# Modern Optics Laboratory Notebook

*PHYS 4320: Advanced Experimental Optics*

*Student: Alex Morgan | Date: Spring 2023*

## Experiment 1: Michelson Interferometer

### Date: February 2, 2023

### Lab Partners: Jordan Kim, Taylor Nguyen

#### 1. OBJECTIVE
To construct a Michelson interferometer and use it to measure the wavelength of a
helium-neon laser and the refractive index of air.

#### 2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

The Michelson interferometer splits light into two beams using a beamsplitter, then
recombines them after they travel along different paths. The optical path
difference between the two arms creates an interference pattern. When one mirror is
moved, the interference pattern shifts.

The relationship between mirror displacement and fringe count is:

$$\Delta d = \frac{m\lambda}{2}$$

Where:
- $\Delta d$ = mirror displacement
- $m$ = number of fringes that cross reference point
- $\lambda$ = wavelength of light

For refractive index measurement, the relationship is:

$$n_{air} = 1 + \frac{m\lambda}{2L\Delta P}$$

Where:
- $n_{air}$ = refractive index of air
- $L$ = length of vacuum chamber
- $\Delta P$ = pressure change

#### 3. EQUIPMENT
- HeNe laser (632.8 nm nominal wavelength)
- Optical breadboard with vibration isolation
- Beamsplitter (50:50, non-polarizing)
- Two first-surface mirrors
- Mirror mounts with fine adjustment screws
- Linear translation stage with micrometer (0.01 mm precision)
- Photodetector and oscilloscope
- Evacuable glass cell with pressure gauge
- Vacuum pump

#### 4. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

[Detailed sketch of setup included in laboratory notebook]

The beam from the HeNe laser is directed onto the beamsplitter, which divides it
into two perpendicular paths. Each beam reflects off a mirror and returns to the
beamsplitter, where they recombine and interfere. One mirror is mounted on a
precision translation stage for fine adjustment.

For part 1 (wavelength measurement), the translation stage is adjusted while

counting fringes.
For part 2 (refractive index measurement), one arm includes a 10 cm evacuable glass
cell. The cell is initially at atmospheric pressure and then gradually evacuated
while counting fringes.

#### 5. PROCEDURE

**Part 1: Laser Wavelength Measurement**

1. Aligned the interferometer to produce clear circular fringes projected on screen
2. Established a reference point on the fringe pattern
3. Moved the micrometer in increments of 0.10 mm
4. Counted the number of fringes passing the reference point
5. Repeated measurements 5 times

**Part 2: Refractive Index of Air**

1. Inserted evacuable cell into one arm of interferometer
2. Adjusted alignment to produce clear fringes
3. Recorded initial pressure (760 mmHg)
4. Slowly evacuated cell while counting fringes
5. Recorded pressure at regular intervals (approximately every 20 fringes)
6. Plotted fringe count vs. pressure change

#### 6. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

**Part 1: Laser Wavelength Determination**

| Trial | Displacement (mm) | Fringe Count | Calculated λ (nm) |

|-------|------------------|--------------|-------------------|
| 1 | 0.50 | 1582 | 632.1 |
| 2 | 0.50 | 1578 | 633.1 |
| 3 | 0.50 | 1580 | 632.9 |
| 4 | 0.50 | 1579 | 632.7 |
| 5 | 0.50 | 1581 | 632.5 |

Mean wavelength: 632.7 ± 0.4 nm

The manufacturer's specified wavelength for the HeNe laser is 632.8 nm, which falls
within our experimental uncertainty. The primary sources of uncertainty include:
- Micrometer reading precision (±0.005 mm)
- Fringe counting error (estimated at ±2 fringes)
- Vibration effects

**Part 2: Refractive Index of Air**

[Graph of fringe count vs. pressure change included in notebook]

From our measurements and using the equation above with L = 10 cm:

n_air = 1.000293 ± 0.000007 (at standard temperature and pressure)

Literature value: 1.000293 (at standard conditions)

Our measurement agrees remarkably well with the accepted value. The refractive
index of air depends on:
- Temperature
- Pressure
- Humidity
- CO₂ concentration

#### 7. ERROR ANALYSIS

**Systematic Errors:**
- Cosine error from non-parallel alignment of translation stage
- Non-linearity in the micrometer
- Temperature fluctuations in the lab (~±1°C during experiment)

**Random Errors:**
- Uncertainty in fringe counting (particularly challenging during rapid pressure
changes)
- Vibrations from the environment
- Reading error in pressure gauge

Propagating these errors through our equations gives total uncertainty as reported
in the results section.

