8 • Industrial Automation and Robotics

■■ Advantages
■ Maximum efficiency.
■ Low unit cost.
■ Automated material handling —fast and efficient movement of parts.
■ Very little waste in production.
■■ Disadvantages
■ Large initial investment.
■ Inflexible in accommodating product variety.
Programmable Automation
In programmable automation, the equipment is designed to accom-
modate a specific class of product changes and the processing or assembly
­operations can be changed by modifying the control program. It is particularly
suited to “batch production,” or the manufacture of a product in medium lot
sizes (generally at regular intervals). The example of this kind of automation
is the CNC lathe that produces a specific product in a certain product class
according to the “input program.” In programmable automation, reconfigur-
ing the system for a new product is time consuming because it involves repro-
gramming and set up for the machines, and new fixtures and tools. Examples
include numerically controlled machines, industrial robots, etc.

■■ Advantages
■ Flexibility to deal with variations and changes in product.
■ Low unit cost for large batches.
■■ Disadvantages
■ New product requires long set up time.
■ High unit cost relative to fixed automation.
Flexible Automation (Soft Automation)
In flexible automation, the equipment is designed to m ­ anufacture
a ­variety of products or parts and very little time is spent on c­hanging
from one product to another. Thus, a flexible manufacturing sys-
tem can be used to manufacture various combinations of products
according to any specified schedule. With a flexible automation sys-
­
tem, it is possible to quickly incorporate changes in the product (which
may be redesigned in reaction to changing market conditions and to
 Automation • 9

consumer feedback) or to quickly introduce a new product line. For

example, Honda is widely credited with using flexible automation technol-
ogy to introduce 113 changes to its line of motorcycle products in the 1970s.
Flexible automation gives the manufacturer the ability to produce multiple
products cheaply in combination than separately.

■■ Advantages
■ Flexibility to deal with product design variations.
■ Customized products.
■■ Disadvantages
■ Large initial investment.
■ High unit cost relative to fixed or programmable automation.

CURRENT EMPHASIS IN AUTOMATION

Currently, for manufacturing companies, the purpose of automation has
shifted from increasing productivity and reducing costs, to broader issues,
such as increasing quality and flexibility in the manufacturing process. The
old focus on using automation simply to increase productivity and r­ educe
costs was short-sighted, because it is also necessary to provide a skilled
workforce who can make repairs and manage the machinery. Moreover, the
initial costs of automation were high and often could not be recovered by
the time entirely new manufacturing processes replaced the old. (Japan’s
“robot junkyards” were once world famous in the manufacturing industry.)
Automation is now often applied primarily to increase quality in the
manufacturing process, where automation can increase quality substantially.
For e­ xample, automobile and truck pistons used to be installed into engines
manually. This is rapidly being transitioned to automated machine installa-
tion, ­because the error rate for manual installment was around 1–1.5%, but
is 0.00001% with automation. Hazardous operations, such as oil refining,
the manufacturing of industrial chemicals, and all forms of metal working,
were always early contenders for automation.
Another major shift in automation is the increased emphasis on flex-
ibility and convertibility in the manufacturing process. Manufacturers are
increasingly demanding the ability to easily switch from one manufactur-
ing product to other without having to completely rebuild the production
lines.
10 • Industrial Automation and Robotics

REASONS FOR AUTOMATION

1. Shortage of labor
2. High cost of labor
3. Increased productivity: Higher production output per hour of
­labor ­input is possible with automation than with manual operations.
­Productivity is the single most important factor in determining a nation’s
standard of living. If the value of output per hour goes up, the overall
income levels go up.
4. Competition: The ultimate goal of a company is to increase profits.
However, there are other goals that are harder to measure. Automation
may result in lower prices, superior products, better labor relations, and
a better company image.
5. Safety: Automation allows the employee to assume a supervisory role
­instead of being directly involved in the manufacturing task. For exam-
ple, die casting is hot and dangerous and the work pieces are often very
heavy. Welding, spray painting, and other operations can be a health haz-
ard. Machines can do these jobs more precisely and achieve better qual-
ity products.
6. Reducing manufacturing lead-time: Automation allows the man-
ufacturer to respond quickly to the consumers needs. Second, flex-
ible ­
automation also ­
allows companies to handle frequent design
­modifications.
7. Lower costs: In addition to cutting labor costs, automation may
­decrease the scrap rate and thus reduce the cost of raw materials. It also
enables just-in-time manufacturing which in turn allows the manufactur-
­

er to ­reduce the in-process inventory. It is possible to improve the quality

of the product at lower cost.

