MODULE 5

FUNDAMENTALS OF STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS

I. LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, the student will be able to:
• Understand the basic principles of structural dynamics

II. OVERVIEW
As observed from our history, some structures that satisfy the aspects of safety,
aesthetics, economy, etc. under static loads were destroyed when subjected to dynamic
forces such as earthquake. This may be explained by the fact that dynamic loads arise
due to mass, acceleration producing forces that may not be negligible or may well play
a predominant role in structure design. It is therefore imperative that these structures
must not only be safe under static loads but also under dynamic loads.

Now a day, many fundamental theories of vibration mechanics have already

been established. By applying vibration mechanics theories to structures we can
understand better the behavior of structures subjected do dynamic forces. Through this
better design of structure can be achieved.

Even though the basic principle of structural vibration mechanics or structural

dynamics has already been established, many problems are still encountered by
structural designer due to the complexity of this field. Many assumptions are made to
simplify the design of structures subjected to dynamic loads. Codes and other guides
have been written to serve as basis for the dynamic design. It is worthy to note that
these codes usually convert the dynamic load into quasi-static loads to simplify the
design procedures. However, there are limitations to these simplifications. If the
structure to be designed is complex then use of these codes may be inadequate. A
structural designer must therefore understand clearly the basic principles of structural
dynamics so as to have confidence in designing structures that can withstand dynamic
forces.

The following discussion deals with dynamic loads that are either harmonic or
random applied at the base of the structures.

III. COURSE MATERIALS

A. INTRODUCTION

1.0 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF VIBRATION

Vibration is a periodic motion of a system as a result of an excitation. It varies with

respect to time and the resulting stresses, forces, acceleration, and velocity generated
are all time-varying. The study of structural dynamics is geared towards the
understanding on the effect of vibration to the structures in particular. Mathematical
formulation was derived from an ideal model closely representing the actual system.
The ability to correlate the mathematical description and its meaning is very important in
order to appreciate and fully grasp the whole concept. Transition of thoughts from the
mathematical model to the actual system and vice versa will help us a great deal in
predicting the behavior of a real structure.

2.0 IDEALIZED MODEL REPRESENTATION OF STRUCTURES

In practice, most structural problems are too complicated for a closed form of
mathematical solution. As an alternative to this, idealization of structures is necessary to
facilitate numerical solution. Different methods of numerical analyses are available for
implementation in computers, but idealization of structures is often left to the discretion
of the structural analysts.

Idealization of structure is a technique of representing the structure with simple

structural elements. Conversion of the actual structure into a simpler structure by posing
reasonable assumptions are done so that the simpler analysis can be used thus saving
time an effort. In this sense, it doesn’t mean that the geometry of the actual structure is
followed. The idealized model may look very much different from the actual structure as
long as the behavior of this model would be similar to the actual structure. Idealization is
made to facilitate mathematical modeling.

W = mg
m
F(t)
m
k/2 k/2 k k

(c)

(a) (b)

Figure 1.1 Idealization of (a) the frame into (b) ball and rod model and (c)
spring-mass model

The above figure shows the idealization of a frame. The frame can be
represented by a lumped mass attached to a flexible medium or by block and spring as
shown in figures (b) and (c) respectively.

Here the model representations of the frame are obviously geometrically different
from the actual. However, the models can adequately simulate the behavior of the
frame subjected to dynamic lateral load on the following assumptions
a. the beam (horizontal member of the frame) is very much stiffer compared to
the columns (vertical members) such that we can assume that the beam is
rigid and lateral deflections would be solely caused by bending of the
columns;
b. the static vertical load on the frame plus the weight of the beam is very much
greater than the weight of the columns such that we can assume that the
mass is concentrated or lumped at the elevation of the beam;
c. the principal interest in the problem is to determine the lateral deflection of the
frame caused by the dynamic load assuming that the deflections are due to
static load are negligible.

Henceforth, the idealization of actual structure must be properly chosen for the specific
structural analysis needed.

Additional examples of structure and their equivalent model representation for purpose
of dynamic analysis are as shown in Figure 1.2. It must be kept in mind that idealization
model representation of a structure is based on several assumptions which are often
made to simplify the structure without affecting its structural functions and behavior. If
any of these assumptions are unreasonable then the idealization will be a failure.

