Vehicle Detection (Sensor)

Technologies
 Measurement
• Density can easily be measured by remote sensing, but has
historically been difficult to measure
– Use occupancy obtained from loop-detectors
• TMS more easy to measure than SMS
– Use correction or approximation
– Easy to measure with remote sensing (GPS)
• Flow is easy to measure
• Occupancy is measure of density
• Only need to measure 2 of 3
Share of Detectors at ATMS Site
 Infrared beacons

• In the context of Vehicle Information and Communication System (VICS), Infrared

Beacons refer to a type of traffic information transmission system used in Japan.
Infrared beacons are small, low-power transmitters that emit infrared signals
containing traffic information.

• These beacons are typically installed on traffic signs or other structures along the
roadside and are used to transmit real-time traffic information to passing vehicles
equipped with infrared receivers. The infrared signals contain information such as
traffic congestion levels, accidents, and road closures, which can help drivers
make informed decisions about their route.

• The use of infrared beacons as a means of transmitting traffic information has

several advantages. First, infrared signals are highly directional and can be
precisely targeted at passing vehicles, reducing the likelihood of interference or
signal degradation. Second, infrared beacons are low-power and can operate on
batteries or solar power, making them easy and cost-effective to install in remote
or rural areas.
Loop Detectors
 Introduction: Inductive loop detectors

• Inductive loop detectors are used in various applications such as traffic

control systems, security systems, and industrial automation. The basic
principle of operation of an inductive loop detector is to detect the presence
or absence of a metallic object, such as a vehicle or an object with metallic
properties, passing over an inductive loop.

• The inductive loop detector consists of a loop of wire, typically made of a few
turns of copper wire, that is installed under the road surface or embedded in
concrete. The wire loop acts as an inductor, and when an AC current is
passed through it, an electromagnetic field is generated.

• When a metallic object, such as a vehicle, passes over the loop, it disturbs
the electromagnetic field, and this disturbance is detected by the inductive
loop detector. The detector detects the change in inductance caused by the
metallic object, and this change triggers the detector's output signal.
 Introduction: Inductive loop detectors…

• The inductive loop detector then sends a signal to a control unit, which
processes the signal and performs various actions, such as opening a gate,
controlling traffic lights, or triggering an alarm.

• The sensitivity of the inductive loop detector can be adjusted to detect

various sizes of metallic objects, and the loop can be designed in various
shapes and sizes to suit different applications. Inductive loop detectors are
reliable, durable, and cost-effective, and they have been widely used in
various applications for many years.
 Introduction: Inductive loop detectors…

The electronics unit transmits energy into the wire loops at frequencies between 10 kHz to
200 kHz, depending on the model. The inductive-loop system behaves as a tuned electrical
circuit in which the loop wire and lead-in cable are the inductive elements. When a vehicle
passes over the loop or is stopped within the loop, the vehicle induces eddy currents in the
wire loops, which decrease their inductance. The decreased inductance actuates the
electronics unit output relay or solid-state optically isolated output, which sends a pulse to
the controller signifying the passage or presence of a vehicle.
Loop Detector

Freeway Monitoring
Loop Detector
 Loop Detector: Principle of Operation

• An inductive loop vehicle detector system consists of three

components: a loop (preformed or saw-cut), loop extension
cable, and a detector.
• When installing or repairing an inductive loop system the
smallest detail can mean the difference between reliable
detection and an intermittent detection of vehicles.
Therefore, attention to detail when installing or
troubleshooting an inductive loop vehicle detection system is
important.
 Loop Detector: Principle of Operation…
• The preformed or saw-cut loop is buried in the traffic lane.

• The loop is a continuous run of wire that enters and exits from
the same point.

• The two ends of the loop wire are connected to the loop
extension cable, which in turn connects to the vehicle detector.

• The detector powers the loop causing a magnetic field in the

loop area. The loop resonates at a constant frequency that the
detector monitors.
 Loop Detector: Principle of Operation…
• A base frequency is established (20-150 kHz) when there is no vehicle over the loop. This
creates a homogeneous magnetic field around the loop, which is disrupted by the presence
of the metal body of the vehicle. The magnetic flux induces the electrical property called
inductance.
• When a large metal object, such as a vehicle, moves over the loop, the resonate
frequency increases. This increase in frequency is sensed and, depending on the design
of the detector, forces a normally open relay to close.
• The relay will remain closed until the vehicle leaves the loop and the frequency returns to
the base level. The relay can trigger any number of devices such as an audio intercom
system, a gate, a traffic light, etc.
 Loop Detector: Principle of Operation…
• Current and Magnetic Field: The detector has a wire loop embedded in the
road's surface at places like traffic lights or toll booths. It sends an
alternating electrical current having base frequency ranging from 20-150
kHz when there is no vehicle over the loop. Due to physics principles, any
wire that carries an alternating current generates a magnetic field around
it.
• Inductance: The property of inductance is a measure of how much
opposition a conductor offers to a changing current. In this case, the wire
loop's inductance is affected by the surrounding magnetic field. When
there's no vehicle present, the loop has a certain amount of inductance due
to the magnetic field created by the current flowing through it.
 Loop Detector: Principle of Operation…
• Vehicle Presence and Effect on Inductance: Vehicles are typically made of
metal, a good conductor of electricity. When a vehicle passes over or stops
above the loop, the metal body of the vehicle influences the loop's
magnetic field. This interaction is similar to how a metal core in an electrical
transformer affects its operation. The presence of the vehicle's metal body
within the magnetic field causes a disturbance—a "loading effect." This
reduces the inductance of the loop because the metal body makes it easier
for the magnetic field lines to flow.
 Loop Detector: Principle of Operation…
• Resonant Frequency Change: Every inductor (in this case, the wire loop)
has a resonant frequency at which it naturally oscillates. The reduction in
inductance caused by the presence of a vehicle causes this resonant
frequency to increase from its usual (or nominal) value.

• Detection: The detector is constantly monitoring the resonant frequency of

the loop. When a vehicle enters the detection zone and affects the
inductance, the resonant frequency shifts. If this shift is large enough—
meaning it crosses a certain threshold that the system is set to detect as a
vehicle—the detector recognizes this as a vehicle present and sends out a
detection signal, or an "on" state. If there's no significant frequency shift, it
stays in an "off" state, indicating no vehicle is present. In some arrangement
this increase in frequency is sensed and, depending on the design of the
detector, forces a normally open relay to close. The relay will remain closed
until the vehicle leaves the loop and the frequency returns to the base
level. The relay can trigger any number of devices such as an audio
intercom system, a gate, a traffic light, etc.
 Loop Detector: Principle of Operation…
In general, a compact car will cause a greater increase in frequency than a full size car
or truck. This occurs because the metal surfaces on the under carriage of the vehicle
are closer to the loop. Fig. 3 and 4 illustrate how the under carriage of a sports car is
well within the magnetic field of the loop compared to the sports utility vehicle. Notice
that the frequency change is greater with the smaller vehicle.
 Loop Detector: Principle of Operation…
There is a misconception that inductive loop vehicle detection is based on metal mass.
This is simply not true. Detection is based on metal surface area, otherwise known as
skin effect. The greater the surface area of metal in the same plane as the loop, the
greater the increase in frequency.

For example, a one square foot piece of sheet metal positioned in the same plane of
the loop has the same affect as a hunk of metal one foot square and one foot thick.

Another way to illustrate the point is to take the same one square foot piece of sheet
metal, which is easily detected when held in the same plane as the loop, and turn it
perpendicular to the loop and it becomes impossible to detect. Keep this principle in
mind when dealing with inductive loop detectors.
 Loop Detector: Types
Preformed Loops
A preformed loop is typically 3 to 5 turns of loop wire encased in PVC pipe for
use in new construction before the pavement is installed. The loop wire is
1.628 mm dia/ 1.291 mm dia stranded machine tool wire with an insulation of
XLPE (cross-linked polyethylene) encased in PVC pipe to hold the loop’s shape
and to protect the loop wire from damage while the pavement is installed.
 Loop Detector: Types
Saw-Cut Loops
A saw-cut loop is used when the pavement is already in place. The installation
involves cutting the loop shape in the pavement with a concrete saw, laying the
loop wire in the slot, pressing in a polyfoam backerrod to keep the wire
compacted and finishing with saw-cut loop sealant or street bond to fill the slot
and protect the wire.
 Installation Consideration
Number of Outputs.
Most detectors provide a switch closure via a relay, which is typically configured as
normally open. It is the number of outputs provided that may be important and
how they can be configured. More and more devices, particularly in the drive-thru
environments, need to be triggered by vehicle detection, such as audio
communication, car timing, message greeting, electronic menu boards, gates, etc.
Determine the number of devices that will be used now and in the future with the
vehicle detector and match or exceed that number with the number of available
relay outputs.
Signal Type.
All detectors provide a constant presence style of signal output. In other words,
the relay output is closed the entire time that a vehicle is present over the loop,
and does not open again until the vehicle drives away. Most devices require this
style of output signal, however some devices require a pulse style, which will only
momentarily close the relay at the time when the vehicle is detected.
 Installation Consideration
Diagnostics.
Some detectors provide PC diagnostics via a communication port on the detector.
Diagnostic software gives you a visual picture of what is happening at the loop,
and will help you troubleshoot any problems you may experience during
installation or in the future.

Detectors with this feature are usually in the same price range as other detectors
and can help you save time solving a detection problem. The PC software and
cable is usually additional, however keep in mind that if you have multiple
installations you need only buy the software and cable setup once. Diagnostics
software can also help determine the depth and position of the loop in the
pavement.
.
Installation Consideration
 Installation Consideration
Location
The position of the loop relative to the vehicles you are trying to
detect is extremely important.
Vehicles entering a fast food restaurant via drive-through lane
will stop at the menu board with the driver’s window positioned
in line with the speaker post.
The front axle is the only metal surface whose relative position
to the driver is consistent from vehicle to vehicle. Because of
this fact, the vehicle detector is designed to pick up the front
axle, not the vehicle’s engine.
Therefore, the loop should be positioned 0.45 m to 0.61 m
ahead of the speaker post, with the long axis of the loop
running perpendicular to the traffic lane. This positions the axle
of the vehicle directly over the loop in the same direction as the
loop.
Installation Consideration
Installation Consideration
Installation Consideration
 Installation Consideration
The proper installation and location of the loop are the most important
aspects of reliable vehicle detection. In recent years, there has been an
increase in the number of missed and false detections due to the popularity
of SUVs.
The missed detections can be attributed to two factors. First, and most
obvious, is that the metal surface area of the taller vehicles is farther away
from the loop which makes the vehicle more difficult to detect.

