows then that when used on a
sinusoidal AC supply the SCR will automatically turn itself “OFF” at some value near
to the cross over point of each half cycle, and as we now know, will remain “OFF”
until the application of the next Gate trigger pulse.

Since an AC sinusoidal voltage continually reverses in polarity from positive to

negative on every half-cycle, this allows the thyristor to turn “OFF” at the 180 o zero
point of the positive waveform. This effect is known as “natural commutation” and is a
very important characteristic of the silicon controlled rectifier.

Thyristors used in circuits fed from DC supplies, this natural commutation condition
cannot occur as the DC supply voltage is continuous so some other way to turn
“OFF” the thyristor must be provided at the appropriate time because once triggered it
will remain conducting.

However in AC sinusoidal circuits natural commutation occurs every half cycle. Then
during the positive half cycle of an AC sinusoidal waveform, the thyristor is forward
biased (anode positive) and a can be triggered “ON” using a Gate signal or pulse.
During the negative half cycle, the Anode becomes negative while the Cathode is
positive. The thyristor is reverse biased by this voltage and cannot conduct even if a
Gate signal is present.

So by applying a Gate signal at the appropriate time during the positive half of an AC
waveform, the thyristor can be triggered into conduction until the end of the positive half
cycle. Thus phase control (as it is called) can be used to trigger the thyristor at any point
along the positive half of the AC waveform and one of the many uses of a Silicon
Controlled Rectifier is in the power control of AC systems as shown.

152
Thyristor Phase Control

Fig TPC showing phase control circuit and characteristic graphs.

At the start of each positive half-cycle the SCR is “OFF”. On the application of the
gate pulse triggers the SCR into conduction and remains fully latched “ON” for the
duration of the positive cycle. If the thyristor is triggered at the beginning of the half-
cycle (θ = 0o ), the load (a lamp) will be “ON” for the full positive cycle of the AC
waveform (half-wave rectified AC) at a high average voltage of 0.318 x Vp.

As the application of the gate trigger pulse increases along the half cycle
( θ = 0o to 90o ), the lamp is illuminated for less time and the average voltage delivered
to the lamp will also be proportionally less reducing its brightness.

Then we can use a silicon controlled rectifier as an AC light dimmer as well as in a

variety of other AC power applications such as: AC motor-speed control, temperature
control systems and power regulator circuits, etc.

Thus far we have seen that a thyristor is essentially a half-wave device that conducts
in only the positive half of the cycle when the Anode is positive and blocks current
flow like a diode when the Anode is negative, irrespective of the Gate signal.

But there are more semiconductor devices available which come under the banner of
“Thyristor” that can conduct in both directions, full-wave devices, or can be turned
“OFF” by the Gate signal.

Such devices include “Gate Turn-OFF Thyristors” (GTO), “Static Induction Thyristors”
(SITH), “MOS Controlled Thyristors” (MCT), “Silicon Controlled Switch” (SCS),
“Triode Thyristors” (TRIAC) and “Light Activated Thyristors” (LASCR) to name a few,
with all these devices available in a variety of voltage and current ratings making
them attractive for use in applications at very high power levels.

153
Thyristor Summary
Silicon Controlled Rectifiers known commonly as Thyristors are three-junction
PNPN semiconductor devices which can be regarded as two inter-connected
transistors that can be used in the switching of heavy electrical loads. They can be
latched-“ON” by a single pulse of positive current applied to their Gate terminal and
will remain “ON” indefinitely until the Anode to Cathode current falls below their
minimum latching level.

Static Characteristics of a Thyristor

• Thyristors are semiconductor devices that can operate only in the switching
mode.
• Thyristor are current operated devices, a small Gate current controls a larger
Anode current.
• Conducts current only when forward biased and triggering current applied to the
Gate.
• The thyristor acts like a rectifying diode once it is triggered “ON”.
• Anode current must be greater than holding current to maintain conduction.
• Blocks current flow when reverse biased, no matter if Gate current
is applied.
• Once triggered “ON”, will be latched “ON” conducting even when a gate current
is no longer applied providing Anode current is above latching current.
Thyristors are high speed switches that can be used to replace electromechanical
relays in many circuits as they have no moving parts, no contact arcing or suffer from
corrosion or dirt. But in addition to simply switching large currents “ON” and “OFF”,
thyristors can be made to control the mean value of an AC load current without
dissipating large amounts of power. A good example of thyristor power control is in
the control of electric lighting, heaters and motor speed.

In the next tutorial we will look at some basic Thyristor Circuits and applications
using both AC and DC supplies.
Difference between Diac and Triac

The differences between diac and triac mainly include what are a diac and triac,
construction of triac and diac, working, characteristics and applications.

What are Diac and Triac?

154
We know that, thyristor is a half wave device like a diode and that will supply only half
power. A Triac device comprises of two that are connected in opposite direction but in
parallel but, it is controlled by the same gate. Triac is a 2-dimensional thyristor which
is activated on both halves of the i/p AC cycle using + Ve or -Ve gate pulses. The
three terminals of the Triac are MT1; MT2 & gate terminal (G). Generating pulses are
applied between MT1 and gate terminals. The ‘G’ current to switch 100A from triac is
not more than 50mA or so.

TRIAC
The DIAC is a bi-directional semiconductor switch that can be switched on in both
polarities. The full form of the name DIAC is diode alternating current. Diac is
connected back to back using two zener diodes and the main application of this DIAC
is, it is widely used to help even activating of a TRIAC when used in AC switches,
dimmer applications and starter circuits for florescent lamps.

Difference between Diac and Triac

The differences between diac and triac mainly include construction of triac and diac,
working, characteristics and applications.

What are Diac and Triac?

We know that, thyristor is a half wave device like a diode and that will supply only half
power. A Triac device comprises of two thyristors that are connected in opposite
direction but in parallel but, it is controlled by the same gate. Triac is a 2-dimensional
thyristor which is activated on both halves of the i/p AC cycle using + Ve or -Ve gate
pulses. The three terminals of the Triac are MT1; MT2 & gate terminal (G).
Generating pulses are applied between MT1 and gate terminals. The ‘G’ current to
switch 100A from triac is not more than 50mA or so.

155
 Fig TS showing TRIAC symbol
The DIAC is a bi-directional semiconductor switch that can be switched on in both
polarities. The full form of the name DIAC is diode alternating current. Diac is
connected back to back using two zener diodes and the main application of this DIAC
is, it is widely used to help even activating of a TRIAC when used in AC switches,
dimmer applications and starter circuits for florescent lamps.

Fig DS showing diac symbol

Construction and Operation of DIAC

Basically, the DIAC is a two terminal device; it is a combination of parallel

semiconductor layers that allows activating in one direction.This device is used to
activating device for the triac. The basic construction of diac consist of two terminals
namely MT1 and MT2. When the MT1 terminal is designed +Ve with respect to the
terminal MT2, the transmission will take place to the p-n-p-n structure that is another
four layer diode. The diac can be performing for both the direction. Then symbol of
the diac look like a transistor.

156
Fig DC shows the symbol of and Construction of DIAC
The DIAC is basically a diode that conducts after a ‘break-over’ voltage, selected
VBO, and is exceeded. When the diode surpasses the break-over voltage, then it
goes into the negative dynamic resistance of region. This causes in a reduce in the
voltage drop across the diode with rising voltage. So there is a quick increase in the
current level that is mannered by the device.