(a) (b)

Figure 1.2 (a) A three story building and the possible ball and rod model of the
structure. (b) A simply supported beam with the different possible
idealization

.
3.0 STIFFNESS

The degree of rigidity and flexibility of structural elements can be determined based on
its stiffness. Overall stiffness of the structure is the summation of all individual stiffness
of each structural element. The performance of structure is very much dependent on its
stiffness. It can be observed that in general, the stiffer the structure, greater stresses
are developed due to dynamic load. It is often misconception that the more massive the
structure is, the safer it will be. As lateral dynamic load is applied on a massive
structure, most of the kinetic energy will be absorbed. The absorbed kinetic energy is
transformed into strain energy.

From Hooke’s law, we learned that the greater the strains, the greater will be the
stresses. This is the reason why that, in building designs; it is emphasized that enough
flexibility and ductility must be provided in the structure. On the other hand, a structure
that is too flexible or ductile may develop a very large deflection when subjected to
dynamic loading. Therefore, the stiffness of the structure must be properly determined
beforehand so that a good design can be made.

Stiffness is defined as the ratio of force to the corresponding change in deflection

of an elastic element. This can be expressed mathematically by the following equation.

k = F/x
where: k = stiffness
F = applied force
x = deflection due to the applied force

The development of the relation of force and displacement can be explained by

considering a vertical cantilever beam loaded at the free end by a concentrated
horizontal load as shown in Figure 1,3.

As force F is applied to the beam, a corresponding displacement, x, is

developed. Again, if a force of different magnitude is applied, a new value of
displacement will be developed. By doing this successively, a relationship between the
displacement and the load can be determined. If we graph this relationship, we will note
that it will be linear at the elastic stage and will look just like in figure (b). From this
graph, we say that the stiffness is the slope of the curve.

X Force
F F

Displacement
x
(a) (b)

Figure 1.3 (a) Cantilever beam with a concentrated load applied on the free end.
(b) Plot of force vs displacement of the said beam.

Approaching the problem theoretically, we can start by sighting that the deflection of this
beam can be represented by the equation:

x = FL3 / 3EI

where x = deflection at the free end of the beam

F = force applied at the free end of the beam
L = length of the beam
E = Modulus of elasticity
I = cross-sectional moment of inertia

From the above equation of deflection, we can say that the relation of the force and
deflection is linear as long as the elastic limit is not exceeded. Rewriting the equation as

F / x = 3EI / L3

Hence, the stiffness of the beam is 3EI / L3. From which we can conclude that as long
as the beam is prismatic and isotropic then the stiffness will be constant at the elastic
stage.

Treatment of stiffness of structure is the same for both dynamic and static
analysis. From theory of structures, stiffness of structural elements can be determined
statically. This will be the same stiffness that will be used in dynamic analysis.

4.0 DAMPING

It is a natural phenomenon that the kinetic energy due to vibration of structure is

dissipated due to several factors such as friction, looseness of joints, mechanical
interaction of structural elements, and others. It is a fact that these dissipative forces are
present in every structure, however up to now; the governing parameters to these
forces are not yet clearly understood. This dissipation of energy is termed as damping.

Damping plays a very important role in dynamic analysis especially if it is too

great. Consideration of damping somewhat complicates the solution in dynamic
analysis. Fortunately, very few structures exhibit very large damping such in most of
them the effect of damping can be neglected. Usually when damping is included in the
analysis, not all factors causing these damping effects are included. It is a usual
practice that only the simplest and most distinct factor is considered. However, no
definite rule is yet established on what magnitude of damping will be considered on
certain structure. Structural designers usually rely on his experience in predicting the
magnitude of damping forces in a structure.

Out of the many factors contributing to the magnitude of damping, viscous

damping is the most frequently considered by structural designer. This is so because
viscous damping can be expressed in relation to the velocity of the structure, making
the mathematical aspect simpler. Viscous damping can be visualized by assuming that
the structure is submerged in fluid. As the structure deflects due to dynamic load, the
fluid tends to restrain the movement. This produces an advantageous effect on the
structure since deflections will be limited. On the other hand, damping is not always
advantageous to the structure. Proper and further investigation must be first obtain in
order that the effect of damping on a structural system will be best understood.