Second, and less obvious, is that larger vehicles have a greater turning radius.
The driver finds it difficult in some drive through lanes to round the corner
prior to the loop and as a result, the vehicle becomes positioned further away
from the curb and not properly positioned over the loop.
Installation Consideration
 Installation
Loop Installation

Follow closely the manufacturers installation instructions for the saw-cut or

preformed loop that you purchased. However, there are a couple of important
points to make with regard to saw-cut loop and preformed loop installation.

It is important that when the installation is complete the loop be no more than
5 cm below the surface of the bitumen or concrete. The deeper the loop the
less sensitive the loop detection system becomes.

It is also important that the lead-in wires from the detector to the beginning of
the loop be twisted a minimum of five times per foot.
 Sensitivity

• The sensitivity of ILD depends on:

 Overlay of the loop by the vehicle,
 Depth of installation: the deeper, the lower the sensitivity
 Lead length: Inductance in series with coil inductance
 pavement reinforcement: sensitivity decreases by 5-50%
 pavement material, which should be electrically non-
conductive
 Sensitivity…
• Most vehicle detectors have adjustable settings for sensitivity.
If the detector is missing vehicles then the sensitivity is set too
low.
• If the detector is jumpy or is creating false detections, it may be
set too sensitive.
• However, all inductive loop detectors are dealing with the same
physical characteristics of a magnetic field in a loop. The
maximum height of detection is roughly 2/3 the length of the
short side of the loop. For example, if we consider a loop that is
46 cm x 152 cm, the maximum height of detection is 30.5 cm
from the loop. Most manufacturers have managed to push the
height of detection to the full length of the short side, however
keep in mind this is not as reliable.
 Sensitivity…
• The most effective way to increase sensitivity is to lengthen the
short side of the loop. Most drive through loops are 18 to 24
inches (45.7 cm to 61 cm) wide.
• If one has taken an 46 cm x 152 cm loop and increase the short
side to 61 cm , the height of detection can be increased by 10
cm.
• However, it is crucial to strike a balance when adjusting the
loop's width. If the loop becomes excessively wide, loop that is
overly sensitive may struggle to distinguish the gap between
individual vehicles accurately. As a result, the system might fail
to detect the separation between vehicles, potentially causing
a missed detection event.
 Sensitivity (Contd..)
• The frequency of the loop will change as the environment
changes, as a result most detectors are designed to constantly
adjust to this slow change in frequency over time.

• The detector’s purpose is to detect rapid changes in frequency.

However, inductive loops and detectors are sensitive to
temperature. When the temperature of the inductive loop
increases, the frequency will decrease, and the opposite is true
of the detector.

• When the temperature of the detector increases the frequency

will increase. If the temperature of either the loop or the
detector increases or decreases too fast, false detections will
occur.
 Sensitivity (Contd..)
• To optimize the loop's performance, it is essential to
find the right balance between sensitivity and the
ability to differentiate between closely spaced
vehicles.
• This can be achieved through careful consideration of
the loop's dimensions, taking into account factors
such as the expected vehicle speed, the distance
between vehicles, and the specific requirements of
the application.
Composition of the detector

• One or more turns (3) of an

insulated metallic conductor
• Junction box (amplifier)
• Control unit
Layout: Inductive Loop Detector
 Installation: Inductive Loop Detector
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OFpnJZ_jF68
Inductive Loop Detector: Shapes
Loop Detector Signatures
 Loop Detector Signatures
• These detectors are installed in the pavement and can detect changes in
inductance as vehicles pass over them or come to a stop above them.

• The images show a road with a vehicle passing by at two different times,
while the graphs next to the images represent the signal data collected by
the loop detectors. The change occurring during the passage over an
inductive loop element placed on a road is observed.

• It is seen that the inductance value of the system decreases when vehicles
pass over the inductive loop detectors. The existing magnetic field is
disturbed due to the eddy currents that occur at the moment the vehicles
pass.
 Inductance Loop Detectors
Loop inductance decreases when a car is on top of it.
Inductance
T = ton
0
ton

``

T = toff
toff
Time
 Inductance Loop Detectors

Inductance

High

low
Tn tn1 loop measurements?
Single tn2 tn3 Tn+1 Time

• Single loops can measure:

– Occupancy (O): % of time loop is occupied per interval
– Volume (N): vehicles per interval
Dual Loop Detectors
 How do you estimate speed from a
single loop detector?
• You know how long it took the object to pass
over the detector
• You know the percent of time (in a short
interval) the loop was covered by a vehicle

• What else do you need to know?

Can We Get Speed from a Single Loop?

EVL
s
to
s = speed (m/sec)
EVL = effective vehicle length (m)
to = occupancy time (s)

EVL ~ vehicle length + detector length

 Estimating Speed from a Single Loop?

• Using typical traffic data

5793.5  N 360 N  EVL
s 
T O g T O
s = speed (km/hr)
N = number of vehicles in the observation interval
T = observation interval (s)
O = percentage of time the loop is occupied by vehicles
during the observation interval (occupancy)
g = speed estimation parameter
1609.3
g
EVL 100 100 converts percent to decimal
Parameters Provided by Loop

URL: http://clranalytics.com/projects/advanced-sensor-technologies/SBIR-REID-
2009
Summary of Sensors
 Loop Detector for Automatic Vehicle
Classification (AVC)
This system consists of a conventional loop buried in the roadway and a
special digital electronics unit that transmits a high frequency excitation
signal to the loop and receives a unique waveform (also termed the
“signature” or “footprint”) corresponding to each vehicle class it detects.
When a waveform similar to that expected for a priority vehicle is
identified, priority signal treatment is provided.
Loop Detector for AVC
 Loop Detector AVC
The digitized signature is input to a microprocessor that seeks and
compares preidentified features to those of known bus profiles stored in
memory. If a bus is identified, an output is generated to request priority
treatment.
 Cross-Talk

CROSSTALK
When two loops constructed of the same wire diameter have the same loop
dimensions, number of turns, and lead-in length, they have the same
resonant frequency. When these two loops are near each other or when the
lead-ins from these loops are in close proximity (perhaps running in the same
conduit), a phenomenon known as “crosstalk” can occur. This effect is caused
by an electrical coupling between the two loop channels and will often
manifest itself as brief, false, or erratic actuations when no vehicles are
present.

NEMA Standards require inherent, automatic, or manual techniques to be

utilized to prevent crosstalk. The most common feature is a frequency
selection switch that varies the operating frequency of the adjacent loop
channels.
 Advantages of ILD

• Customizable design
• Proven and functional technology
• Price of the device
• They provide basic transport
parameters
• Data classification option
• They are not affected by the
weather
 Disadvantages of ILD

• Traffic disruption during installation

and maintenance
• Failures related to poor quality of
road surfaces
• Multiple detectors are usually
required to measure speed
• Road repairs often require
reinstallation of the detector
• Susceptibility to disturbances
caused by loop movement
• Reduces the life of the road
• Constant demands on (routine)
maintenance
 Magnetic Sensors
Magnetic sensors are passive devices that indicate the presence of
a metallic object by detecting the perturbation (known as a
magnetic anomaly) in the Earth’s magnetic field created by the
object. Figure shows the magnetic anomaly produced by the
magnetic dipoles, i.e., magnetic fields, on a steel vehicle when it
enters the magnetometer’s detection zone .
Magnetic Sensors

Function:
•It measures the density of the
Earth's magnetic field lines.
•The metal mass of the
vehicle in the sensor area will
increase the density of the
magnetic field lines.
•It detects a change in the
density of the magnetic field
lines as the presence of a
vehicle.
Magnetic Sensors

• The mass of metal in the

vehicle will deform the field
lines so that they pass
through it.
• On the sides of a vehicle
there is to reduced density
of field lines.
• under/above the vehicle to
increase the density of field
lines.
Magnetic Sensors
Magnetic Sensors
 Magnetic Sensors

The upper part of the figure indicates how the vector addition of
the dipole magnetic field and the Earth’s quiescent magnetic field
produces the magnetic anomaly. The lower portion of the figure
depicts several dipoles on a vehicle and their effect on sensor
output.
 Magnetic
Sensors
The figure illustrates the distortion
induced in the Earth’s magnetic
field as a vehicle enters and passes
through the detection zone of a
magnetic sensor.

Figure a depicts the magnetic field

as the vehicle approaches the
sensor.

Figure b shows the field lines of flux

as the vehicle begins to pass
through the sensor’s detection
zone.

Figure c illustrates the lines of flux

when the entire vehicle is over the
sensor.
 Magnetic Sensors: Types

1. Magnetometers
2. Magnetic Detectors
 Magnetometers
Two types of magnetic sensors are used for traffic flow parameter measurement.

 The first type, two- and three-axis fluxgate magnetometers, detects

changes in the vertical and horizontal components of the Earth’s magnetic field
produced by a ferrous metal vehicle.

 These sensors identify stopped and moving vehicles.

 The two-axis fluxgate magnetometer contains a primary winding and two

secondary “sense” windings on a bobbin surrounding a high permeability soft
magnetic material core.