The diode leftovers in its transmission state until the current through it falls below,
what is termed the holding current, which is usually chosen by the letters IH. The
holding current, the DIAC reverts to its non-conducting state. Its behavior is
bidirectional and thus its function takes place on both halves of an alternating cycle.

Characteristics of DIAC

V-I characteristics of a diac is shown below

Volt-ampere characteristic of a diac is shown in figure. Its looks like a letter Z due to
symmetrical switching characteristics for each polarity of the applied voltage.

The diac performs like an open-circuit until its switching is exceeded. At that position
the diac performs until its current decreases toward zero. Because of its abnormal
construction, doesn’t switch sharply into a low voltage condition at a low current level
like the triac or SCR, once it goes into transmission,the diac preserves an almost
continuous –Ve resistance characteristic, that means, voltage reduces with the
enlarge in current. This means that, unlike the triac and the SCR, the diac cannot be
estimated to maintain a low voltage drop until its current falls below the level of
holding current.

157
 Characteristics of DIAC
Construction and Operation of TRIAC

Traic is a three terminal device and the terminals of the triac are MT1, MT2 and Gate.
Here the gate terminal is the control terminal. The flow of current in the triac is bi
directional that means current can flow in both the directions. The structure of triac is
shown in the below figure. Here, in the structure of triac, two SCRs are connected in
the anti parallel and it will acts like a switch for both the directions. In the above
structure, the MT1 and gate terminals are near to each other. When the gate terminal
is open, the triac will obstruct the both the polarities of the voltage across the MT1 &
MT2.

Fig BS
Fig BS shows Construction of TRIAC and its equivalent circuit.

158
The V-I characteristics of TRIAC.

The triac is designed with two SCRs which are fabricated in the opposite direction in a
crystal. Operating characteristics of triac in the 1st and 3rd quadrants are similar but
for the direction of flow of current and applied voltage.

The V-I characteristics of triac in the first and third quadrants are basically equal to
those of an SCR in the first quadrant.

It can be functioned with either +Ve or –Ve gate control voltage but in typical
operation generally the gate voltage is +Ve in first quadrant and -Ve in third quadrant.

The supply voltage of the triac to switch ON depends upon the gate current. This
allows utilizing a triac to regulate AC power in a load from zero to full power in a
smooth and permanent manner with no loss in the device control.

Fig VIT showing current voltage Characteristics of TRIAC

Thus, this is all about the difference between diac and triac, working and its
characteristics. After the all the discussion in the above finally we can conclude that
diac and triac are very useful for the applications of power electronics for the purpose
of controlling.

159
UNIT 5 USING FILTERS
Unit Introduction.
A filter is a device that has the ability to separate an aggregate into two or more distinct
products. When it comes to electronic filters, you will note that there are a number of
them and how they operate or function are different
Unit Outcomes : At the end of this unit you will be able to:
1. Use RC/RL Passive filters
2. Use RC/RL Active filters
3. Use filter transformation

The cut-off frequency or ƒc point in a simple RC passive filter can be accurately controlled
using just a single resistor in series with a non-polarized capacitor, and depending upon
which way around they are connected either a low pass or a high pass filter is obtained.
One simple use for these types of filters is in audio amplifier applications or circuits such as
in loudspeaker crossover filters or pre-amplifier tone controls. Sometimes it is necessary to
only pass a certain range of frequencies that do not begin at 0Hz, (DC) or end at some high
frequency point but are within a certain frequency band, either narrow or wide.

PASSIVE FILTERS
The Low Pass Filter

A simple passive RC Low Pass Filter or LPF, can be easily made by connecting
together in series a single Resistor with a single Capacitor as shown below in fig
RCLPF. In this type of filter arrangement the input signal ( Vin ) is applied to the
series combination (both the Resistor and Capacitor together) but the output signal
( Vout ) is taken across the capacitor only.

This type of filter is known generally as a “first-order filter” or “one-pole filter”, why
first-order or single-pole?, because it has only “one” reactive component, the
capacitor, in the circuit.

RC Low Pass Filter Circuit

Fig RCLPF showing low pass filter.

160
As mentioned previously in the Capacitive Reactance tutorial, the reactance of
a capacitor varies inversely with frequency, while the value of the resistor
remains constant as the frequency changes. At low frequencies the capacitive
reactance, ( Xc< ) of the capacitor will be very large compared to the resistive
value of the resistor, R.

This means that the voltage potential, Vc across the capacitor will be much larger
than the voltage drop, Vr developed across the resistor. At high frequencies the
reverse is true with Vc being small and Vr being large due to the change in the
capacitive reactance value.

While the circuit above is that of an RC Low Pass Filter circuit, it can also be
thought of as a frequency dependant variable potential divider circuit similar to the
one we looked at in the Resistors tutorial. In that tutorial we used the following
equation to calculate the output voltage for two single resistors connected in series.

We also know that the capacitive reactance of a capacitor in an AC circuit is

given as:

Opposition to current flow in an AC circuit is called impedance, symbol Z and for a

series circuit consisting of a single resistor in series with a single capacitor, the
circuit impedance is calculated as:

Then by substituting our equation for impedance above into the resistive potential
divider equation gives us:

161
RC Potential Divider Equation

So, by using the potential divider equation of two resistors in series and
substituting for impedance we can calculate the output voltage of an RC Filter for
any given frequency.

Low Pass Filter Example No1

A Low Pass Filter circuit consisting of a resistor of 4k7Ω in series with a capacitor
of47nF is connected across a 10v sinusoidal supply. Calculate the output voltage (
Vout ) at a frequency of 100Hz and again at frequency of 10,000Hz or 10kHz.

Voltage Output at a Frequency of 100Hz.

Voltage Output at a Frequency of 10,000Hz (10kHz).

162
Frequency Response
We can see from the results above, that as the frequency applied to the RC network
increases from 100Hz to 10kHz, the voltage dropped across the capacitor and
therefore the output voltage ( Vout ) from the circuit decreases from 9.9v to 0.718v.

By plotting the networks output voltage against different values of input frequency,
theFrequency Response Curve or Bode Plot function of the low pass filter
circuit can be found, as shown below in fig FR.

Frequency Response of a 1st-order Low Pass Filter

Fig FR showing frequency response.

The Bode Plot shows the Frequency Response of the filter to be nearly flat for low
frequencies and all of the input signal is passed directly to the output, resulting in a
gain of nearly 1, called unity, until it reaches its Cut-off Frequency point ( ƒc ).
This is because the reactance of the capacitor is high at low frequencies and blocks
any current flow through the capacitor.

163
After this cut-off frequency point the response of the circuit decreases to zero at a
slope of -20dB/ Decade or (-6dB/Octave) “roll-off”. Note that the angle of the slope,
this -20dB/ Decade roll-off will always be the same for any RC combination.

Any high frequency signals applied to the low pass filter circuit above this cut-off
frequency point will become greatly attenuated, that is they rapidly decrease. This
happens because at very high frequencies the reactance of the capacitor becomes
so low that it gives the effect of a short circuit condition on the output terminals
resulting in zero output.

Then by carefully selecting the correct resistor-capacitor combination, we can create

a RC circuit that allows a range of frequencies below a certain value to pass through
the circuit unaffected while any frequencies applied to the circuit above this cut-off
point to be attenuated, creating what is commonly called a Low Pass Filter.

