Chemical Engineering Journal 430 (2022) 132741

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Chemical Engineering Journal

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cej

Battery thermal management systems (BTMs) based on phase change

material (PCM): A comprehensive review
Jie Luo a, Deqiu Zou a, *, Yinshuang Wang a, Shuo Wang a, Li Huang b
a
Faculty of Maritime and Transportation, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, Zhejiang, China
b
Faculty of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, Zhejiang, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: It is known that the performance of a power battery is greatly affected by temperature. The battery pack needs an
Phase change material (PCM) efficient thermal management system to make the power battery work in a reasonable temperature range.
Organic PCMs Battery thermal management system (BTMs) based on phase change materials (PCM), as a passive thermal
Inorganic PCMs
management method, has the advantages of low operating cost and good temperature uniformity. This paper
Phase change fluid (PCF)
Flexible phase change material (FPCM)
mainly introduces the BTMs based on PCM, including the cooling and heating system based on PCM. For the
Battery thermal management system (BTMs) cooling system of PCM, the performance of composite phase change materials (CPCM) and its heat transfer
Heat transfer enhancement enhancement, phase change fluid (PCF), flexible phase change materials (FPCM), and hybrid cooling systems are
analyzed. For the PCM heating system, the PCM latent heat for preheating of the power battery in a cold
environment has also been discussed. Finally, this paper concluded that the next research directions should focus
on the improvement of thermal conductivity of PCM, flame retardancy of organic PCM, thermal stability of
inorganic PCM, PCF and FPCM, and PCM-based coupled battery thermal management.

1. Introduction change significantly. Lithium plating on a Li-ion battery at low tem­

peratures will reduce the battery’s power capacity, leading to severe
Nowadays, the demand for energy and the consumption of fossil degradation of the Li-ion battery [9]. The possibility of thermal runaway
fuels continues to grow, especially in countries with rapid economic or even explosion is increased when the battery operates at high tem­
development [1]. Furthermore, the environmental and human health peratures [10].
consequences of greenhouse gases and pollutants released by the A variety of battery thermal management systems (BTMs) have been
transportation industry are significant, necessitating the development of proposed to keep the Li-ion battery working in the best operating tem­
new and renewable energy sources [2]. To suppress the generation of perature range. The Li-ion battery thermal management technology
pollutants and achieve the goal of zero-emissions, the automobile in­ mainly includes air cooling/heating, liquid cooling/heating, heat pipe
dustry is gradually turning to electric vehicles in many countries [3]. (HP) cooling/heating [11], and phase change materials (PCM) cooling/
Among all types of energy storage devices in vehicles, the Li-ion battery heating [12]. The air has been used as the cooling/heating medium to
has been widely used due to its high specific energy and power, long adjust the temperature of the Li-ion battery in the air thermal manage­
cycle life, and low self-discharge rate. As a result, enhancing the per­ ment. Its main benefits are its simple structure and low cost. At the same
formance and cycle life of Li-ion batteries is critical to increasing the time, the disadvantage is low heat transfer efficiency between the air
performance of electric cars [4]. However, Li-ion batteries are temper­ and the battery wall and high sensitivity to the ambient temperature.
ature sensitive. The best working temperature range of Li-ion batteries is Although air cooling is regarded as the most mature and simple thermal
15–40 ◦ C [5], and the temperature difference between different parts in management method at present, it is difficult for air to maintain the
the battery should be within 5 ◦ C [6]. If the improper temperature range appropriate working temperature and temperature uniformity of the
and temperature difference range occur in the Li-ion battery for a long battery under complex operating conditions. For liquid thermal man­
time, it will cause a series of problems [7,8]. In a cold environment, the agement systems, the heat transfer coefficient of the liquid is greater
charging and discharging voltage and capacity of the Li-ion battery than that of air, so the thermal management effect of the liquid is better.