5.0 NEWTON’S SECOND LAW / D’ALEMBERT’S PRINCIPLE

From mechanics, a particle acted upon by a system of forces is in a state of static

equilibrium, if the resultant of the forces is equal to zero. Such force is described as a
balance force system. A body in motion is a direct result of an unbalanced force, an in
effect produces acceleration. This is clearly defined by the Newton’s second law of
motion which states that unbalanced force acting on a body is proportional to its
resulting acceleration.

Force  acceleration

A particle shown in Figure 1.4 is acted upon by forces. The resultant of these
forces is the unbalance force inducing acceleration.

P1 P2 P=F

P3 ka
(a) (b)

Figure 1.4 (a) System of forces acting on a particle (b) Resultant

of forces with equivalent force k a

Applying Newton’s law of motion

Fa
F=ka

where: k =proportionality constant

F = unbalanced force / resultant force
a = resulting acceleration

If that same particle has its own weight as the unbalanced force, the resulting
acceleration corresponds to the acceleration developed by a freely falling body and it is
equal to the gravitational acceleration.
 kg

W W
(a) (b)

Figure 1.5 (a) Freely falling body (b) Force system

From Newton’s second law of motion

Wg
W=kg
where : w =weight of the body

g = 9.81 m/ sec2
Hence,
k=W/g

but, the ratio of weight and gravitational acceleration is defined as the mass of the body

k=m

then from the equation F=ka

F = W / g (a)
F = m (a)

Corollary with the Newton’s second law of motion, a fictitious force, m a, acting
oppositely with the unbalanced force F is derived. Newton’s third law of motion states
that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. Therefore, this fictitious
force, m a, is the reaction due to the unbalanced force. Treatment of m a as a force
leads us to the equation

F – m (a) = 0

The zero-force summation created an artificial static condition known as Dynamic

equilibrium. Transition from dynamic to static condition by the use of fictitious or reverse
effective force is commonly known as the D’Alembert’s principle. Specifically the
principle states that “ a body acted upon by a system of forces is in a state of dynamic
equilibrium if the reverse effective force is applied together with the impressed forces”.
Application of this principle reduces the problem into a simple static case where Fx = 0,
Fy = 0, M = 0 are all applicable.

6.0 INERTIA FORCE

The reverse effective force derived using the Newton’s second law of motion and
D’Alembert’s principle is also called the inertia force. A fictitious force numerically equal
to (m)(a) and oppositely directed to the unbalanced force in the system. This force
restores a fictitious-static state called dynamic equilibrium, and permits the use of static
equilibrium equation. The inertia force is acting on the center of gravity of the body and
its direction is opposite to the motion of the body.
  P = FR

Inertial Force = m (a)

Figure 1.6 Restores dynamic equilibrium

7.0 EQUATION OF MOTION

The development of equation can be facilitated by making a free body diagram of the
idealized model, a diagram showing the applied and resulting forces acting on an
isolated portion or on the system as a whole. A simple system of a lumped mass and a
linear spring connected to an immovable support is shown in Figure 1.7 (a). This system
is in static equilibrium but it is capable of translational motion along the X-axis. If a force
P is applied into the mass, Figure 1.7 (b), causing vibratory motion, a time-varying
displacement, velocity, and acceleration of the mass is developed. The free body
diagram showing the applied force P and the resulting force is as shown in Figure 1.7
(c).

x
m P
FI = ma = mẍ P
k
FS = k x (t ) = k x
(c)

(a) (b)
Figure 1.7 (a) Idealized model (static state) ,(b) With applied initial displacement
(c) Free-body diagram of lumped mass

As shown in the FBD of the system, the resisting force against side sway motion
is mainly due to the inherent stiffness of the column and it is given as “k x”, and the
inertia force due to motion is “mẍ”. The notation double overdot in x is the acceleration
and it is the second derivative of x with respect to time. In the same manner, the
notation overdot in x is the velocity or the first derivative of x with respect to time. With
the application of inertial force, equation of static becomes applicable. Thus,

 Fx = 0
mẍ + kx - P =0

The ẍ, ẋ, x notation are the acceleration, velocity, and displacement of the system
respectively. All the time-varying hence, we shall adopt a notation ( t ) preceded by a
variable to signify that it is a function of time, t. ẍ ( t ) means it is the acceleration which
is a function of time.