 A two-axis fluxgate magnetometer has two core assemblies that are oriented at
right angles to each other, allowing it to measure magnetic fields in two
dimensions. Each core assembly contains a ferromagnetic core with a coil
wrapped around it. The secondary coils (winding) detect the magnetic field
induced in the core by the external field and generate an output signal that is
proportional to the strength of the external magnetic field in the respective
direction.
Magnetometers…
 Magnetometers…
• Since fluxgate magnetometers are passive devices, they do not transmit an
energy field and a portion of the vehicle must pass over the sensor for it to be
detected.
• Consequently, a magnetometer can detect two vehicles separated by a
distance of about 0.3 m.
• This potentially makes the magnetometer as accurate as or better than the
inductive loop detector at counting vehicles.
• Conversely, the magnetometer is not a good locater of the perimeter of the
vehicle. There is an uncertainty of about ±45 cm.
• A single magnetometer is therefore seldom used for determining occupancy
and speed in a traffic management application. Two closely spaced
magnetometer sensors are preferred for that function.
 Magnetometers…
• Since fluxgate magnetometers are passive devices, they do not transmit an
energy field and a portion of the vehicle must pass over the sensor for it to be
detected.
• Consequently, a magnetometer can detect two vehicles separated by a
distance of about 0.3 m.
• This potentially makes the magnetometer as accurate as or better than the
inductive loop detector at counting vehicles.
• Conversely, the magnetometer is not a good locater of the perimeter of the
vehicle. There is an uncertainty of about ±45 cm.
• A single magnetometer is therefore seldom used for determining occupancy
and speed in a traffic management application. Two closely spaced
magnetometer sensors are preferred for that function.
 Magnetometers…
• Magnetometers can be used on bridge decks where ILDs may be affected by
the steel support structure or simply cannot be installed. Arrays of three-axis
fluxgate magnetometers can gather vehicle signatures in support of vehicle
classification.
• Magnetometer sensors, such as those in Figure, supply vehicle flow data such
as presence, passage, count, and lane occupancy.
Magnetometers…
 G-8 Sensors
G-8 is a wireless sensor that incorporates a two-axis fluxgate magnetometer is
shown in previous figure

The G-8 series sensors fit into a 6-in diameter hole of 3¼-in depth (152.4-mm
diameter × 82.6-mm depth).
The sensor transmits data using the 2.45 GHz spread spectrum band to a base
unit up to 300 ft (91 m) away.
The base unit can be powered from batteries recharged by solar energy. The G-8
provides vehicle count, speed (up to 12 bins), length (up to 6 bins), lane
occupancy, daily and annual average daily traffic (AADT), environmental
monitoring of road surface temperature from –55oC to 85oC), road surface wet
or dry condition, and chemical index. Polling intervals* range from 5 to 120
minutes. The G-8 operates from 4 lithium thionyl chloride batteries for up to 5
years, typically 2 - 4 years depending on AADT and polling interval.

Polling is the process where the computer or controlling device waits for an
external device to check for its readiness or state, often with low-level
hardware. For example, when a printer is connected via a parallel port, the
computer waits until the printer has received the next character.
 • Figure illustrates a wireless three-axis
magnetometer that measures the x-, y-, and z
components of the Earth’s magnetic field.
• One or more of these sensors (across the width or
length of the monitored road section) are required
for applications as freeway and arterial count
stations, stop bar detectors, and long loop
emulators. They are installed by coring a 4-in. (10-
cm) diameter hole approximately 2¼ in. (6.5 cm)
deep, inserting the sensor into the hole so that it is
properly aligned with the direction of traffic flow,
and sealing the hole with fast drying epoxy.
• The sensor maintains two-way wireless
communication with an access point device over a
range of 75 to 150 ft (23 to 46 m). The
communication range may be extended another 75
to 150 ft (23 to 46 m) by installing a repeater (A
repeater is a network hardware device that
regenerates an incoming signal from the sender
before retransmitting it to the receiver) unit
https://sensysnetworks.com/pr between the sensor and the nearest access point
oducts device. Sensor battery life depends on the vehicle
detection application, but is expected to be 10
years. This sensor is available with two mounting
options: flush mount and surface mount.
Source: https://sensysnetworks.com/products/flexmag
 Magnetic Detector
• The second type of magnetic sensor is the magnetic detector, more properly
referred to as an induction or search coil magnetometer. It normally detects
only moving vehicles by measuring the change in the magnetic lines of flux
caused by a moving ferrous metal vehicle.

• These devices contain a single coil winding around a permeable magnetic

material rod core. Similar to the fluxgate magnetometer, magnetic detectors
generate a voltage when a ferromagnetic object perturbs the Earth’s magnetic
field.

• However, most magnetic detectors cannot detect stopped or slow moving (i.e.,
vehicles with speeds less than approximately 10 km/h) vehicles, since they
require a vehicle to be moving or otherwise changing its signature
characteristics with respect to time.
Magnetic Detector…
Magnetic Detector…
 Magnetic Detectors…
Advantages
Two- and three-axis fluxgate magnetometers are less susceptible than loops to
stresses of traffic. The pavement incursion for the sensor covers a smaller area
and therefore may not affect pavement life as much as loops. Pavement cuts for
data transmission to a controller are eliminated since the fluxgate magnetometers
described above transmit data over wireless RF links.

The induction or search coil magnetometer is also less susceptible than loops to
stresses of traffic. The induction magnetometer can be used where loops are not
feasible (e.g., bridge decks) and some models can be installed under the roadway
without the need for pavement cuts.

Disadvantages
Installation of magnetic sensors requires pavement cut, coring, or boring under the
roadway and thus requires lane closure during installation. Magnetic detectors
cannot generally detect stopped vehicles. Also, some models have small detection
zones.
 Magnetic Sensors
Manufacturers

 3M
 Sensys Networks, Inc.

 URL: https://multimedia.3m.com/mws/media/92383O/2-
3mtm-canogatm-vehicle-detection-system-701-
microloop.pdf
Magnetic Sensors for parking
Magnetic Sensors for parking (Contd..)
Magnetic Sensors for parking (Contd..)
 Magnetic Sensors for parking (Contd..)
Installation
 Magnetometer Installation Configuration

Vehicle speed can be measured when they are installed in a speed-trap

configuration as illustrated in Figure. Since magnetometers have a
relatively limited sensing area, several may be required across a lane to
guarantee 100% vehicle detection at a signal stop line or to determine
queue length, especially on a curved section of road where vehicles
may be partially in one lane and partially in another
 PIEZOELECTRIC SENSORS
• Piezoelectric material converts kinetic energy to electrical energy.
• Polymers that exhibit this property to a high degree are ideal to use in
the construction of piezoelectric sensors.
 AADT Data Application..
• Infrastructure Planning and Design: AADT is used in the planning and
design of infrastructure1. It helps in determining the type and size of
infrastructure needed to accommodate the traffic volume.
• Tracking Traffic Congestion: AADT data helps in tracking traffic
congestion over time. This can assist in identifying problem areas and
planning for solutions.
• Estimating Road Safety: By analyzing AADT data, officials can
estimate road safety. High traffic volumes might indicate a higher risk of
accidents, informing the need for safety measures.
 AADT Data Application..
• Allocating Highway Funds: AADT is an empirical measure that helps
allocate highway funds. Roads with higher traffic volumes may require
more maintenance and therefore receive more funding.
• Retail and Real Estate Decisions: Retailers and commercial real estate
professionals consider AADT data when evaluating sites for
development and for marketing and pricing properties1.
• Legal Use: Lawyers and law enforcement officials use the AADT metric
in accident cases and investigations.
• Budgeting and Prioritization: Lawmakers use AADT to inform budgeting
and prioritization of transport budgets and projects.
PIEZOELECTRIC SENSORS: Principle of Operation

• Piezoelectric materials have the property of generating an electric

voltage when they are subjected to mechanical stress, such as impact
or vibration. This is known as the piezoelectric effect.

• When a piezoelectric material is deformed by mechanical force,

electrical charges of opposite polarity appear on the opposite faces
(inner and outer surfaces) of the material. This separation of charge
creates a voltage across the material.

• The voltage that is induced in the piezoelectric material is directly

proportional to the force applied to it. In the context of vehicle sensing,
this means that the voltage is related to the weight or force of the
vehicle pressing down on the sensor.
PIEZOELECTRIC SENSORS: Principle of Operation
• The piezoelectric effect's magnitude depends on the
direction of the applied force relative to the crystal axes
of the piezoelectric material. This directional
dependency is crucial for correctly interpreting the
sensor's signal.

• The piezoelectric effect is dynamic, meaning that it

is responsive to changes in the applied force. If a force
is applied and then held constant, the initial electrical
charge generated will gradually decay or diminish over
time. Therefore, piezoelectric sensors are most
effective for measuring dynamic pressure changes
rather than static pressures.
 PIEZOELECTRIC SENSORS

Application and Use

• Piezoelectric sensors are utilized to classify vehicles by axle count

and axle spacing and to measure vehicle weight and speed (the
latter when multiple sensors are deployed).

• They are frequently used as part of weigh-in-motion systems.

Class I piezoelectric sensors detect and weigh axles, while Class II
sensors only detect the axle. There is typically a price advantage
of buying Class II sensors for non-WIM applications, although the
total installed cost of some Class I sensors is only fractionally more
than that of a Class II sensor for sensors of the same length (*
Halvorsen, 1999).

* Halvorsen, D. (1999). FINGER ON THE PULSE: PIEZOS ON THE RISE. Traffic Technology
International.
PIEZOELECTRIC SENSORS: TYPE

Coaxial piezoelectric tube sensor

 PIEZOELECTRIC SENSORS: Components
Piezoelectric sensors, such as a coaxial piezoelectric tube sensor, are
made using a specific construction method that allows them to detect
mechanical pressure (such as vibration or impact) and convert it into an
electrical signal.
• Core Element: The sensor has a central core that is often made of a metal
that's braided or woven together. This provides mechanical strength and a
conductive pathway. It carries the electrical signal from the piezoelectric film.
• PVDF (Polyvinylidene fluoride) - piezoelectric film - This is the active
sensing element of the sensor. PVDF is a piezoelectric polymer that generates
an electrical charge when subjected to mechanical stress or vibration. The film
is wrapped around the central cable.
• Outer Metal Layer (Copper Shield): The sensor is enclosed with a metal
outer layer. This could serve multiple purposes such as protecting the sensor,
acting as a ground plane, or helping to apply an electrical field during
manufacturing. The shield helps to reduce electromagnetic interference and
noise.
• External polyethylene cover - The entire sensor assembly is encased in an
external polyethylene cover, which provides mechanical protection and
electrical insulation to the sensor.
 Piezoelectric Sensors: Development Process
• Polarization Process: To become sensitive to mechanical stress, the
piezoelectric material must be polarized. Polarization involves aligning
the molecular structure of the material so that it exhibits piezoelectric
properties.