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (D. Zou).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2021.132741
Received 6 July 2021; Received in revised form 21 September 2021; Accepted 27 September 2021
Available online 30 September 2021
1385-8947/© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
J. Luo et al. Chemical Engineering Journal 430 (2022) 132741

However, the overall volume of the liquid thermal management system Conclusions. With the assistance of the preceding work, the purpose of
is extensive, requiring additional pumps, heat exchangers, and other this article is to provide a comprehensive and timely review of advances
components, and the cost is high, which is an issue that needs to be in research into battery thermal management based on PCM, as well as
solved [13]. For HP cooling, its cooling efficiency is high, but it will also to discuss future research directions. The structure of this review can be
increase the complexity of the system and the weight. seen in Fig. 2.
Compared with the traditional thermal management method, PCM
does not consume energy and does not require additional components 2. Heat generation and heat transfer model of PCM-based BTMs
[14]. With the progress of technology, hydrated salt inorganic phase
change materials with lower cost have also been used in BTMS in recent The heat generated inside Li-ion batteries mainly includes five parts:
years [15]. In the process of phase change, PCM may absorb or release a electrochemical reaction heat, ohmic internal resistance heat, polari­
large amount of latent heat while maintaining an almost constant tem­ zation heat, electrolyte decomposition heat and SEI film decomposition
perature. This process is accompanied by a larger latent heat of phase heat. Due to the complex internal structure of Li-ion battery, it is difficult
transition and a smaller temperature and volume change, which im­ to accurately measure its internal heating power in engineering. In order
proves battery temperature uniformity and keeps it within a reasonable to facilitate the calculation, Bernardi [19] puts forward a model for
range [16]. The above methods of BTMs have their limitations. Still, calculating the heat generation rate of the battery, which simplifies the
with the advancement of power batteries, a single thermal management battery based on the principle of energy conservation and considers that
approach is insufficient to fulfill thermal management needs. Therefore, the heat generation of the battery(Qb ) mainly include ohmic internal
coupled PCM BTMs were born, and many relevant researches have been resistance heat and chemical reaction heat.
published in recent years. The applications of PCM in the thermal
I dE
management of Li-ion batteries are mainly in two aspects: phase change Qb = (E − U − T ) (1)
Vb dT
fluid (PCF) as a heat transfer medium and encapsulated solid PCM
wrapped in the battery pack for heat transfer. The emergence of the new Iis the current of the battery, Vb is the volume of the battery cell.E
PCMs such as PCF and flexible phase change materials (FPCM) have and U are the open circuit voltage and working voltage of the battery,
broken the limitations of the traditional PCM in the application of bat­
tery thermal management [17,18].
There have been many relevant reviews of the application of PCM in
BTMs. The studies of PCM-based BTMs have been increasing year by
year, as shown in Fig. 1, and the annual review keywords are constantly
updated. While most prior evaluations focused on Li-ion battery thermal
management in a high-temperature environment, studies on low-
temperature settings and PCM in combination with other thermal
management strategies were not included. They also do not classify the
new PCF and FPCM, which have been emerging in recent years. The
previous reviews provided general information related to PCM and its
application in battery thermal management. However, there is little
literature on thermal management of power batteries, including both
PCM-cooled and PCM-heated BTMs.
The main contents of this paper are summarized as follows:(1) Heat
generation and heat transfer model of PCM-based BTMs; (2) PCM-cooled
BTMs including PCM and its heat transfer enhancement, PCF and FPCM
for BTMs; (3) Hybrid cooling system including PCM and air convection,
PCM and liquid coolant, PCM and HP; (4) PCM-heated BTMs; (5) Fig. 2. The research framework of the thesis.

Fig. 1. Year-wise key words of papers till now on PCM-based BTMs.