8.0 NATURAL FREQUENCY AND PERIOD

Frequency is the number of times that an event repeats the same sequence during a
unit time. An event may be a load function that repeats harmonically (i.e. an oscillation
of a vibrating spring or the bouncing of a rubber ball). Frequency are either expressed in
Hertz (cycles per second) or in angular frequency (radian per second).

1 Hz = Cycle / second
 or 1 Hz = 2  / second

If an idealized ball and rod model is initially excited an allowed to vibrate freely,
its motion is described as free vibratory motion. The rate of oscillation per second is the
natural frequency of the system. It should be noted that the natural frequency is a
unique behavior of the system where the main contributing factors are the mass and the
stiffness.

The natural frequency f is usually expressed in Hz and the angular frequency in,
w in rad/sec, both quantity differs only by the constant factor, 2π. Most often, the
distinction is understood from the context or from the units.

The occurrence of one complete event within a discrete amount of time is termed
as the Period of the event. The Period T is generally expressed I second per cycle or
simply in seconds with due understanding that it is “per cycle”. Figure 1.8 illustrates a
kind of periodic loading. It can be noted that frequency is the inverse of period, or
implicitly

F = 1 / T = w / 2

Figure 1.8 Period in a response

9.0 LOAD EXCITATION

Loads that vary with time are considered dynamic. There are many events that become
the source of this dynamic load. Earthquake for instance is one example, its ground
motion develops inertial forces that may be destructive to the structure. Mechanical
vibrations and blasts produce a similar effect where forces are directed mainly on the
accompanying mass. Vehicles passing through a bridge create load-time variation
generating stresses that may not be negligible.

m m
ẍ F(t)
k x(t) F(t)
k k m a = m ẍ(t)
c v = c ẋ(t)
(c)
ẍg= ground acceleration
(a) (b)

Figure 1.9 Idealized model of single degree of freedom system with (a) load applied
directly at the mass (b) ground acceleration excited at the support and
(c) free-body-diagram of a lumped mass with damping

From Figure 1.9 (c) of an idealized model, the generalized equation of motion (with
damping) is
 m ẍ(t) + c ẋ(t) + k x(t) = F(t)
without damping is

m ẍ(t) + k x(t) = F(t)

where F(t) is the load induced as a function of time or simply the load function.
Apparently, this loading acts directly at the mass of the system.

Load function can either be prescribed or random. Prescribed when the time
history of loading is known as a function of time and random if the loading is not
explicitly known as a time variation but rather available only as a statistical data
gathered from previous records, usually given by a histogram. Figure 1.10 illustrates the
different kinds of prescribed and random load function.

(a) Prescribed Load Function

(b) Random Load Function

Figure 1.10 Loading Function

A special case of problem arises when the load was not induced directly on the
mass but on the support of the system. The excitation may be in the form of ground
acceleration. It is evident that the ground acceleration causes the system to oscillate
behaving as if there is a loading function applied at the mass.

10.0 RESPONSE TO THE SYSTEM

The response is the vibratory behavior of the system when acted upon by a set of
loading functions as well as initial excitation. This behavior can be classified in three
areas namely:

a. displacement response
b. velocity response
c. acceleration response

Determination of responses can be computed using a closed form or numerical

technique. The response will become relatively large if the natural frequency of the
system approaches the frequency of loading. This phenomenon is called resonance
and should be avoided as much as possible especially during dynamic loading since it
will result to large member deflection and stresses and might result to a catastrophic
collapse of the structure.

In general, the response is generally affected by four major parameters:

 a. The mass of the system wherein the inherent inertia produces forces that
may vary with time,
b. The amount of damping present on the system,
c. The system stiffness which refrain the overall arrangement of the resisting
members, and
d. The magnitude and time variation of the induced load (load function) either
due to direct application at the mass or excitation on the ground support.