#### 8. CONCLUSIONS

The Michelson interferometer allowed precise measurements of both the HeNe laser
wavelength and the refractive index of air. Our measured values agreed closely with
accepted values, validating our experimental technique.

The experiment demonstrated the remarkable sensitivity of interferometric

measurements—moving the mirror by just half a millimeter produced over 1500 fringe
shifts. This sensitivity makes interferometry suitable for extremely precise
distance measurements and monitoring small changes in optical path length.

The refractive index measurement demonstrates how interferometry can be used to

study properties of gases and other transparent materials with high precision.

#### 9. QUESTIONS AND DISCUSSION

1. **How would using a white light source instead of a laser affect the
interferometer's operation?**

Using a white light source would produce a clear interference pattern only when
the optical path difference is very close to zero (within a few wavelengths), as
different wavelengths would produce overlapping fringe patterns that wash out
quickly as path difference increases. This "white light fringe" can be useful for
finding the exact zero path difference.

2. **How does the coherence length of the laser affect the interferometer's
performance?**

The coherence length limits the maximum optical path difference that can produce
visible interference. Our HeNe laser has a coherence length of approximately 30 cm,
which is sufficient for this experiment. If the path difference exceeds the
coherence length, fringe visibility would decrease significantly.

3. **What other phenomena could be studied using this interferometer setup?**

The same setup could be used to measure:

- Thermal expansion coefficients of materials
- Thickness of thin films
- Angular displacement using the Sagnac effect
- Gravitational wave detection (with substantially improved sensitivity)
- Optical characteristics of materials under different conditions

#### 10. REFERENCES

1. Hecht, E. (2017). Optics (5th ed.). Pearson.
2. Pedrotti, F. L., Pedrotti, L. M., & Pedrotti, L. S. (2018). Introduction to
Optics (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
3. Bennett, J. M. (2014). Measurement of the refractive index of air using
Michelson interferometry. American Journal of Physics, 62(2), 142-148.

---

## Experiment 2: Diffraction and Fourier Optics

### Date: February 16, 2023

### Lab Partners: Jordan Kim, Taylor Nguyen

#### 1. OBJECTIVE

To investigate diffraction patterns from various apertures and demonstrate the

principles of Fourier optics, including spatial filtering.

#### 2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

According to Fraunhofer diffraction theory, the diffraction pattern at a large

distance from an aperture corresponds to the Fourier transform of the aperture
function. For a single slit of width a, the intensity pattern is:

$$I(\theta) = I_0 \left(\frac{\sin\alpha}{\alpha}\right)^2$$

Where $\alpha = \frac{\pi a \sin\theta}{\lambda}$, $\theta$ is the diffraction

angle, and $\lambda$ is the wavelength.

For a circular aperture of diameter D, the pattern follows the Airy function:

$$I(\theta) = I_0 \left(\frac{2J_1(\beta)}{\beta}\right)^2$$

Where $\beta = \frac{\pi D \sin\theta}{\lambda}$ and $J_1$ is the first-order

Bessel function.

In a 4f system (two lenses separated by the sum of their focal lengths), the
Fourier plane occurs at the back focal plane of the first lens, where spatial
frequencies can be filtered.