• Applying the Electric Field: During manufacturing, the sensor is

subjected to a strong radial electric field. This is typically done using a
high-voltage discharge method known as corona poling or treatment,
where the field is applied around the sensor in a radial fashion. This
process is completed before the outer metal jacket is added.

• Material Transformation: The application of the electric field alters

the structure of the piezoelectric polymer, changing it from an
amorphous to a semi-crystalline form. This transformation provides the
material with piezoelectric properties while maintaining the flexible
characteristics of the original polymer, which are important for
applications that require the sensor to be flexible or to withstand
various environmental conditions.
 Piezoelectric Sensors: Development Process
• The outcome of this construction and manufacturing process is a
piezoelectric sensor that can flexibly conform to various shapes and
surfaces, detect mechanical stresses accurately, and translate those
stresses into electrical signals for measurement and analysis.
 Vibracoax Sensor…

Vibracoax piezoelectric sensor mounted in aluminum channel as

installed in a roadbed

Vibracoax piezoelectric sensor manufactured by Thermocoax.

 Vibracoax Sensor
• It utilizes a mineral-based powder as the piezoelectric material that
forms the dielectric between the copper wire at the center of the coaxial
cable and the solid copper tube that serves as the outer conductor.

• During manufacture, the cable is heated to 400°C and a voltage is

applied between the inner and outer conductors to polarize the powder
by orienting the electrical charges on the molecules of powder. This
maintains the cable core as cooled, stabilizing the polarized field.

• The cable can be installed without kinks in an aluminum channel as

shown in Figure. A resin-based grout is used to secure it into the
pavement.
 Vibracoax Sensor
Construction (Contd..)

• Vibracoax is recommended for weigh-in-motion, vehicle classification

by axle count and spacing, gross vehicle and load measurement,
speed measurement, and counting applications.
• The technique enhances vertical pressure measurement by reducing
stresses from transverse and concrete slabs that may contain cracks,
transferring only horizontal forces to the cable sensor.
• The sawcut and cable are sealed with fillers matching the road surface
properties to produce a slightly domed surface.
 Vibracoax Sensor
Construction (Contd..)

• Slot Sawcut: 3/16" (5 mm) slot sawcut into the pavement to house
the sensor assembly.
• Resin-based grout: It is used to secure and seal the sensor
assembly into the pavement slot.
• Vibracoax cable sensor: the main sensing element consisting of a
coaxial cable with a piezoelectric material as the dielectric.
• Sand Epoxy: Sand epoxy encapsulation compound surrounding the
Vibracoax cable sensor within the aluminum channel.
• Aluminum channel: It houses and protects the Vibracoax cable
sensor, providing a stable mounting in the pavement slot.
• Pavement surface layer: In the layer into which the sensor
assembly is embedded.
 Vibracoax Sensor…
• Vibracoax is recommended for weigh-in-motion, vehicle classification
by axle count and spacing, gross vehicle and load measurement,
speed measurement, and counting applications.

• Foam rubber is placed along the vertical sides of the sawcut when
Vibracoax cable is utilized in weigh-in-motion systems manufactured
by ECM, Inc. This technique enhances the vertical pressure
measurement and reduces side stresses. This configuration is
particularly useful for installations in concrete slabs that may contain
cracks that would otherwise transfer horizontal.

Source: https://www.ecm-france.com/en/areas-of-
activity/weigh-in-motion/
 LINEAS SENSOR

• LINEAS Piezoelectric Sensors are a product of Kistler and are used in

Weigh In Motion (WIM) systems.
 LINEAS SENSOR…
• Quartz Technology: LINEAS sensors use quartz piezoelectric technology.
Quartz piezoelectric sensing elements show almost zero deflection, and
the sensors benefit from extremely high natural frequency and excellent
linearity over a wide amplitude range. This technology is also insensitive to
electromagnetic fields and radiation.
• High Measurement Accuracy: These sensors provide highly accurate
measurement signals. They measure wheel and axle loads to determine
the vehicle gross weight under rolling traffic conditions.
• Robust Design: LINEAS sensors have a robust design that ensures long-
term durability. They are compliant with OIML (accuracy class 2).
• Speed and Temperature Insensitivity: The sensors can measure at any
speed (from 1 to over 250 km/h) and are insensitive to temperature
fluctuations.
• Easy Installation: LINEAS sensors can be quickly and easily installed into
road pavement.
• The OIML, or the International Organization of Legal Metrology, develops model regulations, standards, and related documents
for use by legal metrology authorities and industry. These documents cover various aspects of measuring instruments and their
controls, aiming to harmonize these regulations globally. The specific maximum permissible errors for class 2 instruments
depend on the verification scale interval (e) and the load applied. OIML accuracy class 2 refers to a specific accuracy
classification for weighing instruments defined in OIML's international recommendation OIML R 76-1, titled "Non-automatic
weighing instruments - Part 1: Metrological and technical requirements - Tests."
 LINEAS SENSOR…
• The image shows the cross-section of a Lineas Quartz piezoelectric
sensor, which consists of the following components:

• Quartz sensing element: This is the main component of the sensor that
generates an electrical signal when subjected to mechanical stress or
pressure.

• Special alloy profile: The quartz sensing element is housed within a

special alloy profile that provides protection and helps to transfer the load
to the sensing element.

• Elastic material (foam): A layer of elastic foam material surrounds the

special alloy profile. This foam helps to distribute the load evenly and
provides some damping to reduce the influence of high-frequency
vibrations.

• Sand-epoxy grouting: The sensor assembly is embedded in a sand-

epoxy grouting material, which helps to secure the sensor in place and
provides a stable base for the sensor to operate.
 LINEAS SENSOR…
• Load bearing (can be ground): The Figure indicates that the load bearing
surface can be the ground itself, suggesting that the sensor is designed for
in-road or in-pavement installation.

• The arrows in the Figure illustrates the load transfer mechanism The load
is transferred from the load bearing surface, through the elastic foam
material and the special alloy profile, to the quartz sensing element.

• When a vehicle passes over the sensor, the weight of the vehicle
compresses the quartz element, generating an electrical signal proportional
to the applied load. This signal can be processed to obtain information
about the vehicle, such as its weight, speed, and classification.
 BL SENSOR
The BL (Brass Linguini®) model is installed directly into the roadbed in a slot
0.75-in (19-mm) wide by 0.75-in (19-mm) deep (typical). Polyurethane,
epoxy, and acrylic grouts are available for sealing the slot.
When the BLC aluminum channel model is installed, as depicted in Figure,
the same epoxy is used inside the channel to encapsulate the sensor and for
installation in the road. This eliminates or greatly reduces temperature
coefficient effects.

Roadtrax piezoelectric BLC sensor mounted in

aluminum channel as installed in a roadbed
 BL SENSOR

The unique construction of the sensor allows direct installation into the road in a flexible format so that it
can conform to the profile of the road. The flat construction of the sensor gives an inherent rejection of road
noise due to road bending, adjacent lanes, and bow waves of approaching vehicles. The small cut in the
road minimizes the damage done to the road, speeds up the installation, and reduces the amount of grout
used for the installation. The RoadTrax BL sensor is available both as a class I sensor for the highest level
of uniformity needed for weigh-in-motion applications and as a class II sensor which is more cost-effective
for counting, classifying, high-speed toll booths, speed detection, and red light cameras.
 BL SENSOR…
• Temperature coefficient effects refer to the changes in a material's properties
or performance due to variations in temperature. In the context of piezoelectric
sensors, like the BL sensor mentioned, temperature coefficient effects can
impact the sensor's output signal and accuracy.
• Piezoelectric materials generate an electrical charge when subjected to
mechanical stress, but their sensitivity can be affected by temperature
changes. The temperature coefficient of a piezoelectric material quantifies
how much its output varies with temperature fluctuations.
• If a piezoelectric sensor is exposed to varying temperatures, its output signal
may drift or change, even when the applied mechanical stress remains
constant. This can lead to inaccuracies in the data collected by the sensor,
such as vehicle weight or classification.
• To reduce temperature coefficient effects, the BL sensor is installed inside an
aluminum channel using an epoxy compound. The aluminum channel and
epoxy help to provide a more stable thermal environment for the sensor,
minimizing the influence of external temperature changes on the piezoelectric
material. By reducing the sensor's exposure to temperature fluctuations, the
overall accuracy and reliability of the sensor can be improved.
PIEZOELECTRIC SENSORS: BONDING PROPERTY
 PIEZOELECTRIC SENSORS
Advantages

Piezoelectric sensors gather information when a tire passes over the

sensor, thus creating an analogue signal that is proportional to the
pressure exerted on the sensor.

This property of piezoelectric sensors allows them to differentiate

individual axles with high precision. In addition, on an installed cost basis,
some types are only marginally more expensive than an inductive loop,
but provide more information in the form of improved speed accuracy, the
ability to determine the classification of the vehicle based on weight and
axle spacing, and the capability to determine and monitor the weights of
vehicles for WIM systems.
 PIEZOELECTRIC SENSORS
Disadvantages

The drawbacks to the use of piezoelectric tube or cable sensors are

similar to those of inductive loop sensors in that they include disruption of
traffic for installation and repair, failures associated with installations in
poor road surfaces and wear, and use of substandard installation
procedures.

In many instances multiple detectors are required to instrument a location.

In addition, resurfacing of roadways and utility repair can create the need
to reinstall these types of sensors. Piezoelectric sensors have been
known to be sensitive to pavement temperature and vehicle speed.
 PIEZOELECTRIC SENSORS
Manufactures

Diamond Traffic
Truvelo Manufacturers (Pty) Ltd
Jamar Technologies
TE Connectivity
International Road Dynamics.
 WEIGH-IN-MOTION (WIM) SENSORS
Highway weigh-in-motion (WIM) systems are capable of estimating the
gross vehicle weight of a vehicle and the portion of this weight carried by
each wheel assembly (half-axle with one or more tires), axle, and axle
group on the vehicle (ASTM E1318-02, 2002).

WIM data are used by highway planners, designers, and enforcement

agencies (e.g., Departments of Public Safety and state highway patrols).
 WEIGH-IN-MOTION (WIM) SENSORS
• Weigh-in-motion (WIM) is a technology used for various applications
related to the weights and axle loads of road and rail vehicles. WIM
systems are installed on the road or rail track or on a vehicle and
measure, store, and provide data from the traffic flow and/or the
specific vehicle.