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J. Luo et al. Chemical Engineering Journal 430 (2022) 132741

respectively. Tis the battery temperature. When PCM is applied to thermal runaway of a single battery may lead to the thermal runaway of
BTMS, PCM achieves the purpose of thermal management by absorbing the entire battery pack for the Li-ion battery working in the form of a
the heat produced by the battery. The energy equations of the PCM are battery pack, resulting in severe consequences. Therefore, it is necessary
as follows[20]: to conduct thermal management of the battery in a high-temperature
environment. Efficient BTMs can make the battery pack work at an
∂H ∂2 T ∂2 T ∂2 T appropriate ambient temperature. In current research, the cooling of Li-
ρPCM = kPCM ( 2 + 2 + 2 ) (2)
∂T ∂x ∂y ∂z ion batteries can be divided into passive cooling and active cooling. For
active BTMs, additional energy is consumed by fans or pumps, usually
H = h + ΔH (3)
air [28,29] and liquid cooling systems [30,31]. For passive BTMs,
∫ T unique structures, such as PCM [32,33] and HP [34,35], are often
h= CP,PCM dT (4) installed on the battery’s surface to achieve higher heat transfer and
T0
improve the heat transferability between the battery and the outside.
This paper focuses on the application of PCM to BTMs.
ΔH = αβ (5)
⎧ 4. PCM and its heat transfer enhancement for BTMs
⎪
⎪ 0T < T2
⎪
⎨ T − T2
α= T2 < T < T1 (6) PCM has been used in battery temperature management for a long
⎪ T1 − T2
⎪
⎪
⎩ time. Initially, researchers discovered that PCMs had a large amount of
1T > T1 latent heat, which allowed the battery pack temperature to remain
ρPCM -packing density of PCM, kPCM -thermal conductivity of PCM. relatively constant. Many more studies in the same vein have followed.
H-enthalpy of PCM, h- sensible heat of PCM. Wang et al., [36] established a numerical model based on the heat
ΔH- enthalpy of melted PCM, CP,PCM -Specific heat capacity of PCM. generation process of batteries and the heat transfer theory of PCM.
α- liquid fraction of the PCM, β- specific phase change enthalpy. They analyzed the performance of the thermal management system.
T1 - temperature of melting point, T2 - temperature of freezing point. Their study found that PCM can effectively reduce the maximum tem­
For PCM, they can be divided into organic PCMs and inorganic PCMs perature and maximum temperature difference of the battery at the end
according to their composition. Organic PCMs generally have the ad­ of the discharge, proving that PCM has good heat storage capacity and
vantages of low cost, good stability, low toxicity, non-corrosiveness, no temperature homogenization ability. However, with the development of
supercooling and phase separation. At present, most PCM researches in technology and the advent of high-rate charging and discharging tech­
BTMs still use organic PCMs. However, they have the disadvantages of nology, especially fast charging and discharging technology, pure PCM
poor thermal conductivity and flammability. In order to solve the above is prone to excessive heat accumulation and local temperature of the
problems, researchers try to add high thermal conductivity materials battery pack due to its low thermal conductivity. Therefore, how to
[21,22] and flame retardant materials to organic PCMs [23], which is a improve the thermal conductivity of PCM has become the focus of many
hot issue in the field of battery thermal management. scholars’ research.
Due to the limitation of phase change temperature, most inorganic Currently, the basic approaches to achieving high thermal conduc­
PCMs that can be used in BTMS are hydrated salts, and their thermo­ tivity in PCM may be loosely classified into two types: adding high
physical properties are unstable. But inorganic PCMs are completely thermal conductivity to carbon-based materials and to metal-based
non-flammable and are much lower in cost than organic PCMs [24]. materials. The proportion of methods used to improve the thermal
Galazutdinova et al., [25] proposed the idea of applying saline com­ conductivity of PCM in the research of PCM-based BTMs in the past
pounds to thermal management of batteries and carried out nail pene­ decade is shown in Fig. 3. Graphene and EG are favoured in this regard.
tration experiments. The results show that after penetration 520 s, Malik et al., [37] applied graphene to the battery pack by combining it
inorganic PCMs are completely non-flammable. The temperature of the with PCM. Due to the high thermal conductivity of graphene, the ther­
trigger point power supply decreases from 200 to 100 ◦ C and the tem­ mal conductivity of the composite phase change material (CPCM) was
perature of the adjacent series power supply is only 63.5 ◦ C. It is proved significantly improved compared to that of pure PCM. Multi-walled
that this inorganic PCM can effectively prevent thermal runaway carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) and graphene-based CPCM were explored
transmission. The main obstacle to the application of inorganic PCMs is by Zou et al., [38], who synthesized varied mixtures of graphene and
the poor thermal conductivity and stability caused by phase separation, MWCNT-based CPCM and characterized them at the optimal addition
dehydration or supercooling. Ling et al., [26] put forward a multi-scale quantity. They discovered that a composite phase transition material
encapsulation method for inorganic PCMs, which uses EG as internal with a 3:7 mass ratio of MWCNT to graphene had the strongest
micro-support matrix and silicone sealant as macro-encapsulation. This
method effectively improves the stability of PCMs. However, how to
further improve the stability of inorganic PCMs is still a challenge for
researchers. With the change of weather temperature, the thermal
management of power battery usually includes PCM-cooled BTMs in
high temperature weather and PCM-heated BTMS in cold weather.