11.0 SOURCES OF DYNAMIC LOADS

Sources of dynamic loads on structures are many and varied. However, the origin of the
majority of significant dynamic loads can be attributed to the following sources:

1) Environmental:
2) Environmentally induced dynamic loads on structure include wind loads,
earthquake loads and wave loads.
• Wind loads on a structure are a function of wind velocity, height of the
structure, and shape and stiffness characteristics of the structure
• Earthquake forces that develop in structures result from the acceleration
of the structure’s base by a highly irregular and complex ground motion.
• Wave forces include components due to drag, inertia, lift, and buoyancy to
estimate the total hydrodynamic loads acting on the structure.
3) Machined induced
Another significant source of dynamic loads on structures, commonplace in
industrial installations, is that attributed to equipment or machinery such as
reciprocating and rotating engines, turbines, and conveyor mechanisms. The
nature of machine-induced dynamic loading is usually periodic.
4) Vehicular induced
Vehicular-induced vibrations can be categorized as either internal or external. An
example of externally induced vehicular dynamic load is that caused to a
highway bridge from speeding trucks travelling across it. Internal vehicular
vibration is often times equipment located within the vehicle.
5) Blast induced
Blast induced dynamic loading is attributed to either from explosive devices or
accidental chemical explosions

12.0 TYPES OF DYNAMIC LOADS

The response of a structure to dynamic loads may be categorized as either

a) Deterministic, or
b) Nondeterministic
If the magnitude, point of application, and time variation of the loading are completely
known, the loading is said to be prescribed and the analysis of the structural response
to this prescribed loading is defined as deterministic analysis. However, if the time
variation and other characteristic of the loading are not completely known, but can
define only in a statistical sense, the loading is referred to as random and the analysis
of the structural response is termed nondeterministic analysis.

To expedite the dynamic analysis of structures, it is convenient to classify the dynamic

loads as either
 a) Periodic , or
b) Nonperiodic

Periodic loadings repeat themselves at equal time intervals. A single time interval is
called the period T. The simplest form of a periodic loading can be represented by a
sine function which is simple harmonic or periodic, nonharmonic. Nonperiodic loads
range from short-duration impulsive types, such as a wind gust or a blast pressure, to
fairly long duration loads such as an earthquake ground motion.

13. TYPES OF STRUCTURAL VIBRATION

There are several types of structural vibration. A structure can be caused to vibrate by
imposing upon it some initial conditions, or disturbances. Initial conditions generally
manifest themselves as an energy input such as a velocity imparted to the mass of the
structure (kinetic energy) or a displacement configuration imposed upon the structure
(potential energy) that is suddenly removed.

a) The resulting structural vibration occurs in the absence of any externally applied
forces, and is termed free vibration. Free vibration usually occurs at the
fundamental natural frequency (lowest frequency) of the structure. Since there is
no excitation acting on the structure, the vibration diminish with time as the
energy input to the structure from initial conditions eventually is dissipated or
damped out.

b) The variations of a structure under the influence of external excitations are called
forced vibrations. If the source of the excitation is periodic, the vibration
consists of a steady-state response a transient response. The steady-state
response transpires at the frequency of excitation. When the excitation frequency
coincides with one of the natural frequencies of the structure, a condition known
as resonance exist. At resonance, the amplitudes of vibrations become
exceedingly large and are limited only by the damping in the structure.
The transient response is due to the initial energy stored in the structure and is
manifested by oscillations generally occurring at the fundamental natural frequency of
the structure.

B. OVERVIEW OF STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS

1.0 FUNDAMENTAL OBJECTIVE OF STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS ANALYSIS

The primary purpose of the topic is to present methods for analyzing the stresses and
deflections developed in any given type of structure when subjected to an arbitrary
dynamic loading. The term dynamic may be defined simply as time-varying; thus, a
dynamic load is any load of which its magnitude, direction, and/or position varies with
time. Similarly, the structural response to a dynamic load, i.e., the resulting stresses and
deflections, is also time-varying, or dynamic.

Two basically different approaches are available in evaluating structural

response to dynamic loads, these are:
a. deterministic analysis; and
b. nondeterministic analysis
Deterministic Analysis: If the time variation of loading is fully known, even though it
may be highly oscillatory or irregular in character, it will be referred to as a prescribed
dynamic loading and the analysis of the response is defined as deterministic analysis.

Nondeterministic Analysis: If the time variation of loading is not completely known but
can be defined in a statistically sense, the loading is termed a random dynamic loading,
and the corresponding analysis of response is defined as a nondeterministic analysis.