• These systems are capable of measuring vehicles traveling at a

reduced or normal traffic speed and do not require the vehicle to come
to a stop. This makes the weighing process more efficient, and, in the
case of commercial vehicles, allows for trucks under the weight limit to
bypass static scales or inspection.
 WEIGH-IN-MOTION (WIM) SENSORS…
• WIM systems measure the dynamic axle loads of the vehicles and try
to calculate the best possible estimate of the related static values. The
weight information consists of the gross vehicle weight and axle
(group) loads combined with other parameters like: date and time,
location, speed, and vehicle class.

• Especially for trucks, gross vehicle and axle weight monitoring is useful
in an array of applications including pavement design, monitoring, and
research; bridge design, monitoring, and research; to inform weight
overload enforcement policies and to directly facilitate enforcement.

• WIM systems can also help to minimize the risk of structural

overloading bridges and roads, thereby increasing safety for all road
users. By continuously monitoring the weight, it is also possible to
reduce wear and tear on the road infrastructure.
 Why WIM Sensors are Required?

• Excess damage to roads – Our roads are designed to

handle a specific range of weight for the area covered by
any particular vehicle. Without the right enforcement,
overloaded vehicles can cause craters and potholes, which
results in increased road maintenance. According to a
study, just 10% overloading increases the maintenance
cost by Rs 25 lakh per km.
• Damage to vehicles – Flouting regulations can lead to
multiple risks, including mechanical stress on trucks,
transmission failure, impaired braking and steering
capabilities, with an increased chance of tire blowouts. This
severely raises maintenance costs and downtime.
 Why WIM Sensors are Required?..

• Environmental impact – A point often overlooked is the

higher fuel consumption due to an increased requirement
of engine performance. This can spike emissions that are
detrimental to the environment and has an indirect impact
on the economy, further putting the transportation sector in
a bad light.
• Damage to vehicles and infrastructure – Weight
sensitive infrastructure such as bridges are particularly
impacted by overloaded vehicles, especially if there is a
tire blowout mid crossing.
• Overloaded trucks rolling back into other vehicles is
another safety concern, with a direct impact on the freight
customer if the cargo is not secured correctly.
 Why WIM Sensors are Required?..

• What is happening with WIM in India?

• India has been ahead of the curve with Weigh-in-Motion technology,

something that was introduced years ago. However, the situation
seems to have slowed down due to economic factors and a lack of
awareness.

• The Indian government has shared that as of February 2022, 467 of

692 toll plazas were equipped with WIM systems. An urgent appeal to
install more systems across toll plazas (both old and new) has also
been raised in the Rajya Sabha. It was estimated in 2018 that
monetary loss due to traffic crashes cost India $58 billion, with
overloading being a prime factor.
 Why WIM Sensors are Required?..

• What is happening with WIM in India?

• Overloaded trucks, carrying materials like cement, tiles, sand, and steel
beyond the 9-tonne prescribed limit, are causing cracks, grooves, and other
distortions on roads. For instance, the Varanasi Ring Road (Phase 2, pocket
1), a 17-km stretch that opened in October 2021, is already in need of repair
due to damage caused by overloaded trucks catering to mining districts in
Sonbhadra, Mirzapur, and Bihar.
• According to data collected over four months, around 70% of trucks
transporting construction material were found to be extremely overloaded,
violating the limit.
• Similar issues of habitual truck overloading are observed on the Chandauli-
Prayagraj National Highway (NH-19), straining roads, bridges, and
infrastructure, leading to increased maintenance costs and compromised road
safety. State governments, including Kerala and Nagaland, have also reported
damages and accidents, prompting the consideration of tighter regulations and
stricter punishments for violators under the Motor Vehicles Act.
 WEIGH-IN-MOTION (WIM) Sensors…

• WIM systems increase the capacity of weigh stations and are

used when heavy truck traffic volumes are high.
• They provide data on traffic volume, speed, vehicle
classification based on number and spacing of axles, and
equivalent single axle loading (ESAL) imposed by heavy
vehicles on pavements and bridges.
• The heavy truck axle load data is used by enforcement officers
to plan enforcement activities.
• WIM system manufacturers often provide software for system
calibration and data analysis.
 WEIGH-IN-MOTION (WIM) Sensors…

• Table 4 lists WIM system categories along with the corresponding

data each can provide (ASTM E1318-02, 2002).
• Table 5 gives the functional performance requirements of WIM
systems as defined by the same ASTM standard.
• Some states may have more strict requirements than the ASTM
standard, such as those in Table 6 (McCall and Vodrazka, 1997).
WEIGH-IN-MOTION (WIM) Sensors…
WEIGH-IN-MOTION (WIM)
WEIGH-IN-MOTION (WIM)
 WEIGH-IN-MOTION (WIM)
• Vehicle dynamics are dependent on road surface roughness, type of vehicle
suspension, vehicle dynamic balance, vehicle weight, vehicle speed, driver
maneuvering, etc. Although most agencies attempt to install WIM systems in
good pavement, unexpected deterioration or structural anomalies sometimes
occur. For instance, WIM measurements worsen when asphalt pavements
soften in hot weather and long concrete sections rock along a central axis when
a heavy truck passes over the end of the section.

• The inherent variance of the WIM system is a function of the technology utilized
in the system to measure axle weight.
• Table 7 gives typical values for the inherent variance component of the system
accuracy (for a ±1 standard deviation confidence interval) for piezoelectric,
bending plate, and single load cell systems. The table shows that it is common
for WIM systems to be less accurate when weighing individual axle groups than
when measuring gross vehicle weight.
• The effect of vehicle speed on total system accuracy is accounted for later in
Table 8. Time out factors are sometimes programmed into WIM systems to
assist in separating the weight of one vehicle from another.
WEIGH-IN-MOTION (WIM)
WEIGH-IN-MOTION (WIM)
 WEIGH-IN-MOTION (WIM)

Calibration ensures that the estimation of static weight by the WIM system
closely approximates the true static weight. Calibration accounts for site-
specific effects such as pavement temperature, vehicle speed, and
pavement condition. Calibration procedures may include an acceptance
testing phase and a recalibration phase.

Acceptance testing of WIM systems as applied by Caltrans and reported in

the State’s Successful Practices Weigh-in-Motion Handbook (McCall and
Vodrazka, 1997) has three stages: system component operation
verification, initial calibration process, and a 72-h continuous
operation verification.

• System component operation verification verifies the transmission of

signals by the roadway sensors to the on-site controller and the
conversion of the signals into the desired WIM data.
 WEIGH-IN-MOTION (WIM)
Initial calibration
• Initial calibration consists of comparing data obtained when one or more
trucks passes over the WIM sensors with measurements taken on a
static scale. Several runs are made to measure weight and axle spacing
in each lane equipped with WIM sensors at speeds that encompass the
expected operational range.

• These data are utilized to compute the WIM weight factors that convert
the dynamic measurements into static weights. The test vehicles make
additional runs at each speed to verify the weight factor values. Weight
factors can be adjusted to account for seasonal variations, changes in
pavement condition, and unique vehicles.

The 72-h calibration

The 72-h calibration monitors WIM system operation to ensure continuous
functioning within the required specifications. When this phase is
completed, the system is ready for online operation.
 WEIGH-IN-MOTION (WIM)
Recalibration
Recalibration occurs throughout the design life of the WIM site. Weight
factors are adjusted or repairs made to the system when problems are
identified during regularly scheduled data reviews.
 WEIGH-IN-MOTION (WIM): Types

The four technologies used in WIM system weight measurement are

• bending plate,
• piezoelectric,
• load cell, and
• capacitance mat
 WEIGH-IN-MOTION (WIM): Types

Principles of Operation: Bending Plates

Bending plate WIM systems utilize plates with strain gauges bonded
to the underside. As a vehicle passes over the bending plate, as
illustrated in Figure 11, the system records the strain measured by
the strain gauges and calculates the dynamic load. The static load is
estimated using the measured dynamic load and calibration
parameters. The calibration parameters account for factors such as
vehicle speed, pavement condition, and suspension dynamics, which
influence estimates of the static weight.
Bending Plate WIM Sensor
 Bending Plates WIM Sensor Accuracy

The accuracy of bending plate WIM systems can be expressed as a

function of the vehicle speed traversed over the plates, assuming the
system is installed in a sound road structure and subject to normal traffic
conditions.

The accuracy specifications in Table 8 apply to bending plate scales

manufactured by IRD. They are based on a minimum sample of 50
vehicles loaded to within 75% of the legal allowable limit. Vehicles that
traverse the scale with more than a 10% speed variation, live loads, or
liquid loads are not permitted in the sample.
 Bending Plates WIM Sensor: Principle

Bending plate WIM systems contain either one or two scales and two
inductive loop detectors (ILDs). A typical bending plate (or load cell)
installation is shown in Figure 12. The scale is placed in the travel lane
perpendicular to the direction of travel. When two scales are used in
one lane, one scale is placed in each wheel path of the traffic lane so
that the left and right wheels are weighed individually. The pair of scales
is placed in the lane side-by-side or staggered by 5 m (16 ft).