REASONS FOR NO AUTOMATION

1. Labor resistance: People look at robots and manufacturing automation
as a cause of unemployment. In reality, the use of robots increases pro-
ductivity, makes the firm more competitive, and preserves jobs. But some
jobs are lost. For example, Fiat reduced its work force from 138,000 to
72,000 in nine years by investing in robots. GM’s highly automated plant
 Automation • 11

built in collaboration with Toyota in Fremont, California employs 3,100

workers in contrast to 5,100 at a comparable older GM plant.
2. Cost of upgraded labor: The routine monotonous tasks are the easiest
to ­automate. The tasks that are difficult to automate are ones that require
skill. Thus, manufacturing labor must be upgraded.
3. Initial investment: Cash flow considerations may make an investment
in a­ utomation difficult even if the estimated rate of return is high.

ISSUES FOR AUTOMATION IN FACTORY OPERATIONS

■ Task is too difficult to automate.
■ Short product lifecycle.
■ Customized product.
■ Fluctuating demand.
■ Reduce risk of product failure.
■ Cheap manual labor.

STRATEGIES FOR AUTOMATION

■ Specialization of operations.
■ Combined operations.
■ Simultaneous operations.
■ Integration of operations.
■ Increased flexibility.
■ Improved material handling and storage.
■ On-line inspection.
■ Process control and optimization.
■ Plant operations control.
■ Computer Integrated Manufacturing.

EXERCISES
1. Differentiate between mechanization and automation.
2. Identify some of the major reasons for automation.
3. List the levels of automation.
12 • Industrial Automation and Robotics

4. Discuss the concept of low cost automation with the help of suitable
­examples.
5. What are the types of automation that can be used in a production sys-
tem? Compare them for their features and drawbacks.
6. Discuss the various levels of automation.
7. Write short notes on “low cost automation.”
8. Identify major socio-economic considerations favoring automation.
9. State the advantages of automating production operations.
10. List the strategies for automation.
11. Compare hard automation with soft automation.
12. List the advantages of flexible automation.
13. List at least four reasons why automation is required in industry.
 CHAPTER

2
BASIC LAWS
AND ­PRINCIPLES

FLUID PROPERTIES
Force
A force is a push or a pull, or more generally anything that can
change an object’s speed or direction of motion. The Internation-
al ­System of Units (SI) unit used to measure force is the Newton
­(symbol N).
F = ma
where F stands for force in Newton, m stands for mass in Kg and
a represents acceleration expressed as meters divided by seconds
squared m/s2.
14 • Industrial Automation and Robotics

Pressure
Pressure is the ratio of force to the area over which the force acts.
Mathematically, it can be expressed as:
F
p=
A
where p is pressure, F is force, and A represents area. Pressure is usu-
ally expressed in Newton per square meter, given the name Pascal, and
traditionally, it was expressed in pounds force per square inch (PSI).

Atmospheric Pressure
Atmospheric pressure is defined as the pressure due to the weight of
the atmosphere (air and water vapor) on the earth’s surface. Atmospheric
pressure is determined by a mercury column barometer, that is why it is
sometimes called as barometric pressure. The average atmospheric pres-
sure at sea level has been defined as 1.01325 bars, or 14.696 pounds per
square inch absolute (PSIA).

Gauge
Atmospheric pressure
pressure
Pressure

Vacuum-negative
gauge pressure Absolute
pressure

Absolute
pressure
Absolute zero

FIGURE 2.1 Pressure Relationship.

Absolute Pressure
Absolute pressure can be given as gauge pressure plus barometric or
­atmospheric pressure. Absolute pressure is referenced against absolute zero
pressure, or a complete vacuum. The units of absolute pressure are followed by
suffix “a,” such as psia. If we hold an absolute pressure instrument in the open
air, the reading should be well above zero, in the range of 14.7 to 12 psia.
 Basic Laws and Principles • 15

Gauge and Vacuum Pressure

Gauge pressure is referenced against the atmospheric pressure at the
measurement point. The units of gauge pressure are followed by a “g,”
such as psig. A gauge pressure instrument should always read zero when
exposed to atmospheric pressure. Similarly, when the pressure falls below
atmospheric, it is called vacuum pressure, sometimes it is also called nega-
tive gauge pressure.
Based upon the above discussions, the following equations can be
­ erived:
d

Pabs = Patm + Pgauge

Pabs = Patm − Pvacuum
Where Pabs = Absolute pressure
Patm = Atmospheric pressure
Pgauge = Gauge pressure
Pvacuum = Vacuum pressure ( − ve gauge pressure).