In general, structural response to any dynamic loading is expressed basically in terms of

the displacement of the structures. Thus, a deterministic analysis leads directly to
displacement time-histories corresponding to the prescribed loading history; other
related response quantities such as stresses, strains, internal forces, etc., are usually
obtained as a secondary phase of the analysis. On the other hand, a nondeterministic
analysis provides only statistical information about the displacement resulting from the
statically defined loading; corresponding information on the related response quantities
are then generated using independent nondeterministic analysis procedure.

2.0 TYPES OF PRESCRIBED LOADINGS

Almost any type of structural system may be subjected to one form or another of
dynamic loading during its lifetime. From an analytical standpoint, it is convenient to
divide prescribed or deterministic loadings into two basic categories:
a. periodic
b. nonperiodic

Illustrations:

Figure 1.11 Characteristics and sources of typical dynamic loadings:

 (a) simple harmonic; (b) complex; (c) impulsive; (d) long-duration

A periodic loading exhibits the same variation successively for a large number of
cycles. The simplest periodic loading has the sinusoidal variation shown in Figure 1.11
(a), which is termed simple harmonic; loadings of this type are characteristic of
unbalanced-mass effects in rotating machinery. Other forms of periodic, e.g., those
caused by hydrodynamic pressures generated by a propeller at the stern of a ship or by
inertial effects in reciprocating machinery [Figure 1.11(b)], frequently are more complex.
However, by means of a Fourier analysis any periodic loading can be represented as
the sum of a series of simple harmonic components, thus, the analysis of response to
any periodic loading follows the same general procedure.
Nonperiodic loadings may be either short-duration impulsive loadings or long-
duration general forms of loads. A blast or explosion, Figure 1.11 (c), is a typical source
of impulsive load; for such short-duration loads, special simplified forms of analysis may
be employed. On the other hand, a general, long-duration loading such as might result
from an earthquake, Figure 1.11 (d), can be treated only by completely general
dynamic-analysis procedures.

3.0 EESSENTIAL CHARACTRRISTICS OF A DYNAMIC PROBLEM

A structural-dynamic problem differs from its static-loading counterpart in two important

respects:

a) Time-varying in nature.
Because both loading and response vary with time, it is evident that a dynamic
problem does not have a single solution. Analyst must establish a succession of
solutions corresponding to all times of interest in the response history. Thus, dynamic
analysis is clearly complex and time-consuming.

b) Effects of inertial forces.

If a simple beam is subjected to a static load p, as shown in Figure 1.12 (a), its
internal moments and shears and deflected shape depend only upon this load and they
can be computed by established principles of force equilibrium.

On the other hand, if the load p(t) is applied dynamically, as shown in Figure 1.12
(b), the resulting displacements of the beam depend not only upon this load but also
upon inertial forces which oppose the accelerations producing them. Thus, the
corresponding internal moments and shears in the beam must equilibrate not only the
externally applied force p(t) but also the internal forces resulting from the accelerations
of the beam.

Figure 1.12. Basic difference between static and dynamic loads.

C. SUMMARY

Vibrations in an elastic structure are caused by disturbing forces which create a

displacement of the structure from its position of static equilibrium. Such displacements
create elastic forces which tend to restore the body to its original condition of
equilibrium. When the disturbing force is removed, the elastic forces cause the body to
accelerate back to its equilibrium position. However, the body will now possess some
velocity as it passes through its equilibrium position, and this will cause it to overshoot.
Thus, vibrations of it are set up which may or may not diminish, depending on whether
any resisting forces are present.

When these vibrations are caused by an initially applied force which is then
removed from the body, there results what are known as free vibrations. If resisting
forces also act on the vibrating body, the motion is known as a damped free vibration.
When the disturbing force continues to act at periodic intervals upon the body, the result
is a forced vibration which may or may not be damped.

Generally speaking, a vibration is a periodic motion which repeats itself after

some definite time interval. This time interval is called the period of the vibration
assured usually measured in seconds. Each repetition of motion is called the cycle. The
frequency of the vibration is the reciprocal of period and is measured in cycles per
second called Hertz. The maximum displacement of the body from its equilibrium
position is known as the amplitude of vibration.