3. PCM-cooled BTMs

The battery pack must be cooled if it is running at a high temperature

or charging/discharging at a rapid rate. The total temperature of the
battery increases, which aggravates the temperature non-uniformity,
and has a negative impact on its life expectancy, performance and
safety. The thermal runaway of the battery is mainly due to abuse, short
circuits, overcharging, high-speed charging/discharging and other rea­
sons [27], and the internal temperature of the battery rises sharply,
eventually leading to battery combustion or explosion. Moreover, the Fig. 3. Distribution of approaches based on improving the thermal conduc­
tivity of PCM.

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J. Luo et al. Chemical Engineering Journal 430 (2022) 132741

synergistic heat transfer improvement effect. On this basis, Zou et al., The experimental results show that TSG can further enhance the heat
[39] prepared CPCM with a stable shape using PA and EG and studied its dissipation effect of the battery. The best way to improve the heat
locally enhanced heat transfer characteristics in power battery modules dissipation of the PCM has also been discussed. Mohammad et al., [47]
through experiments. The results showed that the maximum tempera­ used nanoparticles, fins and porous metal foams to composite with PCM
ture and the maximum temperature difference of 36 battery modules and compared their effects on system performance. The results show
during 3C discharge were 44.6 ◦ C and 0.8 ◦ C when the four cells were that the properties of porous metal foams are better than those of
locally strengthened with CPCM. In addition, the results showed that nanometer PCM and finned PCM. Relevant studies on enhancing the
temperature of the battery module is more uniform when the enhanced heat dissipation capacity of PCM are summarized in Table 1.
region is narrowed. Compared with the local enhancement of 16 bat­
teries, the maximum temperature of the battery module was slightly 5. PCF for BTMs
increased, and the temperature difference was reduced by 46.7 %, which
improved the temperature consistency of the battery module. PCF is a multiphase functional thermal fluid created by distributing
Cao et al., [40] used paraffin wax (PA) as PCM, EG and high-density PCM materials in the form of microscopic particles in a heat transfer
polyethene as support material, carbon fibre as thermal conductivity fluid. Due to its high latent heat value, PCF is primarily employed as a
additive, and added 3D-printed aluminium honeycomb with a prickly channel fluid in the thermal management of power batteries. Fig. 5
structure to improve the mechanical properties and thermal conduc­ depicts the design. A coolant in a high-temperature environment can
tivity of CPCM. Their results showed that the battery’s operating tem­ take away the heat generated when the battery is working. As a heating
perature may always be kept within the safe temperature range of 50 ◦ C fluid, it can heat the battery pack to the optimal operating temperature
at a discharge rate of 2.5C. Metal foam is also widely used in battery at a low temperature. According to the dispersion form of PCM particles
thermal management. The experimental results of Wang et al., [41] in the fluid, PCF can be roughly divided into two types: phase change
showed that the thermal interaction between battery cells is more emulsions and microcapsule phase change material suspensions
obvious after the aluminium foam is used. In terms of its combination (MEPCMS) [60–62]. Phase change emulsion is a kind of micro/nano-
with PCM, foamed metal can adsorb PCM due to its porous nature. emulsion system with stable performance, emulsified and dispersed in
Huang et al., [42] studied the influence of PCM thermal conductivity a heat transfer fluid under the action of a surfactant. The particle size of
and latent heat on the thermal management of designed Li-ion battery PCM particles is in the range of tens of nanometers to tens of microns.
modules. The results show that the thermal conductivity should not be MEPCMS is a kind of suspension formed by dispersing micron-size
as high as possible because the cooling effect will increase slightly when microcapsule particles with a core–shell structure in the heat transfer
the thermal conductivity exceeds a certain range. Larger latent heat can fluid by coating the PCM with a layer of a stable polymer material.
achieve smaller maximum temperature and temperature differences. Compared with traditional solid/liquid PCM, PCF has higher fluidity
Therefore, both latent heat and thermal conductivity should be and more flexible volume change.
considered in the thermal management of PCM batteries. Rehman et al., However, PCF also has its limitations. For phase change emulsions,