Bending plate systems with one scale in the right or left wheel path are
usually used in low volume lanes. The inductive loops are placed
upstream and downstream of the scales. The upstream loop detects
vehicles and alerts the system to an approaching vehicle. The
downstream loop determines vehicle speed based on the time it takes
the vehicle to traverse the distance between the loops.
 Bending Plates WIM Sensor: Principle

Live Loads: Live loads refer to moving or movable loads on a vehicle,

such as passengers or animals. The possible reasons for not permitting
live loads in the accuracy sample could be:
• Weight variation: Live loads can move around within the vehicle,
causing shifts in the weight distribution. This can lead to
inconsistencies in the weight measurements recorded by the WIM
system.
• Unpredictable behavior: Live loads, especially animals, can behave
unpredictably, causing sudden movements or shifts in weight that
can affect the accuracy of the WIM measurements.
• Inconsistent load distribution: Unlike fixed cargo, live loads may
not be evenly distributed within the vehicle, leading to uneven weight
distribution on the axles and potentially impacting the accuracy of the
WIM system.
 Bending Plates WIM Sensor: Principle

Liquid Loads: Liquid loads, such as tankers carrying fluids (e.g., fuel,
milk, or water), are also not permitted in the accuracy sample for the
following possible reasons:
• Sloshing effect: When a vehicle carrying liquid loads traverses the
WIM system, the liquid can slosh around inside the tank due to
vehicle motion, acceleration, or deceleration. This sloshing effect can
cause dynamic changes in the weight distribution, affecting the
accuracy of the weight measurements.
• Uneven weight distribution: Liquid loads may not be evenly
distributed within the tank, especially if the tank is not completely full.
This uneven distribution can lead to inconsistencies in the weight
measurements recorded by the WIM system.
• Influence of vehicle dynamics: The movement of liquid loads within
the tank can affect the vehicle's dynamics, such as its suspension
and stability. These dynamic effects can introduce errors in the
weight measurements obtained by the WIM system.
 Bending Plates WIM Sensor: Principle

• By excluding vehicles with live loads and liquid loads from the
accuracy sample, the WIM system manufacturers aim to minimize
the impact of these variable factors on the reported accuracy
specifications.
• This ensures that the accuracy specifications reflect the
performance of the WIM system under more consistent and
controlled loading conditions, typically involving vehicles with
fixed, stable loads.
Bending Plates WIM Sensor: Principle
 Bending Plates WIM Sensor: Principle
Disadvantages

Bending plate WIM systems are not as accurate as load cell systems and are
considerably more expensive than piezoelectric systems.
 Piezoelectric WIM Sensors: PO
Principles of Operation
Piezoelectric WIM systems contain one or more piezoelectric sensors that detect a
change in voltage caused by pressure exerted on the sensor by an axle and
thereby measure the axle’s weight. As a vehicle passes over the piezoelectric
sensor, the system records the sensor output voltage and calculates the dynamic
load. As with bending plate systems, the dynamic load provides an estimate of the
static load when the WIM system is properly calibrated.

The typical piezoelectric WIM system consists of at least one piezoelectric sensor
and two ILDs. The piezoelectric sensor is placed in the travel lane perpendicular to
the travel direction.

The inductive loops are placed upstream and downstream of the piezoelectric
sensor. The upstream loop detects vehicles and alerts the system to an
approaching vehicle. The downstream loop provides data to determine vehicle
speed and axle spacing based on the time it takes the vehicle to traverse the
distance between the loops. Figure 13 shows a full lane-width piezoelectric WIM
system installation. In this example, two piezoelectric sensors are utilized on either
side of the downstream loop.
Piezoelectric WIM Sensors: PO
 Piezoelectric WIM Sensors: PO

A newer piezoelectric WIM sensor technology is the LINEAS quartz sensor

manufactured by Kistler.

It contains a quartz sensing element mounted along the centerline of an aluminum

core as shown in Figure 14 (Kistler, 1997 and Caldera, 1996). The sensor is
installed in a slot cut into the road surface and is grouted with a proprietary
compound of epoxy and silica sand.

The elastic and thermal properties of the compound closely match those of road
surfaces. The sensor is isolated from side forces by an elastic material to help
eliminate errors caused by a volume effect. The load bearing pad composed of a
mixture of quartz sand and epoxy can be ground even with the road surface.
Piezoelectric WIM Sensors: PO
 Piezoelectric WIM Sensors

Advantages

Piezoelectric tube or cable sensor WIM systems are among the least expensive
systems in use today in terms of initial capital costs. The LINEAS quartz sensor
is more expensive, but lasts longer, reducing life cycle maintenance costs and
increasing reliability. Piezoelectric WIM systems can be used at higher speed
ranges (15 to 110 km/h) than other WIM systems.

Piezoelectric WIM systems can be used to monitor up to four lanes.

Quartz sensors do not generally age or fatigue. Temperature effects are

negligible as the temperature coefficient of quartz is approximately –0.02 %/K.
Since quartz crystals have no pyroelectric effect, rapid changes in temperature
do not cause a drift in output signal. Wheel load measurements are to within ±3
percent irrespective of the vehicle speed and position of the wheel along the
sensor.
 Piezoelectric WIM Sensors

Disadvantages

Piezoelectric tube or cable sensor WIM systems (not quartz) are less accurate
than load cell and bending plate WIM systems. These piezoelectric sensors may
be sensitive to temperature and speed variations. Piezoelectric tube or cable
sensors for WIM systems must be replaced at least once every 3 years.
 Load Cells: Principle of Operation
In a load cell-based WIM sensor, there is a load cell mounted centrally in each
scale mechanism, as shown in Figure. All loading on the weighing surface sensor
will be transferred to the load cell through load transfer tubes. Normally there are
two 6-feet (1.83 m) long scales covering one lane width, which will weigh wheels
at both ends of an axle simultaneously. The scale is mounted in a frame and
installed in a vault which is flush with the road surface.
 Load Cells: PO (Contd..)
Principles of Operation

Load cells are durable and among the most accurate WIM systems as indicated in
Table 7. The load cell is placed in the travel lane perpendicular to the direction of
travel.

The inductive loop is placed upstream of the load cell to detect vehicles and alert
the system of an approaching vehicle. If a second inductive loop is used, it is
placed downstream of the load cell to determine axle spacing and vehicle speed.
The axle sensor can utilize piezoelectric technology or technology based on the
change of sensor resistance with pressure.
 Load Cells
Advantages
The load cell system is ranked among the most accurate WIM systems available.
Therefore, the load cell WIM system can be utilized for traffic data collection as
well as for weight enforcement purposes.

Disadvantages
The load cell is one of the most expensive WIM systems available today, in terms
of initial capital costs and life cycle maintenance costs. Also, the load cell WIM
system requires a complete replacement of the weighing mechanism after 5 years.
 Capacitance Mat
A capacitance mat consists of a sandwich of metal steel sheets and dielectric
material. In one configuration, displayed in Figure, a stainless steel sheet is
surrounded by polyurethane dielectric material on either side. The outer surfaces
of the polyurethane layers are enclosed by other stainless steel sheets. An a.c.
voltage is applied across the sandwich of materials.
 Capacitance Mat
When a vehicle passes over the mat, the spacing between the plates decreases
and causes the capacitance to increase. This changes the resonant frequency of
the electrical circuit of which the capacitance mat is a part. The resonant
frequency, measured by the data analysis and recording equipment, is thus
proportional to the axle weight. Capacitance mats are also manufactured utilizing
aluminum plates separated by a grid of insulating material and air as the dielectric.
 Capacitance Mat
Advantages

Capacitance mat sensors can be used for portable as well as permanent WIM
applications. These systems can monitor up to four lanes simultaneously.

Disadvantages
Capacitance mat WIM systems are not as accurate as the LINEAS quartz
piezoelectric, load cell, and bending plate WIM systems for estimating weights.
Also, the equipment and installation costs of these types of systems, whether
portable or permanent, are similar to the load cell WIM system costs, which are
among the most expensive WIM systems available.
 WIM Costs
WIM system costs may be expressed in terms of the life cycle cost consisting of
initial capital cost (in-road WIM equipment, installation labor and materials,
initial calibration, and traffic control) and life-cycle maintenance costs (labor and
materials, traffic control, and system
recalibration).

Table 9 contains budgetary initial capital costs for piezoelectric, bending plate,
and load cell technologies assuming typical road, traffic, and weather
conditions. These costs may vary from manufacturer to manufacturer and with
sensor model. Roadside cabinets, WIM electronics, power and communication
connections, etc. are not included as these are common to all the technologies.
 WIM Costs
The life-cycle maintenance costs vary due to differences in traffic volumes and
truck weights, weather, original installation procedures, roadbed condition,
onsite quality control, etc.

Table 10 presents WIM system life-cycle maintenance and repair costs

averaged over North American installations. The costs are based on performing
annual routine maintenance (e.g., road inspection and crack filling) on the
roadbed surrounding the WIM system.

Piezoelectric sensors are assumed to require replacing every 3 years, bending

plates refurbishing every 5 years, and single load cells replacing every 5 years.
Life-cycle maintenance costs may vary with manufacturer and sensor model.
WIM Costs
WIM Costs
 WIM Costs

The average annual cost for each WIM technology system is:

• Piezoelectric $3,092 per annum

• Bending plate $4,636 per annum
• Single load cell $5,982 per annum

These figures show that the incremental cost for improved WIM system
accuracy, durability, and reliability is relatively small when compared to the
annual operating budget of a weight enforcement facility. Costs over other
life-cycle intervals may be computed as required.
 WIM
Manufactures

Truvelo Manufacturers (Pty) Ltd

International Road Dynamics.
 Non-Intrusive Sensors

Non-intrusive technologies include video data collection, passive or active

infrared detectors, microwave radar detectors, ultrasonic detectors, passive
acoustic detectors, laser detectors and aerial photography. All these technologies
represent emergent fields that are expanding rapidly with continuing advances in
signal processing.

At present time such technologies are used to provide supplemental information

for selected locations or for specific applications (e.g., queue detection at traffic
signals).

Most non-intrusive systems are operationally and somewhat visually similar,

consisting of small electronics unit mounted in a weather proof housing placed in
various locations.
Non-Intrusive Sensors
Non-Intrusive Sensors
 Non-Intrusive Sensors: Types

1. Roadside mast-mounted. The detector possesses a field-of-regard covering

an oblique area upstream or downstream of the unit.

2. The second type of non-invasive detectors are mounted on gantries or

bridge undersides, with field of regard directly below, or at a slight oblique to
the unit.

3. Some sensors such as open-path pollutant monitors are mounted road side
at ground level, firing a beam across the road. Such units are subject to side-
by-side masking and hence most suitable for only single lane, unidirectional
flows.
 Non-Intrusive Sensors: Road Side Mast Mounted
• The detector possesses a field-of-regard covering an oblique area upstream or
downstream of the unit.

• There are also multiple zones of detection defined within the overall field of
regard, or the overall zone of detection same as the field of regard, depending
on the specific detector type and technology.

• Obscuration problems occur when high-sided vehicles screens lower vehicles

from the detector or the field-of-view being too large, leading to detection of
vehicles outside the desired lane.
 Video Detection Technologies: History

• The use of video and image processing technology as a substitute for

inductive-loop detectors was first investigated during the mid-1970s. This
research was funded by the U.S. Federal Highway Administration (FHWA)
and performed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory.