For this type of “Low Pass Filter” circuit, all the frequencies below this cut-
off, ƒc point that are unaltered with little or no attenuation and are said to be in the
filters Pass bandzone. This pass band zone also represents the Bandwidth of the
filter. Any signal frequencies above this point cut-off point are generally said to be
in the filters Stop band zone and they will be greatly attenuated.

This “Cut-off”, “Corner” or “Breakpoint” frequency is defined as being the frequency

point where the capacitive reactance and resistance are equal, R = Xc = 4k7Ω.
When this occurs the output signal is attenuated to 70.7% of the input signal value
or -3dB (20 log (Vout/Vin)) of the input. Although R = Xc, the output is not half of the
input signal. This is because it is equal to the vector sum of the two and is therefore
0.707 of the input.

As the filter contains a capacitor, the Phase Angle ( Φ ) of the output

signal LAGS behind that of the input and at the -3dB cut-off frequency ( ƒc ) is -
45o out of phase. This is due to the time taken to charge the plates of the capacitor
as the input voltage changes, resulting in the output voltage (the voltage across the
capacitor) “lagging” behind that of the input signal. The higher the input frequency
applied to the filter the more the capacitor lags and the circuit becomes more and
more “out of phase”.

The cut-off frequency point and phase shift angle can be found by using the
following equation:

164
Cut-off Frequency and Phase Shift

Then for our simple example of a “Low Pass Filter” circuit above, the cut-off
frequency (ƒc) is given as 720Hz with an output voltage of 70.7% of the input
voltage value and a phase shift angle of -45o.

Second-order Low Pass Filter

Thus far we have seen that simple first-order RC low pass filters can be made by
connecting a single resistor in series with a single capacitor. This single-pole
arrangement gives us a roll-off slope of -20dB/decade attenuation of frequencies
above the cut-off point at ƒ-3dB . However, sometimes in filter circuits this -
20dB/decade (-6dB/octave) angle of the slope may not be enough to remove an
unwanted signal then two stages of filtering can be used as shown fig solpf.

Second-order Low Pass Filter

Fig. solpf showing second order low pass filter.

The above circuit uses two passive first-order low pass filters connected or
“cascaded” together to form a second-order or two-pole filter network. Therefore we
can see that a first-order low pass filter can be converted into a second-order type
by simply adding an additional RC network to it and the more RC stages we add the
higher becomes the order of the filter.

165
If a number ( n ) of such RC stages are cascaded together, the resulting RC
filter circuit would be known as an “nth-order” filter with a roll-off slope of “n x -
20dB/decade”.

So for example, a second-order filter would have a slope of -40dB/decade (-

12dB/octave), a fourth-order filter would have a slope of -80dB/decade
(-24dB/octave) and so on. This means that, as the order of the filter is increased,
the roll-off slope becomes steeper and the actual stop band response of the filter
approaches its ideal stop band characteristics.

Second-order filters are important and widely used in filter designs because when
combined with first-order filters any higher-order nth-value filters can be designed
using them. For example, a third order low-pass filter is formed by connecting in
series or cascading together a first and a second-order low pass filter.

But there is a downside too cascading together RC filter stages. Although there is
no limit to the order of the filter that can be formed, as the order increases, the gain
and accuracy of the final filter declines.

When identical RC filter stages are cascaded together, the output gain at the
required cut-off frequency ( ƒc ) is reduced (attenuated) by an amount in relation to
the number of filter stages used as the roll-off slope increases. We can define the
amount of attenuation at the selected cut-off frequency using the following formula.

Passive Low Pass Filter Gain at ƒc

where "n" is the number of filter stages.

So for a second-order passive low pass filter the gain at the corner frequency ƒc will
be equal to 0.7071 x 0.7071 = 0.5Vin (-6dB), a third-order passive low pass filter
will be equal to 0.353Vin (-9dB), fourth-order will be 0.25Vin (-12dB) and so on. The
corner frequency, ƒc for a second-order passive low pass filter is determined by the
resistor/capacitor (RC) combination and is given as.

166
2nd-Order Filter Corner Frequency

In reality as the filter stage and therefore its roll-off slope increases, the low pass
filters -3dB corner frequency point and therefore its pass band frequency
changes from its original calculated value above by an amount determined by the
following equation.

2nd-Order Low Pass Filter -3dB Frequency

where ƒc is the calculated cut-off frequency, n is the filter order and ƒ-3dB is the new
- 3dB pass band frequency as a result in the increase of the filters order.

Then the frequency response (bode plot) for a second-order low pass filter assuming
the same -3dB cut-off point would look like:

Frequency Response of a 2nd-order Low Pass Filter

In practice, cascading passive filters together to produce larger-order filters is difficult to

implement accurately as the dynamic impedance of each filter order affects its
neighbouring network. However, to reduce the loading effect we can make the
impedance of each following stage 10x the previous stage, so R2 = 10 x R1 and C2

167
= 1/10th C1. Second-order and above filter networks are generally used in
the feedback circuits of op-amps, making what are commonly known as
Active Filters or as a phase-shift network in RC Oscillator circuits.

Low Pass Filter Summary

So to summarize, the Low Pass Filter has a constant output voltage from D.C.
(0Hz), up to a specified Cut-off frequency, ( ƒc ) point. This cut-off frequency point is
0.707 or-3dB ( dB = -20log Vout/Vin ) of the voltage gain allowed to pass.

The frequency range “below” this cut-off point ƒc is generally known as the Pass
Bandas the input signal is allowed to pass through the filter. The frequency range
“above” this cut-off point is generally known as the Stop Band as the input signal
is blocked or stopped from passing through.

A simple 1st order low pass filter can be made using a single resistor in series with
a single non-polarized capacitor (or any single reactive component) across an input
signal Vin, whilst the output signal Vout is taken from across the capacitor.

The cut-off frequency or -3dB point, can be found using the standard formula, ƒc =
1/(2πRC). The phase angle of the output signal at ƒc and is -45o for a Low Pass
Filter.

The gain of the filter or any filter for that matter, is generally expressed
in Decibels and is a function of the output value divided by its corresponding
input value and is given as:

Applications of passive Low Pass Filters are in audio amplifiers and speaker systems
to direct the lower frequency bass signals to the larger bass speakers or to reduce
any high frequency noise or “hiss” type distortion. When used like this in audio
applications the low pass filter is sometimes called a “high-cut”, or “treble cut” filter.

If we were to reverse the positions of the resistor and capacitor in the circuit so that
the output voltage is now taken from across the resistor, we would have a circuit
that produces an output frequency response curve similar to that of a High Pass
Filter, and this is discussed in the next tutorial.

168
Time Constant
Until now we have been interested in the frequency response of a low pass filter
when subjected to sinusoidal waveform. We have also seen that the filters cut-off
frequency ( ƒc ) is the product of the resistance ( R ) and the capacitance ( C ) in the
circuit with respect to some specified frequency point and that by altering any one of
the two components alters this cut-off frequency point by either increasing it or
decreasing it.

We also know that the phase shift of the circuit lags behind that of the input signal
due to the time required to charge and then discharge the capacitor as the sine
wave changes. This combination of R and C produces a charging and discharging
effect on the capacitor known as its Time Constant ( τ ) of the circuit as seen in the
RC Circuit tutorials giving the filter a response in the time domain.

The time constant, tau (τ), is related to the cut-off frequency ƒc as.

or expressed in terms of the cut-off frequency, ƒc as.

The output voltage, Vout depends upon the time constant and the frequency of
the input signal. With a sinusoidal signal that changes smoothly over time, the
circuit behaves as a simple 1st order low pass filter as we have seen above.