#### 3. EQUIPMENT

- HeNe laser (632.8 nm)

- Spatial filter assembly (microscope objective and pinhole)
- Optical breadboard
- Various apertures (single slits, double slits, circular aperture, square
aperture)
- Diffraction gratings (100, 300, and 600 lines/mm)
- Two convex lenses (f = 200 mm and f = 150 mm)
- CCD camera with beam profiler software
- Translation stages and lens holders
- Spatial filter masks (low-pass, high-pass, band-pass)
- Test objects (resolution target, USAF target)

#### 4. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

[Detailed sketch of setup included in laboratory notebook]

For Part 1 (Diffraction patterns):

- Laser → Spatial filter → Collimating lens → Aperture → Screen/CCD

For Part 2 (Fourier optical system):

- Laser → Spatial filter → Collimating lens → Object → Lens 1 → Fourier plane (with
optional mask) → Lens 2 → Image plane/CCD

#### 5. PROCEDURE

**Part 1: Diffraction Patterns**

1. Aligned the HeNe laser and spatial filter to produce a clean Gaussian beam
2. Placed various apertures in the beam path
3. Recorded diffraction patterns using the CCD camera
4. Measured the positions of diffraction minima and maxima
5. Compared experimental patterns with theoretical predictions

**Part 2: Fourier Optical Processing**

1. Constructed a 4f system using two lenses
2. Placed test objects in the object plane
3. Observed the Fourier transform at the back focal plane of the first lens
4. Applied various spatial filters at the Fourier plane:
- Low-pass (small circular aperture)
- High-pass (small circular block)
- Band-pass (annular aperture)
- Directional filter (slit)
5. Recorded the filtered images at the image plane

#### 6. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

**Part 1: Diffraction Patterns**

*Single Slit Diffraction:*

| Slit Width (μm) | Measured 1st Minimum (mm) | Theoretical 1st Minimum (mm) |
Percent Difference |
|-----------------|---------------------------|------------------------------|-----
--------------|
| 100 | 12.6 | 12.7 | 0.8%
|
| 200 | 6.3 | 6.3 | 0.0%
|
| 400 | 3.2 | 3.2 | 0.0%
|

The measured positions of diffraction minima agree well with theoretical

predictions. The diffraction pattern width is inversely proportional to slit width,
confirming the expected relationship.

*Double Slit Interference and Diffraction:*

For double slits with 200 μm spacing, we observed:

- Interference fringes with spacing of 3.1 mm (vs. theoretical 3.2 mm)
- Modulated by single-slit diffraction envelope
- The number of visible interference fringes within the central diffraction maximum
matched theoretical predictions

*Circular Aperture:*

A 300 μm diameter aperture produced an Airy pattern with:

- First dark ring at 2.6 mm (vs. theoretical 2.5 mm)
- Second dark ring at 4.7 mm (vs. theoretical 4.6 mm)

The ratio of radii (r₂/r₁ = 1.81) is close to the theoretical ratio of 1.84 for an
Airy pattern.

**Part 2: Fourier Optical Processing**

*Fourier Transform Observations:*

The Fourier transforms of various objects displayed characteristic patterns:

- Single slit: Perpendicular line
- Grid pattern: Rectangular array of spots
- Circular aperture: Airy pattern
- USAF target: Complex pattern with different spatial frequencies

*Spatial Filtering Effects:*

1. Low-pass filtering (blocking high spatial frequencies):

- Removed fine details and sharp edges
- Image appeared blurred but large features were preserved
- Effective cut-off frequency: approximately 5 cycles/mm

2. High-pass filtering (blocking low spatial frequencies):

- Enhanced edges while removing overall structure
- Image showed outlines of original features
- Demonstrated second-derivative-like enhancement

3. Band-pass filtering:
- Isolated features of specific size scales
- Created a "relief" effect highlighting transitions

4. Directional filtering:
- Selectively removed spatial frequencies in one direction
- Enhanced edges perpendicular to the filter orientation
- Demonstrated anisotropic filtering capabilities

[Several processed images included in notebook, showing original and filtered

versions]

#### 7. ERROR ANALYSIS

**Primary sources of uncertainty:**

- Measurement of diffraction pattern features (±0.1 mm)

- Aperture dimension precision (±2 μm)
- Distance measurements (±1 mm)
- Camera pixel resolution limitations
- Optical misalignments causing asymmetry in patterns

The excellent agreement between measured and theoretical values for diffraction
minima positions (within 1%) suggests that our experimental setup was well-
calibrated and that our measurements were reliable.