[43] studied copper foam radiators based on PCM and copper foam/ the phase instability and supercooling effect caused by the aggregation
PCM composite radiators and observed the working time behaviour of and precipitation of PCM droplets are fundamental problems to be
the radiators at specific charging and discharging temperatures. The solved in the application. Agresti et al., [63] prepared nano-emulsions
results show that the higher the volume fraction of PCM, the more the with an average size of less than 220 nm using a new solvent-assisted
substrate temperature drops. Therefore, it is recommended to use low- route. They found that the nano-emulsions exhibited good stability
melting PCM at low power levels, where the best performance can be after long-term testing. In addition, some nucleating agents have been
seen at low setpoint temperatures. In contrast, high-melting PCM ex­ tested and found to reduce the effect of supercooling significantly.
hibits the best performance at higher load and setpoint temperatures. Zhang et al., [64] prepared a stable PCM emulsion made of n-hex­
Metal-based PCM includes metal mesh PCM [44,45], metal fiber PCM adecane with a transparent appearance by the phase transition tem­
[46], metal nanoparticle PCM [47], etc. With the decrease in PCM, the perature method. They found that the nano-emulsion had excellent
latent heat value of the CPCM will also decrease, affecting the thermal stability, and silica nanoparticles were used as an effective nucleating
performance of the BTMs. Therefore, the addition of thermally agent to reduce the degree of supercooling. Studies have shown that
conductive materials should consider the influence on the thermal emulsion properties can be effectively improved by increasing emulsi­
conductivity and latent heat value of CPCM at the same time to achieve fying temperature and cooling rate [65]. For the MEPCMS, poor heat
the best thermal management effect. transfer performance is the main factor limiting its practical application.
However, there is still a significant issue. Metal particles, expanded Therefore, how to improve its convective heat transfer characteristics is
graphite, and other heat transfer enhancement materials are commonly a research hotspot. In practical application, studies have shown that
used in PCM. Because these additional materials have electrical con­ when MEPCMS is used as a coolant in the circulating loop, the heat
ductivity, the power battery’s safety can not be assured. As a result, transfer performance of the circle is affected by the flow rate, pumping
future research will concentrate on electrical insulation and the filler’s power and heating rate of MEPCMS [66]. In addition, Languri et al., [67]
high thermal conductivity. Boron Nitride (BN) is a good choice [48]. Li studied the influence of MEPCMS on the performance of spiral heat
et al., [49] prepared a 10 wt% silicone sealant (SS)/BN system. The exchangers. The experimental and simulation results show that the
experimental results showed that the system could keep the temperature suspension can be treated as a homogeneous fluid when the concen­
difference in the battery pack within 0.5 ◦ C at a discharge rate of 3C. tration is low. The efficiency and pressure drop of the heat exchanger
The above methods to enhance the thermal conductivity of PCM are increases with the increase in the mass fraction of the MEPCMS. Bai
mainly from the inside of PCM to change the thermal conductivity of et al., [68] studied that for different concentrations of MEPCMS, if the
PCM by compounding other materials. External procedures can also be mass flow rate exceeds the critical value, its cooling performance is
used to enhance the heat dissipation performance of PCM, such as worse than pure water.
reducing the thermal contact resistance between the battery and PCM In power battery thermal management, PCFs are mainly combined
[50,51], adding fins [52,53], using Thermoelectric Cooling Sheet [54], with channels and driven by pumps. Zhang et al., [69] evaluated the
etc. Liu et al., [50] used AIN, copper powder, and carbon fibre as thermal thermodynamics of traditional active cooling/heating methods and
conductivity fillers in the experiment to prepare thermal silicone greases active battery cooling/heating methods based on the phase change
(TSG) with a thermal degradation temperature of over 300 ◦ C and slurry (PCS) cycle by analysing the first law of thermodynamics and the
uniformly coated TSG on the interface between the battery and the second law of thermodynamics. It is concluded that the PCS cycle
CPCM. The battery charge and discharge experiments were carried out. method has higher efficiency than the refrigerant cycle method. Wang