But what if we were to change the input signal to that of a “square wave” shaped
“ON/OFF” type signal that has an almost vertical step input, what would happen to
our filter circuit now. The output response of the circuit would change dramatically
and produce another type of circuit known commonly as an Integrator.

The RC Integrator
The Integrator is basically a low pass filter circuit operating in the time domain
that converts a square wave “step” response input signal into a triangular shaped
waveform output as the capacitor charges and discharges. A Triangular waveform
consists of alternate but equal, positive and negative ramps.

169
As seen below in fig RCIC, if the RC time constant is long compared to the
time period of the input waveform the resultant output waveform will be
triangular in shape and the higher the input frequency the lower will be the
output amplitude compared to that of the input.

The RC Integrator Circuit

Fig. RCIC showing waveforms

This then makes this type of circuit ideal for converting one type of electronic signal
to another for use in wave-generating or wave-shaping circuits.

Fig. Showing low pass filter application

Active Low Pass Filter

In the RC Passive Filter tutorials, we saw how a basic first-order filter circuits, such as the low
pass and the high pass filters can be made using just a single resistor in series with a non-
polarized capacitor connected across a sinusoidal input signal.

170
We also noticed that the main disadvantage of passive filters is that the amplitude of
the output signal is less than that of the input signal, ie, the gain is never greater than
unity and that the load impedance affects the filters characteristics.

With passive filter circuits containing multiple stages, this loss in signal amplitude
called “Attenuation” can become quiet severe. One way of restoring or controlling
this loss of signal is by using amplification through the use of Active Filters.

As their name implies, Active Filters contain active components such as operational
amplifiers, transistors or FET’s within their circuit design. They draw their power from an
external power source and use it to boost or amplify the output signal.

Filter amplification can also be used to either shape or alter the frequency response
of the filter circuit by producing a more selective output response, making the output
bandwidth of the filter more narrower or even wider. Then the main difference
between a “passive filter” and an “active filter” is amplification.

An active filter generally uses an operational amplifier (op-amp) within its design and
in the Operational Amplifier tutorial we saw that an Op-amp has a high input
impedance, a low output impedance and a voltage gain determined by the resistor
network within its feedback loop.

Unlike a passive high pass filter which has in theory an infinite high frequency
response, the maximum frequency response of an active filter is limited to the
Gain/Bandwidth product (or open loop gain) of the operational amplifier being
used. Still, active filters are generally much easier to design than passive filters,
they produce good performance characteristics, very good accuracy with a steep
roll-off and low noise when used with a good circuit design.

Active Low Pass Filter

The most common and easily understood active filter is the Active Low Pass Filter.
Its principle of operation and frequency response is exactly the same as those for the
previously seen passive filter, the only difference this time is that it uses an op-amp
for amplification and gain control. The simplest form of a low pass active filter is to
connect an inverting or non-inverting amplifier, the same as those discussed in the
Op-amp tutorial, to the basic RC low pass filter circuit as shown.

171
First Order Low Pass Filter

Fig folpf
Fig folpf shows first-order low pass active filter.It consists of a passive RC filter stage
providing a low frequency path to the input of a non-inverting operational amplifier.
The amplifier is configured as a voltage-follower (Buffer) giving it a DC gain of
one, Av = +1 or unity gain as opposed to the previous passive RC filter which has a
DC gain of less than unity.

The advantage of this configuration is that the op-amps high input impedance
prevents excessive loading on the filters output while its low output impedance
prevents the filters cut-off frequency point from being affected by changes in the
impedance of the load.

While this configuration provides good stability to the filter, its main disadvantage
is that it has no voltage gain above one. However, although the voltage gain is
unity the power gain is very high as its output impedance is much lower than its
input impedance. If a voltage gain greater than one is required we can use the
following filter circuit.

172
Active Low Pass Filter with Amplification

Fig. alpf
The frequency response of the circuit will be the same as that for the passive RC
filter, except that the amplitude of the output is increased by the pass band
gain, AF of the amplifier. For a non-inverting amplifier circuit, the magnitude of the
voltage gain for the filter is given as a function of the feedback resistor ( R2 ) divided
by its corresponding input resistor ( R1 ) value and is given as:

Therefore, the gain of an active low pass filter as a function of frequency will be:

Gain of a first-order low pass filter

Where:
AF = the pass band gain of the filter, (1 + R2/R1)
ƒ = the frequency of the input signal in Hertz, (Hz)
ƒc = the cut-off frequency in Hertz, (Hz)
Thus, the operation of a low pass active filter can be verified from the frequency
gain equation above as:

173
1. At very low frequencies, ƒ < ƒc

2. At the cut-off frequency, ƒ = ƒc

3. At very high frequencies, ƒ > ƒc

Thus, the Active Low Pass Filter has a constant gain AF from 0Hz to the high
frequency cut-off point, ƒC. At ƒC the gain is 0.707AF, and after ƒC it decreases at a
constant rate as the frequency increases. That is, when the frequency is
increased tenfold (one decade), the voltage gain is divided by 10.

In other words, the gain decreases 20dB (= 20log 10) each time the frequency is
increased by 10. When dealing with filter circuits the magnitude of the pass
band gain of the circuit is generally expressed in decibels or dB as a function of
the voltage gain, and this is defined as:

Magnitude of Voltage Gain in (dB)

Active Low Pass Filter Example No1

Design a non-inverting active low pass filter circuit that has a gain of ten at low
frequencies, a high frequency cut-off or corner frequency of 159Hz and an input
impedance of 10KΩ.

The voltage gain of a non-inverting operational amplifier is given as:

174
Assume a value for resistor R1 of 1kΩ rearranging the formula above gives a value
for R2of

then, for a voltage gain of 10, R1 = 1kΩ and R2 = 9kΩ. However, a 9kΩ resistor
does not exist so the next preferred value of 9k1Ω is used instead.

converting this voltage gain to a decibel dB value gives:

The cut-off or corner frequency (ƒc) is given as being 159Hz with an input
impedance of10kΩ. This cut-off frequency can be found by using the formula:

where ƒc = 159Hz and R = 10kΩ.

then, by rearranging the above formula we can find the value for capacitor C as:

Then the final circuit along with its frequency response is given below in fig.frlpf:

Low Pass Filter Circuit.

Fig frlpf showing frequency response.

175
Frequency Response Curve

Fig frc showing response curve for low pass filter.

If the external impedance connected to the input of the circuit changes, this change
will also affect the corner frequency of the filter (components connected in series or
parallel). One way of avoiding this is to place the capacitor in parallel with the
feedback resistor R2.

The value of the capacitor will change slightly from being 100nF to 110nF to
take account of the 9k1Ω resistor and the formula used to calculate the cut-off
corner frequency is the same as that used for the RC passive low pass filter.

An example of the new Active Low Pass Filter circuit is given as.

Simplified non-inverting amplifier filter circuit

Fig sniafc showing application of low pass filter.

176
Equivalent inverting amplifier filter circuit

Fig eiafc
Applications of Active Low Pass Filters are in audio amplifiers, equalizers or
speaker systems to direct the lower frequency bass signals to the larger bass
speakers or to reduce any high frequency noise or “hiss” type distortion. When used
like this in audio applications the active low pass filter is sometimes called a “Bass
Boost” filter.