#### 8. CONCLUSIONS

The experiment successfully demonstrated fundamental principles of diffraction and

Fourier optics. Key findings include:

1. Diffraction patterns from various apertures match theoretical predictions,

confirming the wave nature of light and the accuracy of Fraunhofer diffraction
theory.

2. The Fourier transforming property of lenses was clearly demonstrated in the 4f

system. The observed transforms matched theoretical expectations for different
aperture shapes.

3. Spatial filtering in the Fourier plane provides a powerful tool for image
processing, allowing selective enhancement or suppression of features based on
their spatial frequency content.

4. The experiment illustrates the mathematical relationship between physical

apertures and their diffraction patterns through the Fourier transform
relationship.

#### 9. QUESTIONS AND DISCUSSION

1. **How would using a different wavelength laser affect the diffraction patterns?
**

A shorter wavelength would compress the diffraction pattern (minima positions

inversely proportional to wavelength), while a longer wavelength would expand it.
This follows from the diffraction equations where θ ∝ λ.

2. **What are the limitations of spatial filtering for image processing?**

Limitations include:
- Trade-off between detail preservation and noise reduction
- Introduction of ringing artifacts (Gibbs phenomenon) with hard-edge filters
- Loss of information when frequencies are completely blocked
- Limited applicability to shift-variant degradations

3. **How does this experiment relate to the resolution limit of optical systems?**

This experiment directly demonstrates that the resolution of an optical system

is fundamentally limited by diffraction, which restricts the maximum spatial
frequencies that can be transmitted. The Airy pattern of a circular aperture
determines the minimum resolvable separation according to the Rayleigh criterion
(1.22λf/D).

#### 10. REFERENCES

1. Goodman, J. W. (2017). Introduction to Fourier Optics (4th ed.). W. H. Freeman.

2. Born, M., & Wolf, E. (2019). Principles of Optics (60th Anniversary ed.).
Cambridge University Press.
3. Saleh, B. E. A., & Teich, M. C. (2019). Fundamentals of Photonics (3rd ed.).
Wiley.

---

## Experiment 3: Polarization and Optical Activity

### Date: March 9, 2023

### Lab Partners: Jordan Kim, Taylor Nguyen

#### 1. OBJECTIVE

To investigate the polarization properties of light, including linear and circular

polarization states, and to measure the optical activity of various solutions.
#### 2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

Polarization describes the orientation of the electric field oscillations in an

electromagnetic wave. The intensity of light passing through two polarizers is
given by Malus's Law:

$$I = I_0\cos^2\theta$$

where $\theta$ is the angle between the transmission axes of the polarizers.

For circular polarization, the electric field vector traces a helical path through
space. A wave plate with retardance δ between ordinary and extraordinary rays
modifies polarization:
- Quarter-wave plate (δ = π/2): converts linear to circular polarization and vice
versa
- Half-wave plate (δ = π): rotates linear polarization by 2α, where α is the angle
between the input polarization and the fast axis

Optical activity occurs in chiral substances, which rotate the plane of linearly
polarized light. The rotation angle is:

$$\alpha = [\alpha]_\lambda^T \cdot c \cdot l$$

where:
- $[\alpha]_\lambda^T$ is the specific rotation at wavelength λ and temperature T
- $c$ is the concentration in g/mL
- $l$ is the path length in dm

#### 3. EQUIPMENT

- HeNe laser (632.8 nm)

- White light source with interference filters (450, 550, 650 nm)
- Linear polarizers (3)
- Quarter-wave and half-wave plates for 632.8 nm
- Rotational mounts with 1° precision
- Photodetector and power meter
- Polarimeter tube (20 cm length)
- Solutions of sucrose, glucose, and fructose at various concentrations
- Fresnel rhomb
- Photoelastic modulator
- Lock-in amplifier
- Babinet-Soleil compensator

#### 4. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

[Detailed sketch of setup included in laboratory notebook]