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J. Luo et al. Chemical Engineering Journal 430 (2022) 132741

Table 1
Summary of CPCM-based BTMs (metal-based and carbon-based additives).
Authors Strategy Proportion Heat latent (kJ/kg) Thermal conductivity Battery Tamb /◦ C Battery maximum temperature
(W/m∙K) load Tmax /Battery temperature difference
ΔTmax /◦ C
Pure CPCM PurePCM CPCM
PCM

Malik et al., PA + graphene – – 160 0.2 10 4C 30 36.5/–

[37]
Xiao et al., polymer PCM + EG EG loadings = 6 wt% 216.8 91.3 0.3 2.33 5C 30 45.3/3.1
[55]
Luo et al., PA + EG EG loadings = 20 wt% 222.4 127.3 0.22 4.27 3C 20 35/2
[56]
Zou et al., PA + MWCNT + MWCNT + graphene 224.8 203.8 0.38 0.87 – 25 46/-
[38] graphene loadings = 1 %
(MWCNT: graphene =
3: 7)
Zou et al., PA + EG MWCNT + graphene 224.8 178.5 0.38 5.1 3C 40 44.6/0.8
[39] +MWCNT + graphene loadings = 1 %
(MWCNT: graphene =
3: 7)
EG loadings = 15 wt%
Cao et al., PA + CF + 3DAl-HC PA: EG: HDPE: CF – – – 5.723 2.5C 25 45.5/-
[40] =82.5: 7: 6: 4.5

Wu et al., PA + copper mesh + EG – 186.4 141.6 0.26 7.65 5C 31 61.6/2.6

[45]
Situ et al., PA + copper mesh + EG – 255.8 147.7 8.327 5C 25 55/5
[44] + LDPE
Abid et al., PA + nickel foam + Graphene loadings = 143 99 0.19 4.6 2.2 A 33/0.7
[57] graphene 0.5 wt%
He et al., PA + EG + Copper foam EG loadings = 6 wt% 256 75 0.23 2.9 5C 25 54.7/6.1
[58]
Azizi et al., PEG + aluminium wire – 158.992 – 0.23 – 3C 30 46.5/2.6
[59] mesh plates
Pan et al., PA + copper fiber Mass fraction of – – – – 35 A 30 51.2/2.99
[46] copper = 47 %
Liu et al., PA + EG + TSG thermally conductive – – – TSG = 2C – 42.17/-
[50] filler loadings = 5/7 1.81
(Copper powder:
Carbon fiber = 1:5)
Zhang PA + EG EG loadings = 20 wt% 200 – 0.22 – 3C 25 46.3/4.2
et al., +Thermoelectric
[51] Cooling Sheet