Second-order Low Pass Active Filter

As with the passive filter, a first-order low-pass active filter can be converted into a
second-order low pass filter simply by using an additional RC network in the input
path. The frequency response of the second-order low pass filter is identical to that
of the first-order type except that the stop band roll-off will be twice the first-order
filters at 40dB/decade (12dB/octave). Therefore, the design steps required of the
second-order active low pass filter are the same. Fig soalpf below showing circuit to
achieve this.

Second-order Active Low Pass Filter Circuit

Fig soalpf

177
When cascading together filter circuits to form higher-order filters, the overall gain of
the filter is equal to the product of each stage. For example, the gain of one stage
may be 10 and the gain of the second stage may be 32 and the gain of a third stage
may be 100. Then the overall gain will be 32,000, (10 x 32 x 100) as shown below.

Cascading Voltage Gain

Second-order (two-pole) active filters are important because higher-order filters

can be designed using them. By cascading together first and second-order filters,
filters with an order value, either odd or even up to any value can be constructed.
In the next tutorial about filters, we will see that Active High Pass Filters, can be
constructed by reversing the positions of the resistor and capacitor in the circuit.

178
Like the previous active low pass filter circuit, the simplest form of an active high
pass filter is to connect a standard inverting or non-inverting operational amplifier
to the basic RC high pass passive filter circuit as shown in fig fohpf below.

First Order High Pass Filter

Fig fohpf
Technically, there is no such thing as an active high pass filter. Unlike Passive
High Pass Filters which have an “infinite” frequency response, the maximum
pass band frequency response of an active high pass filter is limited by the open-
loop characteristics or bandwidth of the operational amplifier being used, making
them appear as if they are band pass filters with a high frequency cut-off
determined by the selection of op-amp and gain.

In the Operational Amplifier tutorial we saw that the maximum frequency response
of an op-amp is limited to the Gain/Bandwidth product or open loop voltage gain
( A V ) of the operational amplifier being used giving it a bandwidth limitation,
where the closed loop response of the op amp intersects the open loop response.

A commonly available operational amplifier such as the uA741 has a typical “open-
loop” (without any feedback) DC voltage gain of about 100dB maximum reducing at

179
a roll off rate of -20dB/Decade (-6db/Octave) as the input frequency increases. The
gain of the uA741 reduces until it reaches unity gain, (0dB) or its “transition
frequency” ( ƒt ) which is about 1MHz. This causes the op-amp to have a
frequency response curve very similar to that of a first-order low pass filter and this
is shown below in fig frcoa

Frequency response curve of a typical Operational Amplifier.

Fig frcoa showing frequency characteristics of op amp.

Then the performance of a “high pass filter” at high frequencies is limited by this
unity gain crossover frequency which determines the overall bandwidth of the open-
loop amplifier. The gain-bandwidth product of the op-amp starts from around 100kHz
for small signal amplifiers up to about 1GHz for high-speed digital video amplifiers
and op-amp based active filters can achieve very good accuracy and performance
provided that low tolerance resistors and capacitors are used.

Under normal circumstances the maximum pass band required for a closed loop
active high pass or band pass filter is well below that of the maximum open-loop
transition frequency. However, when designing active filter circuits it is important
to choose the correct op-amp for the circuit as the loss of high frequency signals
may result in signal distortion.

Active High Pass Filter

A first-order (single-pole) Active High Pass Filter as its name implies, attenuates
low frequencies and passes high frequency signals. It consists simply of a passive

180
filter section followed by a non-inverting operational amplifier as shown in Fig ahpfa
belowThe frequency response of the circuit is the same as that of the passive
filter, except that the amplitude of the signal is increased by the gain of the
amplifier and for a non-inverting amplifier the value of the pass band voltage gain
is given as 1 + R2/R1, the same as for the low pass filter circuit.

Active High Pass Filter with Amplification

Fig ahpfa
This first-order high pass filter, consists simply of a passive filter followed by a non-
inverting amplifier. The frequency response of the circuit is the same as that of the
passive filter, except that the amplitude of the signal is increased by the gain of the
amplifier.

For a non-inverting amplifier circuit, the magnitude of the voltage gain for the filter
is given as a function of the feedback resistor ( R2 ) divided by its corresponding
input resistor ( R1 ) value and is given as:

Gain for an Active High Pass Filter

Where:
AF = the Pass band Gain of the filter, ( 1 + R2/R1 )

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 ƒ = the Frequency of the Input Signal in Hertz, (Hz)
ƒc = the Cut-off Frequency in Hertz, (Hz)
Just like the low pass filter, the operation of a high pass active filter can be
verified from the frequency gain equation above as:

1. At very low frequencies, ƒ < ƒc

2. At the cut-off frequency, ƒ = ƒc

3. At very high frequencies, ƒ > ƒc

Then, the Active High Pass Filter has a gain AF that increases from 0Hz to the low
frequency cut-off point, ƒC at 20dB/decade as the frequency increases. At ƒC the
gain is0.707AF, and after ƒC all frequencies are pass band frequencies so the filter
has a constant gain AF with the highest frequency being determined by the closed
loop bandwidth of the op-amp.

When dealing with filter circuits the magnitude of the pass band gain of the circuit
is generally expressed in decibels or dB as a function of the voltage gain, and this
is defined as:

Magnitude of Voltage Gain in (dB)

For a first-order filter the frequency response curve of the filter increases by
20dB/decade or 6dB/octave up to the determined cut-off frequency point which is
always at -3dB below the maximum gain value. As with the previous filter circuits, the
lower cut-off or corner frequency ( ƒc ) can be found by using the same formula:

182
The corresponding phase angle or phase shift of the output signal is the same
as that given for the passive RC filter and leads that of the input signal. It is
equal to +45o at the cut-off frequency ƒc value and is given as:

A simple first-order active high pass filter can also be made using an inverting
operational amplifier configuration as well, and an example of this circuit design is
given along with its corresponding frequency response curve. A gain of 40dB has
been assumed for the circuit.The circuit is shown below in fig ioac

Inverting Operational Amplifier Circuit

Fig ioac

183
Frequency Response Curve

Fig. frcopamp showing frequency response of opamp.

Active High Pass Filter Example No1

A first order active high pass filter has a pass band gain of two and a cut-off corner
frequency of 1kHz. If the input capacitor has a value of 10nF, calculate the value of
the cut-off frequency determining resistor and the gain resistors in the feedback
network. Also, plot the expected frequency response of the filter.

With a cut-off corner frequency given as 1kHz and a capacitor of 10nF, the value
of Rwill therefore be:

or 16kΩ’s to the nearest preferred value.

The pass band gain of the filter, AF is given as being, 2.

As the value of resistor, R2 divided by resistor, R1 gives a value of one. Then,

resistor R1must be equal to resistor R2, since the pass band gain, AF = 2. We can
therefore select a suitable value for the two resistors of say, 10kΩ’s each for both
feedback resistors.

184
So for a high pass filter with a cut-off corner frequency of 1kHz, the values
of R and Cwill be, 10kΩ’s and 10nF respectively. The values of the two feedback
resistors to produce a pass band gain of two are given as: R1 = R2 = 10kΩ’s

The data for the frequency response bode plot can be obtained by substituting
the values obtained above over a frequency range from 100Hz to 100kHz into the
equation for voltage gain:

This then will give us the following table of data.