For Part 1 (Malus's Law):

- Laser → Polarizer 1 (fixed) → Polarizer 2 (rotatable) → Detector

For Part 2 (Wave Plates):

- Laser → Polarizer (fixed) → Wave Plate (rotatable) → Analyzer (rotatable) →
Detector

For Part 3 (Optical Activity):

- White light → Filter → Polarizer (fixed) → Sample tube → Analyzer (rotatable) →
Detector
#### 5. PROCEDURE

**Part 1: Polarization and Malus's Law**

1. Aligned the HeNe laser with a fixed polarizer and detector
2. Set the fixed polarizer to define a reference orientation (0°)
3. Placed the second polarizer (analyzer) in the beam path
4. Rotated the analyzer from 0° to 360° in 10° increments
5. Recorded the transmitted intensity at each angle
6. Plotted intensity vs. angle and compared with Malus's Law

**Part 2: Wave Plates and Circular Polarization**

1. Inserted a quarter-wave plate between the polarizer and analyzer
2. Fixed the polarizer at 0° and the wave plate fast axis at 45°
3. Rotated the analyzer and observed intensity variations
4. Repeated with the wave plate at different angles
5. Replaced the quarter-wave plate with a half-wave plate
6. Rotated the half-wave plate and observed the effect on polarization
7. Verified the polarization states using a Fresnel rhomb

**Part 3: Optical Activity Measurements**

1. Set up the polarimeter with white light source and 550 nm filter
2. Calibrated the system with an empty tube
3. Filled the tube with sucrose solutions of varying concentrations (5%, 10%, 15%,
20%)
4. Determined the rotation angle for each concentration
5. Repeated measurements using different wavelengths (450, 550, 650 nm)
6. Repeated procedure with glucose and fructose solutions

#### 6. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

**Part 1: Polarization and Malus's Law**

[Graph of normalized intensity vs. analyzer angle included in notebook]

The data closely followed the expected $\cos^2\theta$ relationship. A least-squares

fit yielded:

$$I = (0.992 \pm 0.005)I_0\cos^2(\theta - 0.8°)$$

The small offset (0.8°) likely results from slight misalignment of the polarizer
zero position. The maximum transmission was 92.3% of the incident polarized light,
indicating some loss due to reflection and absorption.

**Part 2: Wave Plates and Circular Polarization**

*Quarter-Wave Plate Results:*

When the quarter-wave plate fast axis was at 45° to the input polarization:
- The output intensity was nearly constant as the analyzer rotated
- Maximum:minimum intensity ratio was 1.08:1 (ideal circular polarization would be
1:1)
- This confirms the production of nearly circular polarization

*Half-Wave Plate Results:*

With the half-wave plate in the beam:

- The output polarization angle rotated at twice the rate of the half-wave plate
rotation
- When the half-wave plate was rotated by 22.5°, the output polarization rotated by
45°
- A linear relationship was observed between the output polarization angle and
twice the half-wave plate angle (slope = 1.97 ± 0.03)

**Part 3: Optical Activity Measurements**

*Sucrose Solutions:*

| Concentration (g/mL) | Rotation at 550 nm (°) | Specific Rotation [α]

(°·dm⁻¹·(g/mL)⁻¹) |
|----------------------|------------------------|----------------------------------
------|
| 0.05 | 6.7 ± 0.2 | 67.0 ± 2.0
|
| 0.10 | 13.2 ± 0.2 | 66.0 ± 1.0
|
| 0.15 | 20.1 ± 0.2 | 67.0 ± 0.7
|
| 0.20 | 26.6 ± 0.2 | 66.5 ± 0.5
|

Average specific rotation of sucrose at 550 nm: 66.6 ± 0.5 °·dm⁻¹·(g/mL)⁻¹

*Wavelength Dependence:*

For 15% sucrose solution:

| Wavelength (nm) | Rotation (°) | Specific Rotation [α] (°·dm⁻¹·(g/mL)⁻¹) |

|-----------------|--------------|----------------------------------------|
| 450 | 28.4 ± 0.2 | 94.7 ± 0.7 |
| 550 | 20.1 ± 0.2 | 67.0 ± 0.7 |
| 650 | 14.8 ± 0.2 | 49.3 ± 0.7 |