measured at different discharge rates to evaluate the thermal manage­

ment performance of two different concentrations of OP28E nano-
emulsion compared with water. According to the data, a rise in tem­
perature is linked to an increase in discharge rate. However, at the same
discharge rate, the higher the concentration of OP28E nano-emulsion,
the lower the efficiency is. The thermal management properties of the
two OP28E nano-emulsions are better than those of water. Cao et al.,
[71] prepared a nano-PCM emulsion without supercooling, combined
with a microchannel cold plate, and applied it to Li-ion batteries under
high-rate discharge. This ultra-thin microchannel system based on PCM
nano-emulsion can achieve better thermal management effects than
water when the inlet temperature is below or near the melting point of
PCM due to the lower pumping power consumption of PCM nano-
emulsion than water. However, the viscosity of the phase change
emulsion is greater than that of water and increases with the mass
fraction of PCM [72]. When transporting a fluid with the same heat, the
mass transported by the phase change emulsion is much less than that of
water because of the high latent heat. Moreover, for the same Reynolds
number, due to the latent heat absorption during the melting of PCM
particles, the Nussel number of phase change emulsion is greater than
that of water [66]. As for the application of MEPCM in battery thermal
management, Li et al., [73] established a BTMs model using a liquid cold
Fig. 4. BTMs classification according to the power source. plate, and the experiment proved that MEPCM as a coolant had better
performance than water.
et al., [70] used phase change emulsion as a coolant for the first time. PCM preparation into the emulsion and microcapsule suspension
They successfully prepared two PCM nano-emulsions containing 10 % produces equally distributed PCM, which not only solves problems like
and 20 % OP28E by an ultrasonic method. The 5S4P battery pack is volume change during phase transition and leakage, but also improves

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J. Luo et al. Chemical Engineering Journal 430 (2022) 132741

Fig. 5. The schematic of three different PCM-heated BTMs:(a) PCM supercooling [133], (b) external power supply [134], (c) PCM and HP based BTMs [135].

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J. Luo et al. Chemical Engineering Journal 430 (2022) 132741

PCM heat transfer efficiency by increasing the specific surface area. 6. FPCM for BTMs
More importantly, they are cut off from direct contact with the external
environment of the PCM, the long-term stability of the PCM, and the The solid PCM utilized in the thermal management of the cell should
service life of the PCM. It also has a good performance in the application be as close to the battery pack as feasible to ensure heat transfer effi­
of BTMs. It can be predicted that PCF as a kind of coolants and the ciency. Traditional PCM, on the other hand, has the drawbacks of solid
development of liquid cooling and BTMs will usher in a new peak. A stiffness, complicated processing, and the inability to be employed in
chart for PCF-based BTMs research efforts is shown in Table 2. hard shell batteries. PCM with a stable shape, muscular rigidity and no
flexibility will lead to installation difficulties, easy breaking, and poor
contact with the battery surface, resulting in high contact thermal
resistance of the contact surface. FPCM is a kind of flexible CPCM, which

Table 2
Summary of PCF-based BTMs.
Authors Coolants Battery Inlet Tin Battery Application
load flowrate maximum
temperature
Tmax /Battery
temperature
differenceΔTmax

Wang 10 wt% 2C 200 27 ◦ C 45.5 ◦ C /3.3 ◦ C

et al., OP28E nano- mL/min
[70] emulsion

Cao 10 wt% 9C 10 L/h 40 ◦ C 46 ◦ C /3.5 ◦ C

et al., NPCME-
[71] OP44E

Li et al., MEPCMS with 5C 0.06 m/ 28 ◦ C 39.9 ◦ C /3.6 ◦ C

[73] the volume s
fraction of 0.1

Bai et al., PCS consisting 2C 10-4 kg/ – 309.6 K/ 5.5 K

of 20% s
[68] noctadecane
microcapsules
and 80% water

Cao NPCME 3C 10 L/h 35 ◦ C 45 ◦ C /3.5 ◦ C

et al., (Water/
[74] OP44E) with
an
OP44E mass
fraction of 10
wt%

Pakrouh 20 wt% OP28E 5C 0.05 m/ – 313.9 K/-

et al., nano-emulsion s
[75]