Frequency, ƒ Voltage Gain Gain, (dB)

( Hz ) ( Vo / Vin ) 20log( Vo / Vin )

100 0.20 -14.02

200 0.39 -8.13

500 0.89 -0.97

800 1.25 1.93

1,000 1.41 3.01

185
 3,000 1.90 5.56

5,000 1.96 5.85

10,000 1.99 5.98

50,000 2.00 6.02

100,000 2.00 6.02

The frequency response data from the table above can now be plotted as shown
below. In the stop band (from 100Hz to 1kHz), the gain increases at a rate of
20dB/decade. However, in the pass band after the cut-off frequency, ƒC = 1kHz, the
gain remains constant at 6.02dB. The upper-frequency limit of the pass band is
determined by the open loop bandwidth of the operational amplifier used as we
discussed earlier. Then the bode plot of the filter circuit will look like this.

The Frequency Response Bode-plot for our example.

Fig frbp showing bode plot.

186
Applications of Active High Pass Filters are in audio amplifiers,
equalizers or speaker systems to direct the high frequency signals to the
smaller tweeter speakers or to reduce any low frequency noise or
“rumble” type distortion. When used like this in audio applications the
active high pass filter is sometimes called a “Treble Boost” filter.

Second-order High Pass Active Filter

As with the passive filter, a first-order high pass active filter can be
converted into a second-order high pass filter simply by using an
additional RC network in the input path. The frequency response of the
second-order high pass filter is identical to that of the first-order type
except that the stop band roll-off will be twice the first-order filters at
40dB/decade (12dB/octave). Therefore, the design steps required of the
second-order active high pass filter are the same.

Second-order Active High Pass Filter Circuit

Fig soahpfc showing second order high pass filter

Higher-order high pass active filters, such as third, fourth, fifth, etc are formed simply by
cascading together first and second-order filters. For example, a third order high pass
filter is formed by cascading in series first and second order filters, a fourth-order high
pass filter by cascading two second-order filters together and so on.

Then an Active High Pass Filter with an even order number will consist of only
second-order filters, while an odd order number will start with a first-order filter at the
beginning as shown.

187
Cascading Active High Pass Filters

Fig cahpf

Although there is no limit to the order of a filter that can be formed, as the order of
the filter increases so to does its size. Also, its accuracy declines, that is the
difference between the actual stop band response and the theoretical stop band
response also increases.

If the frequency determining resistors are all equal, R1 = R2 = R3 etc, and the
frequency determining capacitors are all equal, C1 = C2 = C3 etc, then the cut-off
frequency for any order of filter will be exactly the same. However, the overall gain of
the higher-order filter is fixed because all the frequency determining components are
equal.

BANDPASS FILTER
For a low pass filter this pass band starts from 0Hz or DC and continues up to the
specified cut-off frequency point at -3dB down from the maximum pass band gain.
Equally, for a high pass filter the pass band starts from this -3dB cut-off frequency
and continues up to infinity or the maximum open loop gain for an active filter.

However, the Active Band Pass Filter is slightly different in that it is a frequency
selective filter circuit used in electronic systems to separate a signal at one particular
frequency, or a range of signals that lie within a certain “band” of frequencies from
signals at all other frequencies. This band or range of frequencies is set between
two cut-off or corner frequency points labelled the “lower frequency” ( ƒL ) and the
“higher frequency” ( ƒH ) while attenuating any signals outside of these two points.

188
Simple Active Band Pass Filter can be easily made by cascading together a
single Low Pass Filter with a single High Pass Filter as shown.

The cut-off or corner frequency of the low pass filter (LPF) is higher than the cut-off
frequency of the high pass filter (HPF) and the difference between the frequencies at
the -3dB point will determine the “bandwidth” of the band pass filter while attenuating
any signals outside of these points. One way of making a very simple Active Band
Pass Filter is to connect the basic passive high and low pass filters we look at
previously to an amplifying op-amp circuit as shown.

Active Band Pass Filter Circuit

Fig abpfc

This cascading together of the individual low and high pass passive filters produces
a low “Q-factor” type filter circuit which has a wide pass band. The first stage of the
filter will be the high pass stage that uses the capacitor to block any DC biasing from
the source. This design has the advantage of producing a relatively flat asymmetrical
pass band frequency response with one half representing the low pass response
and the other half representing high pass response as shown below in fig HPLP.

189
 Fig HPLP

The higher corner point ( ƒH ) as well as the lower corner frequency cut-off point ( ƒL )
are calculated the same as before in the standard first-order low and high pass filter
circuits. Obviously, a reasonable separation is required between the two cut-off
points to prevent any interaction between the low pass and high pass stages. The
amplifier also provides isolation between the two stages and defines the overall
voltage gain of the circuit.

The bandwidth of the filter is therefore the difference between these upper and
lower -3dB points. For example, suppose we have a band pass filter whose -3dB
cut-off points are set at 200Hz and 600Hz. Then the bandwidth of the filter would be
given as: Bandwidth (BW) = 600 – 200 = 400Hz.

The normalised frequency response and phase shift for an active band pass filter
will be as follows.

190
Active Band Pass Frequency Response

Fig abpfr

While the passive tuned filter circuit shown in Fig abpfc above will work as a band
pass filter, the pass band (bandwidth) can be quite wide and this may be a problem
if we want to isolate a small band of frequencies. Active band pass filter can also be
made using inverting operational amplifier.

So by rearranging the positions of the resistors and capacitors within the filter we can
produce a much better filter circuit as shown in Fig abpfr above.
For an active band pass filter, the lower cut-off -3dB point is given by ƒC1 while the
upper cut-off -3dB point is given byƒC2.

191
Inverting Band Pass Filter Circuit

Fig ibpfc showing inverting band pass filter

This type of band pass filter is designed to have a much narrower pass band. The
centre frequency and bandwidth of the filter is related to the values of R1, R2,
C1 and C2. The output of the filter is again taken from the output of the op-amp. Fig
ibpfc refers.

Multiple Feedback Band Pass Active Filter

We can improve the band pass response of the above circuit by rearranging the
components again to produce an infinite-gain multiple-feedback (IGMF) band pass
filter. This type of active band pass design produces a “tuned” circuit based around a
negative feedback active filter giving it a high “Q-factor” (up to 25) amplitude
response and steep roll-off on either side of its centre frequency. Because the
frequency response of the circuit is similar to a resonance circuit, this center
frequency is referred to as the resonant frequency, ( ƒr ). Consider the circuit below.

192
Infinite Gain Multiple Feedback Active Filter

Fig igmfaf

Fig igmfaf circuit of infinite gain multiple feed-back active filter,

This active band pass filter circuit uses the full gain of the operational amplifier, with
multiple negative feedback applied via resistor, R2 and capacitor C2. Then we can
define the characteristics of the IGMF filter as follows:

We can see then that the relationship between resistors, R1 and R2 determines the
band pass “Q-factor” and the frequency at which the maximum amplitude occurs, the
gain of the circuit will be equal to -2Q2. Then as the gain increases so to does the
selectivity. In other words, high gain – high selectivity.

Active Band Pass Filter Example No1

An active band pass filter that has a voltage gain Av of one (1) and a resonant
frequency,ƒr of 1kHz is constructed using an infinite gain multiple feedback filter
circuit. Calculate the values of the components required to implement the circuit.

Firstly, we can determine the values of the two resistors, R1 and R2 required for the
active filter using the gain of the circuit to find Q as follows.

193
Then we can see that a value of Q = 0.7071 gives a relationship of resistor, R 2 being
twice the value of resistor R1. Then we can choose any suitable value of resistances
to give the required ratio of two. Then resistor R1 = 10kΩ and R2 = 20kΩ.