• The project combined television camera and video processing technology

to identify and track vehicles traveling within the camera’s field of view.

• During the 1970s and 1980s, parallel efforts were undertaken in Japan, the
United Kingdom, Germany, Sweden, and France. These investigations
addressed the problems and limitations of existing roadway sensors in
attempting to fulfill requirements for state-of-the-art control of traffic and
detection of incidents.
Video Detection Technologies: History (Contd..)

As a follow-on to the initial FHWA project, a video image processor was

developed by University of Minnesota research personnel. Dubbed the
Video Detection System (VIDS), it was jointly funded by FHWA, Minnesota
Department of Transportation, and the University of Minnesota. The sensor
provided volume and occupancy data equivalent to those from multiple
inductive-loop detectors.

Full bandwidth imagery and the traffic data were transmitted to a central
location for interpretation and management of traffic.
 Bandwidth

Communication channels are classified as analog or digital. Bandwidth refers

to the data throughput capacity of any communication channel. As bandwidth
increases, more information per unit of time can pass through the channel.

A simple analogy compares a communication channel to a water pipe. The

larger the pipe, the more water can flow through it at a faster rate, just as a
high capacity communication channel allows more data to flow at a higher
rate than is possible with a lower capacity channel.

In addition to describing the capacity of a communication channel, the term

"bandwidth" is frequently, and somewhat confusingly, applied to information
transport requirements. For example, it might be specified that a broadcast
signal requires a channel with a bandwidth of six MHz to transmit a television
signal without loss or distortion. Bandwidth limitations arise from the physical
properties of matter and energy. Every physical transmission medium has a
finite bandwidth. The bandwidth of any given medium determines its
communications efficiency for voice, data, graphics, or full motion video.
 Visual Resolution

Visual resolution in video systems is defined as the smallest detail that can
be seen. This detail is related directly to the bandwidth of the signal: The
more bandwidth in the signal, the more potential visual resolution. The
converse is also true: The more the signal is band-limited, the less detail
information will be visible.
 Frame

A video frame is one of the many still images which compose the complete
moving picture. The term may also be used more generally as a noun or verb
to refer to the edges of the image as seen in a camera viewfinder or
projected on a screen.

The frame rate is the number of frames or images that are projected or
displayed per second. Frame rates are used in synchronizing audio and
pictures, whether film, television, or video.
 Video Detection Technologies

Video cameras were introduced to traffic management for roadway

surveillance because of their ability to transmit closed circuit television
imagery to a human operator for interpretation.

Present-day traffic management applications use video image processing to

automatically analyze the scene of interest and extract information for traffic
surveillance and control.

A video image processor (VIP) system (sometimes referred to as a machine

vision processor) typically consists of one or more cameras, a
microprocessor-based computer for digitizing and processing the imagery,
and software for interpreting the images and converting them into traffic flow
data.
 Video Detection Technologies (Contd..)

Video image processor systems detect vehicles by analyzing the imagery

from a traffic scene to determine changes between successive frames. The
image processing algorithms that analyze black and white imagery examine
the variation of gray levels in groups of pixels contained in the video frames.

The algorithms are designed to remove gray level variations in the image
background caused by weather conditions, shadows, and daytime or
nighttime artifacts and retain objects identified as automobiles, trucks,
motorcycles, and bicycles.

Traffic flow parameters are calculated by analyzing successive video

frames. Color imagery can also be exploited to obtain traffic flow data. The
improved resolution of color cameras and their ability to operate at low light
levels is making this approach more viable.
Signal Processing
 VIP: Signal Processing
In the concept illustrated in Figure , a camera is used to acquire imagery of the
traffic flow. The images are digitized and stored in memory.

A detection process establishes one or more thresholds that limit and segregate
the digitized data passed on to the rest of the image processing algorithms. It is
undesirable to severely limit the number of potential vehicles during detection, for
once data are removed they cannot be recovered. Therefore, false vehicle
detections are permitted at this stage since the declaration of actual vehicles is not
made at the conclusion of the detection process. Rather algorithms that are part of
the classification, identification, and tracking processes still to come are relied on to
eliminate false vehicles and retain the real ones.
 VIP: Signal Processing (Contd..)
Image segmentation is used to divide the image area into smaller regions (often
composed of individual vehicles) where features can be better recognized. The
feature extraction process examines the pixels in the regions for preidentified
characteristics that are indicative of vehicles.

When a sufficient number of these characteristics are present and recognized by

the processing, a vehicle is declared present and its flow parameters are
calculated.

Artificial neural networks are another form of processing used to classify and
identify vehicles, measure their traffic flow parameters, and detect incidents..

Features are not explicitly identified and sought when this processing approach is
used. Rather an electrical network that emulates the processing that occurs in the
human brain is trained to recognize vehicles. The digital imagery is presented to
the trained network for vehicle classification and identification.
 VIP: Signal Processing (Contd..)
VIPs with tracking capability use Kalman filtering techniques to update vehicle
position and velocity estimates. The time trace of the position estimates yields a
vehicle trajectory. By processing the trajectory data, local traffic parameters (e.g.,
flow and lane change frequency) can be computed. These parameters, together
with vehicle signature information (e.g., time stamp, vehicle type, color, shape,
position, and speed), can be communicated to the traffic management center.

VIP signal processing is continually improving its ability to recognize artifacts

produced by shadows, illumination changes, reflections, inclement weather, and
camera motion from wind or vehicle-induced vibration.
 VIP: Some Implementations
A signal processing technique implemented by Computer Recognition Systems
(Wokingham, Berkshire, England; Knoxville, TN) incorporates wireframe models
composed of line segments to represent vehicles in the image. This approach
claims to provide more unique and discriminating features than other
computationally viable techniques.

The artificial neural network approach is incorporated by Nestor Traffic Systems,

Inc. (Providence, RI) in their VIP products. An advantage of the Nestor
implementation is that the camera can be repositioned for data acquisition and
surveillance.

VIPs that utilize tracking offer the ability to warn of impending incidents due to
abrupt lane changes or weaving, calculate link travel times, and determine origin-
destination pairs. The tracking concept is found in the VideoTrak 905 and 910 by
Peek Traffic- Transyt, the Traffic Analysis System by Computer Recognition
Systems, MEDIA4 developed by Citilog (Paris, France), and the IDET-2000 by
Sumitomo (Japan).
 VIP: Signal Processing (Contd..)
A description of vehicle tracking methods suitable for VIPs is found in
Kanhere, N.K. , et al., 2006.

Blob or region based tracking:

Generates a background model for the scene For each input image frame,
algorithms analyze the absolute difference between the input image and the
background image to extract foreground blobs that correspond to the vehicles
Vehicle tracking possible at region level and vehicle level. Difficulties reported
handling shadows, occlusions, and large vehicles, all of which cause multiple
vehicles to appear as a single vehicle.

Active contour based tracking

Tracks the outside contour or boundary of an object Contour initialized using a
background difference image and tracked using intensity and motion boundaries
Occlusions are detected using depth-ordered regions associated with the objects.

Kanhere, N., Birchfield, S., & Sarasua, W. (2006). Vehicle segmentation and
tracking in the presence of occlusions. Transportation Research Record: Journal of
the Transportation Research Board, (1944), 89-97.
 VIP: Signal Processing (Contd..)
Blob or region based tracking:

Blob or region-based tracking is a computer vision technique used to track objects in video
footage. It involves identifying and tracking a particular region of interest, such as a group of
pixels or a "blob" of pixels that belong to the object being tracked. The basic idea behind blob
or region-based tracking is to first segment the image into foreground and background
regions. The foreground region contains the object of interest, while the background region
contains everything else in the scene. The algorithm then looks for regions or blobs of pixels
within the foreground that are likely to correspond to the object being tracked, based on
various features such as color, texture, shape, and size. Once the blobs have been identified,
the algorithm tracks them over time by predicting their location in the next frame based on
their previous motion. This is done using a variety of techniques, such as optical flow, Kalman
filters, or particle filters. The predicted locations are then used to update the position and size
of the tracked region or blob. Blob or region-based tracking can be useful in a variety of
applications, such as surveillance, traffic monitoring, and sports analysis. However, it can be
challenging to apply in complex scenes with multiple objects, occlusions, and changes in
lighting conditions. Therefore, it is often used in combination with other tracking techniques,
such as object detection, to improve accuracy and robustness.
 VIP: Signal Processing (Contd..)
Active contour-based tracking is a computer vision technique used to track objects in video
footage by using deformable models. It involves defining a curve or contour around the object
of interest, which can then be deformed over time to follow the object's shape and movement.

The basic idea behind active contour-based tracking is to use an initial contour or region of
interest to create a deformable model, also known as a snake, which can adjust its shape and
position to match the object being tracked. The snake is typically defined by a set of control
points, which are connected by springs and can be moved to fit the object's edges or
boundaries.

Once the initial contour has been defined, the algorithm iteratively updates the positions of the
control points based on various energy functions that balance the tension, rigidity, and
curvature of the snake. These energy functions can be based on edge detection, texture
analysis, or motion estimation, among other factors.
 Video Data Extraction Technologies: Types

Three types of data extraction approaches are available to VIPs: tripline, closed-
loop tracking, and data association tracking.

• Trip-line systems allow the user to define a limited, but usually sufficient
number of detection zones in the field of view of the video camera. When a
vehicle crosses one of these zones, it is identified by noting changes in the
pixels caused by the vehicle relative to the roadway in the absence of a
vehicle. Surface-based and grid-based analyses are utilized to detect vehicles
in tripline VIPs.

• The surface-based approach identifies edge features, while the grid based
classifies squares on a fixed grid as containing moving vehicles, stopped
vehicles, or no vehicles.

• Tripline systems estimate vehicle speed by measuring the time it takes an

identified vehicle to travel a detection zone of known length. The speed is
found as the length divided by the travel time
 Video Data Extraction Technologies: Types
(Contd..)
The advent of the VIP tracking approaches has been facilitated by low-cost, high
throughput microprocessors.

Closed-loop tracking systems are an extension of the trip-line approach that

permits vehicle detection along larger roadway sections. The closed-loop
systems track vehicles continuously through the field of view of the camera.
Multiple detections of the vehicle along a track are used to validate the detection.
Once validated, the vehicle is counted and its speed is updated by the tracking
algorithm (MacCarley, 1992).