Conversion of various units of pressure in Pascal

Unit Symbol No. of pascals
Bar bar 1 x 105 Pa
Millibar mbar 100 Pa
Hectopascal hPa 100 Pa
conventional mm of Hg mmHg 133.322 Pa
conventional inch of Hg in Hg 3,386.39… Pa
Torr torr 101325/760 ≈ 133.322 Pa
pound-force per square inch lbf/in 2
6,894.76 ≈ 6895 Pa

Pascal’s Law
Blaise Pascal formulated this basic law in the mid-17th century. His
law states that pressure in a confined fluid is transmitted undiminished in
every direction and acts with equal force on equal areas and at right angles
to container walls. Hydraulic brakes, lifts, presses, syringe pistons, etc. work
on the principle of Pascal’s law.
According to Pascal’s law, inside the pipes of a confined system pressure
is uniform at all points. Mathematically,
16 • Industrial Automation and Robotics

F1 F2

A1 A2

P1 P2

FIGURE 2.2 PascalÕs Law Illustrated.

F1 F
= P1 = P2 = 2
A1 A2
A
F2 = 2 . F1
A1

From the above expression, P1 = P2, therefore F2 is greater than F1

because A2 is greater than A1. This means that, in order to obtain a greater
output force, it is enough to have suitably sized surfaces available.

Flow and Flow Rate

The volume of a substance passing a point per unit time is called flow
and the volume of water, a pump or a compressor can move during a given
amount of time is called, “flow rate.”

Volumetric Flow Rate

It is the volume of the fluid flowing through a cross section per unit
time. Air related flows are usually expressed in cubic feet per minute
(CFM) and for liquid-based fluids, they are expressed as liters or gallons
per minute (LPM or GPM) or cubic meters per second, etc.

Volumetric Flow Rate = Area × Velocity

Mass Flow Rate

Volumetric flow rate times density, i.e., pounds per hour or kilograms
per minute.
Mass Flow Rate = Area × Velocity × Density
 Basic Laws and Principles • 17

Conversion of various flow rate units into m3/s

Unit Symbol No. of m3/s
Liters/second l/s 10-3 m3/s
Gallons/second gps 0.003788 m3/s
cubic feet/min cfm 4.719 × 10-4 m3/s

Bernoulli’s Equation
It states that, for a non-viscous, incompressible fluid in steady flow, the
sum of pressure, potential, and kinetic energies per unit volume is constant
at any point. Mathematically, it can be expressed as:

ρ . v12 ρ . v22
+ p1 = + p2 = Constant
2 2
g = gravity
v = flow speed
Where
h = height
p = pressure
ρ = density

Bernoulli’s principle states that in fluid flow, an increase in veloc-

ity ­occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure. It is named for the
Dutch/Swiss mathematician/scientist Daniel Bernoulli; this phenomenon
can be seen in airplane lift, a carburetor, the flow of air around the ball, etc.

Venturi Effect
A fluid passing through smoothly varying constrictions is subject to changes
in velocity and pressure, as described by Bernoulli’s principle. In case of fluid or
airflow through a tube or pipe with a constriction in it, the fluid must speed up
in the restriction, reducing its pressure, and producing a partial vacuum.
As shown in the Fig. 2.3 fluid density = (r), area = (A), and velocity =
(V). Let the properties of fluid at entrance and exit be (r1,A1,V1) and at
constriction be (r2, A2 ,V2). There is a drop in pressure at the constriction as
shown by the height of the column and it is due to conservation of energy.
The fluid experiences a gain in kinetic energy and a drop in pressure as it
enters the constriction; this effect is called Venturi effect, it is named after
the Italian physicist Giovanni Battista Venturi.
18 • Industrial Automation and Robotics

ρ1 A1 V1 ρ2 A2 V2 ρ3 A1 V1

FIGURE 2.3 VenturiÕs Law Illustrated.

Continuity Equation
It is simply a mathematical expression of the principle of conservation
of mass. Mass is neither created nor destroyed. For a steady flow, it states
that:

Mass flow rate in = mass flow rate out

ρ1 A1 V1 = ρ2 A 2 V2 (ρ1 = ρ2 )
A1 V1 = A 2 V2

A1V1 A2V2

The “continuity equation” is a direct consequence of the rather trivial

fact that what goes into the pipe must come out. This has the important
consequence that as the area of the hole decreases, the velocity of the fluid
must increase, in order to keep the flow rate constant.

Specific Weight, Density, and Specific Gravity

(a) Specific Weight or Weight Density
The weight per unit volume of a substance. Usually it is expressed in
N/m3 or lbs/ft3. Mathematically,