The center or resonant frequency is given as 1kHz. Using the new resistor values
obtained, we can determine the value of the capacitors required assuming that C =
C1 = C2.

The closest standard value is 10nF.

Resonant Frequency Point

The actual shape of the frequency response curve for any passive or active band
pass filter will depend upon the characteristics of the filter circuit with the curve
above being defined as an “ideal” band pass response. An active band pass filter
is a 2nd Order type filter because it has “two” reactive components (two
capacitors) within its circuit design.

As a result of these two reactive components, the filter will have a peak response
orResonant Frequency ( ƒr ) at its “center frequency”, ƒc. The center frequency is
generally calculated as being the geometric mean of the two -3dB frequencies
between the upper and the lower cut-off points with the resonant frequency (point
of oscillation) being given as:

194
Where:
ƒr is the resonant or Center Frequency
ƒL is the lower -3dB cut-off frequency point
ƒH is the upper -3db cut-off frequency point
and in our simple example in the text above of a filters lower and upper -3dB cut-off
points being at 200Hz and 600Hz respectively, then the resonant center frequency
of the active band pass filter would be:

The “Q” or Quality Factor

In a Band Pass Filter circuit, the overall width of the actual pass band between the
upper and lower -3dB corner points of the filter determines the Quality Factor or Q-
point of the circuit. This Q Factor is a measure of how “Selective” or “Un-selective”
the band pass filter is towards a given spread of frequencies. The lower the value of
the Q factor the wider is the bandwidth of the filter and consequently the higher the Q
factor the narrower and more “selective” is the filter.

The Quality Factor, Q of the filter is sometimes given the Greek symbol of
Alpha, (α) and is known as the alpha-peak frequency where:

As the quality factor of an active band pass filter (Second-order System) relates to
the “sharpness” of the filters response around its centre resonant frequency ( ƒr )
it can also be thought of as the “Damping Factor” or “Damping Coefficient”
because the more damping the filter has the flatter is its response and likewise,
the less damping the filter has the sharper is its response. The damping ratio is
given the Greek symbol of Xi, (ξ) where:

195
The “Q” of a band pass filter is the ratio of the Resonant Frequency, ( ƒr ) to
theBandwidth, ( BW ) between the upper and lower -3dB frequencies and is
given as indicated fig rfb below.

Fig rfb

Then for our simple example above the quality factor “Q” of the band pass filter
is given as:

346Hz / 400Hz = 0.865. Note that Q is a ratio and has no units. When
analysing active filters, generally a normalised circuit is considered which produces
an “ideal” frequency response having a rectangular shape, and a transition between
the pass band and the stop band that has an abrupt or very steep roll-off slope.
However, these ideal responses are not possible in the real world so we use
approximations to give us the best frequency response possible for the type of filter
we are trying to design.

Probably the best known filter approximation for doing this is the Butterworth or
maximally-flat response filter. In the next tutorial we will look at higher order filters
and use Butterworth approximations to produce filters that have a frequency
response which is as flat as mathematically possible in the pass band and a smooth
transition or roll-off rate.

BANDSTOP OR BAND REFLECT FILTER

The Band Stop Filter, (BSF) is another type of frequency selective circuit that
functions in exactly the opposite way to the Band Pass Filter we looked at before.

196
The band stop filter, also known as a band reject filter, passes all frequencies with
the exception of those within a specified stop band which are greatly attenuated.

If this stop band is very narrow and highly attenuated over a few hertz, then the
band stop filter is more commonly referred to as a notch filter, as its frequency
response shows that of a deep notch with high selectivity (a steep-side curve) rather
than a flattened wider band.

Also, just like the band pass filter, the band stop (band reject or notch) filter is a
second-order (two-pole) filter having two cut-off frequencies, commonly known as
the -3dB or half-power points producing a wide stop band bandwidth between
these two -3dB points.

Then the function of a band stop filter is too pass all those frequencies from zero
(DC) up to its first (lower) cut-off frequency point ƒL, and pass all those frequencies
above its second (upper) cut-off frequency ƒH, but block or reject all those
frequencies in-between. Then the filters bandwidth, BW is defined as: (ƒH – ƒL).

So for a wide-band band stop filter, the filters actual stop band lies between its lower
and upper -3dB points as it attenuates, or rejects any frequency between these two
cut-off frequencies. The frequency response curve of an ideal band stop filter is
therefore given as:

197
Band Stop Filter Response

Fig bsfr

We can see from the amplitude and phase curves above for the band pass circuit,
that the quantities ƒL, ƒH and ƒC are the same as those used to describe the
behaviour of the band-pass filter. This is because the band stop filter is simply an
inverted or complimented form of the standard band-pass filter. In fact the definitions
used for bandwidth, pass band, stop band and center frequency are the same as
before, and we can use the same formulas to calculate bandwidth, BW, center
frequency, ƒC, and quality factor, Q.

The ideal band stop filter would have infinite attenuation in its stop band and zero
attenuation in either pass band. The transition between the two pass bands and
the stop band would be vertical (brick wall). There are several ways we can design
a “Band Stop Filter”, and they all accomplish the same purpose.

Generally band-pass filters are constructed by combining a low pass filter (LPF) in
series with a high pass filter (HPF). Band stop filters are created by combining
together the low pass and high pass filter sections in a “parallel” type
configuration as shown.

198
Typical Band Stop Filter Configuration

Fig bsfcon showing configuration of bandstop filter

The summing of the high pass and low pass filters means that their frequency
responses do not overlap, unlike the band-pass filter. This is due to the fact that their
start and ending frequencies are at different frequency points. For example, suppose
we have a first-order low-pass filter with a cut-off frequency, ƒL of 200Hz connected
in parallel with a first-order high-pass filter with a cut-off frequency, ƒ H of 800Hz. As
the two filters are effectively connected in parallel, the input signal is applied to both
filters simultaneously as shown above.

All of the input frequencies below 200Hz would be passed unattenuated to the
output by the low-pass filter. Likewise, all input frequencies above 800Hz would be
passed unattenuated to the output by the high-pass filter. However, and input signal
frequencies in-between these two frequency cut-off points of 200Hz and 800Hz, that
isƒL to ƒH would be rejected by either filter forming a notch in the filters output
response.

In other words a signal with a frequency of 200Hz or less and 800Hz and above
would pass unaffected but a signal frequency of say 500Hz would be rejected as it
is too high to be passed by the low-pass filter and too low to be passed by the high-
pass filter. We can show the effect of this frequency characteristic below.

199
Band Stop Filter Characteristics

Fig bsfg showing bandstop filter graph

The transformation of this filter characteristic can be easily implemented using a single
low pass and high pass filter circuits isolated from each other by non-inverting voltage
follower, (Av = 1). The output from these two filter circuits is then summed using a third
operational amplifier connected as a voltage summer (adder) as shown.

Band Stop Filter Circuit

Fig bsfcct
The use of operational amplifiers within the band stop filter design also allows us
to introduce voltage gain into the basic filter circuit. The two non-inverting voltage

200
followers can easily be converted into a basic non-inverting amplifier with a gain
ofAv = 1 + Rf/Rin by the addition of input and feedback resistors, as seen in our non-
inverting op-amp tutorial.

Also if we require a band stop filter to have its -3dB cut-off points at say, 1kHz and
10kHz and a stop band gain of -10dB in between, we can easily design a low-pass
filter and a high-pass filter with these requirements and simply cascade them
together to form our wide-band band-pass filter design.