These tracking systems may provide additional traffic flow data such as lane-to-
lane vehicle movements. Therefore, they have the potential to transmit
information to roadside displays and radios to alert drivers to erratic behavior that
can lead to an incident.
 Video Data Extraction Technologies: Types
(Contd..)
Data association tracking systems identify and track a particular vehicle or
groups of vehicles as they pass through the field of view of the camera. The
computer identifies vehicles by searching for unique connected areas of pixels.

These areas are then tracked from frame-to-frame to produce tracking data for
the selected vehicle or vehicle groups. The markers that identify the objects are
based on gradients and morphology. Gradient markers utilize edges, while
morphological markers utilize combinations of features and sizes that are
recognized as belonging to known vehicles or groups of vehicles (Wentworth,
et. al., 1994).

Systems are being developed that use data association tracking to gather travel
time and origin-destination pair information by identifying and tracking vehicles
as they pass from one camera’s field of view to another’s.
 VIP: Signal Processing (Contd..)
Blob or region based tracking
 VIP: Signal Processing (Contd..)
Active contour based tracking
 VIP: Signal Processing (Contd..)
Model based tracking
Matches detected objects with preidentified 3-D vehicle models Emphasizes
recovery of trajectories for a small number of vehicles with high accuracy . Some
model-based approaches assume an aerial view of the scene, virtually eliminating
all occlusions, and match wire-frame models of vehicles to edges detected in the
image
Feature based tracking
Tracks subfeatures in the object, represented as points, rather than tracking the
entire object Useful when vehicles are partially occluded Tracks multiple objects by
identifying groups of features based on similarity criteria, which are tracked over
time.
Color based tracking
Color signatures (chromatic information) are used to identify and track objects
Vehicle detections are associated with each other by combining chromatic
information with driver behavior characteristics and arrival likelihood.
Pattern based tracking
Vehicle detection treated as a classical pattern classification problem using support
vector machines
 VIP: Signal Processing (Contd..)
Model based tracking

Model-based tracking is a computer vision technique used to track objects in video

footage by building a mathematical model of the object's appearance and motion. It
involves creating a model that represents the object's shape, texture, and motion,
and then fitting the model to the image data to estimate the object's position and
movement.

The basic idea behind model-based tracking is to use a pre-defined template or

model of the object being tracked, and then match this model to the features in the
image data. The model can be a geometric shape, such as a rectangle or an ellipse,
or it can be a more complex shape, such as a 3D mesh or a statistical model of
appearance.

Once the model has been created, the algorithm iteratively updates its parameters
based on the image data, using techniques such as gradient descent, Expectation-
Maximization (EM), or particle filtering. The algorithm then estimates the object's
position and movement based on the updated model parameters.
 VIP: Signal Processing (Contd..)
Feature-based tracking is a computer vision technique used to track objects in
video footage by identifying and tracking specific features, such as corners, edges,
or blobs, that are unique to the object being tracked. It involves detecting these
features in the image data and then matching them across frames to estimate the
object's position and movement.

The basic idea behind feature-based tracking is to identify distinctive points or

regions in the image that can be tracked over time. These features can be detected
using techniques such as Harris corner detection, scale-invariant feature transform
(SIFT), or Speeded Up Robust Features (SURF).

Once the features have been identified, the algorithm then matches them across
frames, either by using a brute-force search or by using more efficient methods
such as RANSAC (Random Sample Consensus) or Lucas-Kanade optical flow. The
algorithm estimates the object's position and movement based on the displacement
of the matched features.
 VIP: Signal Processing (Contd..)
Model based tracking
 VIP: Signal Processing (Contd..)
Feature based tracking
 VIP: Signal Processing (Contd..)
Color based tracking

http://slideplayer.com/slide/5859406/
Video Detection Technologies: Types (Contd..)
Video Detection Technologies: Types (Contd..)

Peek VideoTrak Plus and UniTrak (Photograph courtesy of Quixote

Traffic Corp.-Peek Traffic, Palmetto, FL)

Video image processors (continued).

Video Detection Technologies: Comparison
 Infrared sensors

• Infrared Sensors: The sensors are mounted overhead to view

approaching or departing traffic or traffic from a side-looking
configuration.
• Infrared sensors are used for signal control; volume, speed, and
class measurement, as well as detecting pedestrians in cross-
walks.
• With infrared sensors, the word detector takes on another
meaning, namely the light-sensitive element that converts the
reflected or emitted energy into electrical signals.
• Real-time signal processing is used to analyze the received signals
for the presence of a vehicle.
Infrared sensors
 Infrared sensors

Passive Infrared (PIR)

Detection of vehicle based on emission or reflection of infrared (electromagnetic

radiation of frequency 1011− 1014Hz) radiation from vehicle surface, as
compared to ambient levels emitted or reflected from the road surface shown in
Figure.

The PIR system collected following parameters: Flow volume, Vehicle presence,
and detection zone occupancy. Speed with unit with multiple detection zones.
 Infrared sensors

Passive Infrared (PIR)

Advantages
1. Relatively long wavelength of light used in PIR systems makes them less
susceptible to weather effects.

Disadvantages
2. Accuracy of speed information is poor with low resolution sensors. Vehicle
length determination is highly problematic for the same reason.
 Infrared sensors

Active Infrared (AIR)

 Active Infrared (AIR)/Laser Low power LED or laser diode fires a pulsed or
continuous beam down to road surface as shown in Fig. Time for reflection to
return is measured. Presence of a vehicle lowers the time of reflection. High
scanning rates provides a detailed profile for classification determination. Use of
Doppler frequency shift from moving object allows for very accurate speed
determination.

 The AIR system collected following parameters flow volume, speed,

classification, vehicle presence and traffic density
 Infrared sensors

Active Infrared (AIR)

 Infrared sensors

Active Infrared (AIR)

Advantages
i. Very accurate flow, speed and classifications possible.
ii. Laser systems work in day and night conditions.

Disadvantages
i. Active near-IR sensors adversely affected by weather conditions.
ii. Laser systems impeded by haze or smoke.
iii. Some problems with tracking small vehicles reported.
iv. Relatively high costs compared to other units. Precise, but limited zone of
detection require additional units over other systems.
 Microwave sensors

Microwave - Doppler and Radar Low energy microwave radiation (2.5 to 24 GHz)
is transmitted into the detection zone. Objects within the zone reflect a portion of
the radiation back to a receiver. Doppler units use the frequency shift of the return
to calculate speed as shown in Fig. It cannot detect the stationary objects.

The microwave system collected following parameters.

• Doppler - Flow volume and speed;
• Frequency-Modulated, Continuous Wave (FMCW) - Flow volume, speed
and presence;
• Microwave - Flow volume, speed, presence, possibly classification.
 CW and FMCW Radars

• Two types of microwave radar sensors are used in traffic management

applications, continuous wave (CW) Doppler radar and frequency
modulated continuous wave (FMCW) radar. The traffic data they receive
are dependent on the shape of the transmitted waveform.

• The CW Doppler sensor transmits a signal that is constant in frequency

with respect to time. According to the Doppler principle, the motion of a
vehicle in the detection zone causes a shift in the frequency of the
reflected signal (Klein and Kelly, 1996). This can be used to detect
moving vehicles and to determine their speed. CW Doppler sensors that
do not incorporate an auxiliary range measuring capability cannot detect
motionless vehicles.

• The frequency modulated continuous wave (FMCW) microwave radar

sensor transmits a frequency that is constantly changing with respect to
time, as illustrated in Figure.
 CW and FMCW Radars

• Two types of microwave radar sensors are used in traffic management

applications, continuous wave (CW) Doppler radar and frequency
modulated continuous wave (FMCW) radar. The traffic data they receive
are dependent on the shape of the transmitted waveform.

• The CW Doppler sensor transmits a signal that is constant in frequency

with respect to time. According to the Doppler principle, the motion of a
vehicle in the detection zone causes a shift in the frequency of the
reflected signal (Klein and Kelly, 1996). This can be used to detect
moving vehicles and to determine their speed. CW Doppler sensors that
do not incorporate an auxiliary range measuring capability cannot detect
motionless vehicles.

• The frequency modulated continuous wave (FMCW) microwave radar

sensor transmits a frequency that is constantly changing with respect to
time.
Microwave sensors
 Microwave sensors

Advantages
(a) Very accurate. Easy to install, long ranged.
(b) Multiple detection zones possible.
(c) Day or night operation.

Disadvantages

(a) Possible sensitivity to spurious returns from adjacent objects

(b) Restrictions on use due to electromagnetic interference with other electronics.
Microwave sensors
Microwave sensors
Microwave sensors
 Microwave sensors

Advantages
(a) Highly accurate.

Disadvantages
(a) Environmental effects affecting sound propagation degrade performance.
(b) Pulsed units with low sampling rate miscount or misclassify fast moving
vehicles.
Ultrasonic sensors
 Ultrasonic sensors

Pulsed and Active Ultrasonic sensors transmit pressure waves of sound energy
at a frequency between 25 and 50 KHz. Pulse waveforms measure distances to
the road surface and vehicle surface by detecting the portion of the transmitted
energy that is reflected towards the sensor from an area defined by the
transmitters beam width.

When a distance other than that to the background road surface is measured,
the sensor interprets that measurement as the presence of a vehicle as shown in
Figure.

The received ultrasonic energy is converted into electrical energy that is

analyzed by signal processing electronics that is either collocated with the
transducer or placed in a roadside controller.

Vehicles flow and vehicular speed can be calculated by recording the time at
which the vehicle crosses each beam.
 Acoustic sensors

Passive Acoustic Array Sensors

An array of microphones is used to detect the sound of an approaching vehicle

above an ambient threshold level. Time lags and signal variations between
microphone positions are used to determine vehicle location relative to the array
as shown in Figure

Further processing of signal yield to speed information and possibly engine type
classification. It collected flow, speed, occupancy, possibly classification.

Advantages
(a) Completely passive system
(b) Direct speed measurement.

Disadvantages
(a) Environmental effects affecting sound propagation degrade performance
(b) Low accuracy in busy locations due to interference from adjacent sources.
Acoustic sensors