The data confirms that optical rotation varies approximately as 1/λ², consistent
with the empirical Drude equation:

$$[\alpha] = \frac{k}{\lambda^2 - \lambda_0^2}$$

*Comparison of Different Sugars:*

For 10% solutions at 550 nm:

| Sugar | Rotation (°) | Specific Rotation [α] (°·dm⁻¹·(g/mL)⁻¹) | Literature

Value |
|----------|--------------|----------------------------------------|---------------
---|
| Sucrose | 13.2 ± 0.2 | 66.0 ± 1.0 | 66.5
|
| Glucose | 10.5 ± 0.2 | 52.5 ± 1.0 | 52.7
|
| Fructose | -18.7 ± 0.2 | -93.5 ± 1.0 | -92.4
|

The negative rotation for fructose indicates a levorotatory nature (rotates

counterclockwise), while sucrose and glucose are dextrorotatory (rotate clockwise).

#### 7. ERROR ANALYSIS

**Systematic Errors:**
- Imperfect polarizers (extinction ratio ~10⁻³)
- Wave plate retardance may differ slightly from exact quarter or half wave
- Temperature variations during measurements (±1°C)

**Random Errors:**
- Angular positioning uncertainty (±0.5°)
- Power measurement fluctuations (±1%)
- Sample preparation concentration uncertainty (±0.5%)

Overall, our measurements of specific rotation agree with literature values within
experimental uncertainty, indicating good experimental technique.

#### 8. CONCLUSIONS

This experiment successfully demonstrated fundamental principles of polarization

optics and optical activity. Key findings include:

1. Malus's Law accurately describes the intensity transmission through crossed

polarizers, confirming the vector nature of light.

2. Wave plates effectively modify polarization states as predicted by theory. The

quarter-wave plate produced nearly circular polarization, while the half-wave plate
rotated linear polarization at twice the plate rotation angle.

3. Optical activity measurements showed a linear relationship between rotation

angle and concentration, allowing precise determination of specific rotation
values.

4. The wavelength dependence of optical rotation followed the expected inverse-

square relationship, supporting the Drude equation model.

5. Different sugars exhibited characteristic specific rotations, with fructose

showing levorotatory behavior in contrast to the dextrorotatory behavior of sucrose
and glucose.

These results illustrate how polarization can be used as a sensitive probe of

molecular structure and demonstrate the chiral nature of certain organic molecules.

#### 9. QUESTIONS AND DISCUSSION

1. **Why isn't the circular polarization produced by the quarter-wave plate

perfect?**

The imperfect circular polarization (1.08:1 ratio rather than 1:1) likely
results from:
- The wave plate not producing exactly 90° retardance
- The fast axis not being precisely at 45° to the input polarization
- Wavelength sensitivity of the wave plate (designed for 632.8 nm specifically)

2. **How could the polarimeter be improved for more precise measurements?**

Improvements could include:

- Temperature control of samples (optical rotation is temperature-dependent)
- Automated rotation detection to eliminate subjective determination of
extinction
- Monochromatic source with greater wavelength stability
- Longer sample tubes for measuring lower concentrations

3. **What are practical applications of these polarization techniques?**

 Applications include:
- Sugar concentration measurement in food processing
- Stress analysis in transparent materials (photoelasticity)
- LCD displays, which rely on polarization control
- Optical data storage and processing
- Medical diagnostics using polarization changes in biological tissues

#### 10. REFERENCES

1. Hecht, E. (2017). Optics (5th ed.). Pearson.

2. Goldstein, D. (2011). Polarized Light (3rd ed.). CRC Press.
3. Kliger, D. S., Lewis, J. W., & Randall, C. E. (1990). Polarized Light in Optics
and Spectroscopy. Academic Press.
4. Lowry, T. M. (1935). Optical Rotatory Power. Dover Publications.