Now we understand the principle behind a Band Stop Filter, let us design one using
the previous cut-off frequency values.

Band Stop Filter Example No1

Design a basic wide-band, RC band stop filter with a lower cut-off frequency of
200Hz and a higher cut-off frequency of 800Hz. Find the geometric center frequency,
-3dB bandwidth and Q of the circuit.

The upper and lower cut-off frequency points for a band stop filter can be found
using the same formula as that for both the low and high pass filters as shown.

Assuming a capacitor, C value for both filter sections of 0.1uF, the values of the two
frequency determining resistors, RL and RH are calculated as follows.

Low Pass Filter Section

201
High Pass Filter Section

From this we can calculate the geometric center frequency, ƒC as:

Now that we know the component values for the two filter stages, we can combine
them into a single voltage adder circuit to complete our filter design. The
magnitude and polarity of the adders output will be at any given time, the algebraic
sum of its two inputs.

If we make the op-amps feedback resistor and its two input resistors the same
values, say 10kΩ’s, then the inverting summing circuit will provide a mathematically
correct sum of the two input signals with zero voltage gain.

Then the final circuit for our band stop (band-reject) filter example will be:

202
Band Stop Filter Design

Fig bsfd showing band stop filter

We have seen above that simple band stop filters can be made using first or second
order low and high pass filters along with a non-inverting summing op-amp circuit to
reject a wide band of frequencies. But we can also design and construct band stop
filters to produce a much narrower frequency response to eliminate specific
frequencies by increasing the selectivity of the filter. This type of filter design is called
a “Notch Filter”.

Notch Filters
Notch filters are a highly selective, high-Q, form of the band stop filter which can be
used to reject a single or very small band of frequencies rather than a whole
bandwidth of different frequencies. For example, it may be necessary to reject or
attenuate a specific frequency generating electrical noise (such as mains hum) which
has been induced into a circuit from inductive loads such as motors or ballast
lighting, or the removal of harmonics, etc.

But as well as filtering, variable notch filters are also used by musicians in sound
equipment such as graphic equalizers, synthesizers and electronic crossovers to
deal with narrow peaks in the acoustic response of the music. Then we can see that

203
notch filters are widely used in much the same way as low-pass and high-
pass filters.

Notch filters by design have a very narrow and very deep stop band around their
center frequency with the width of the notch being described by its selectivity Q
in exactly the same way as resonance frequency peaks in RLC circuits.

The most common notch filter design is the twin-T notch filter network fig ttnfd. In its
basic form, the twin-T, also called a parallel-tee, configuration consists of two RC
branches in the form of two tee sections, that use three resistors and three
capacitors with opposite and opposing R and C elements in the tee part of its design
as shown, creating a deeper notch.

Basic Twin-T Notch Filter Design

Fig ttnfd
The upper T-pad configuration of resistors 2R and capacitor 2C form the low-pass
filter section of the design, while the lower T-pad configuration of capacitors C and
resistor R form the high-pass filter section. The frequency at which this basic twin-T
notch filter design offers maximum attenuation is called the “notch frequency”, ƒ N
and is given as:

Twin-T Notch Filter Equation

Being a passive RC network, one of the disadvantages of this basic twin-T notch
filter design is that the maximum value of the output (Vout) below the notch
frequency is generally less than the maximum value of output above the notch

204
frequency due in part to the two series resistances (2R) in the low-pass filter section
having greater losses than the reactances of the two series capacitors (C) in the
high-pass section.

As well as uneven gains either side of the notch frequency, another disadvantage of
this basic design is that it has a fixed Q value of 0.25, in the order of -12dB. This is
because at the notch frequency, the reactances of the two series capacitors equals
the resistances of the two series resistors, resulting in the currents flowing in each
branch being out-of-phase by 180o.

We can improve on this by making the notch filter more selective with the application
of positive feedback connected to the center of the two reference legs. Instead of
connecting the junction of R and 2C to ground, (0v) but instead connect it to the
central pin of a voltage divider network powered by the output signal, the amount of
the signal feedback, set by the voltage divider ratio, determines the value of Q, which
in turn, determines to some extent, the depth of the notch.

Single Op-amp Twin-T Notch Filter

Fig sottnf
Here as seen fig sottnf the twin-T notch filter section is isolated from the voltage
divider by a single non-inverting op-amp buffer. The output from the voltage divider is
fed back to “ground” point of R and 2C. The amount of signal feedback, known as
the feedback fraction k, is set by the resistor ratio and is given as:

205
The value of Q is determined by the R3 and R4 resistor ratio, but if we wanted to
make Q fully adjustable, we could replace these two feedback resistors with a
single potentiometer and feed it into another op-amp buffer for increased negative
gain. Also, to obtain the maximum notch depth at the given frequency,
resistors R3 and R4could be eliminated and the junction of R and 2C connected
directly to the output.

Band Stop Filter Example No2

Design a two op-amp narrow-band, RC notch filter with a center notch
frequency, ƒN of 1kHz and a -3dB bandwidth of 100 Hz. Use 0.1uF capacitors in your
design and calculate the expected notch depth in decibels. Refer fig nfd below

Data given: ƒN = 1000Hz, BW = 100Hz and C = 0.1uF.

1. Calculate value of R for the given capacitance of 0.1uF

2. Calculate value of Q

3. Calculate value of feedback fraction k

4. Calculate the values of resistors R3 and R4

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5. Calculate expected notch depth in decibels, dB

Notch Filter Design

Fig nfd

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Band Stop Filter Summary
We have seen here that an ideal band stop filter has a frequency response which
is the inverse of the band-pass filter. Band stop filters block or “reject” frequencies
that lie between its two cut-off frequency points ( ƒL and ƒH ) but passes all those
frequencies either side of this range. The range of frequencies above ƒL and below
ƒH is called the stop band.

Band stop filters accomplish this by summing the outputs of a high pass with that of
a low pass filter (especially for the wide band design) with the filters output being the
difference. A band stop filter design with a wide stop band is also referred to as
a band reject filter and a band stop filter design with a narrow stop band is referred to
as anotch filter. Either way, band stop filters are second-order filters.

Notch filters are designed to provide high attenuation at and near a single frequency
with little or no attenuation at all other frequencies. Notch filters use a twin-T parallel
resistance-capacitance (RC) network to obtain a deep notch. Higher values of Q can
be obtained by feeding back some of the output to the junction of the two tees.

To make the notch filter more selective and with adjustable values of Q, we can
connect the junction of the resistance and the capacitance in the two tees to the
central point of a voltage divider network connected to the filters output signal. A
properly designed notch filter can produce attenuation of more than -60dB at the
notch frequency.

Band Stop Filters have many uses in electronics and communication circuits and as
we have seen here, they can be used to remove a band of unwanted frequencies
from a system, allowing other frequencies to pass with minimum loss. Notch filters
can be highly selective and can be designed to reject or attenuate a specific
frequency or harmonic content generating electrical noise, such as mains hum within
a circuit.

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REFERENCES:

• www.electronicstutorials.ws
• www.wikipedia-free encyclopedia.com
• Electrical Technology Multicolour edn. byB.L Theraja and A.K
Theraja, Publishers
S.Chand.
• Principles of Electronics Multicolouredn by V.K Mehta and Rohit
Mehta,
Publishers S. Chand.
• Electronic circuits and devices by Boylestad
• Electronic amplifiers by cooper

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