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J. Luo et al. Chemical Engineering Journal 430 (2022) 132741

is currently a hot spot in the research field of PCM [76–78]. In recent efficiency can be reduced by 12 ◦ C by using the composite membrane in
years, there have been a lot of studies on FPCM [79–81]. At present, the the thermal management of the battery.
research on FPCM has also made significant progress, but more explo­ In fact, in addition to OBC as the matrix material, several research
ration is needed to apply PCM to BTMs. In the thermal management of projects have used other materials. Huang et al., [88] used Styrene
batteries, flexible polymers are used as supporting materials to prepare Butadiene Styrene (SBS) as a matrix material, paraffin as PCM, and EG as
FPCM to improve surface contact and reduce thermal contact resistance. a thermal conductivity enhancement agent to prepare FPCM for BTMs
Since PCM absorbs heat and undergoes phase change after reaching and concluded that the composite material could be well applied to
phase change temperature, it does have leakage characteristics. There­ BTMs. The following research also used SBS as the matrix material, but
fore, PCM is usually encapsulated with matrix materials. When PCM the difference is that the material comprises SBS, paraffin, and
comes to the phase transition temperature, it changes from solid to aluminium nitride (AlN) [89]. The effects of different aluminum nitride
liquid, but it is not easy to leak due to the support of the matrix. The mass fractions on phase transition enthalpy and thermal conductivity
difference between FPCM and other CPCM lies in the difference in ma­ were investigated experimentally. The experimental results show that
trix materials. 15 % of the aluminium nitride mass fraction can obtain the best thermal
Most FPCM are currently filled with PA based on the OBC matrix. performance and can be effectively applied to the BTM. According to
Huang et al., [82] used a mould to press the produced FPCM into a further research, FPCM has a better application in pouch lithium-ion
zigzag pattern, allowing the battery to be completely in touch with the batteries. Huang et al., [90] successfully prepared a new type of flex­
flexible CPCM and therefore improving the battery. This is a quick and ible CPCM, which also uses SBS as a support base material. The differ­
easy way to turn an FPCM into a battery pack without having to use any ence is the use of the thermoplastic ester elastomer (TPEE) as a
additional packaging. The experimental results show that the thermal collaborative packaging material, which can effectively improve the
contact resistance of the FPCM is less than that of the conventional PCM. CPCM flexibility and deformation. The FPCM can be made into a sleeve
When the FPCM and the standard PCM are respectively used on the that completely wraps the pouched lithium-ion battery. When the CPCM
battery, the battery pack’s temperature decreases by 6.5 ◦ C, which re­ sleeve is heated to 60 ◦ C, its thermally induced flexibility allows the
flects the advantages of the FPCM. However, OBC is a polymer with low battery to be easily assembled into the CPCM sleeve. When the tem­
thermal conductivity. Therefore, the low thermal conductivity of the perature reaches room temperature, the CPCM sleeve produces a
obtained FPCM must be solved if they are to be applied in the field of contractive force on the battery. The CPCM is in close contact with the
thermal management. Adding particles with high thermal conductivity battery, significantly reducing the thermal contact resistance.
into PCM is a traditional method to increase thermal conductivity, an A chart for FPCM-based BTMs research efforts is shown in Table 3.
economical and effective method. EG has a higher specific surface area When looking at the literature, it is clear that just a few studies have
and equivalent thickness than other carbon additives such as graphite attempted to apply FPCM to BTMs. As a result, further research on
and particles. Therefore, EG is considered a material that can improve FPCM-based BTMs will need to be expanded.
the heat transfer rate of FPCM. Li et al., [83] found that when the
ambient temperature is lower than the OBC phase transition tempera­ 7. Hybrid cooling system
ture, the FPCM has rigidity and flexible reversibility. When the tem­
perature is higher than that of paraffin, the CPCM has muscular The present BTMs are split into active BTMs, passive BTMs, and
flexibility, which allows for flexible contact between the PCM and the hybrid BTMs, as illustrated in Fig. 4. In recent years, a growing number
battery pack. When the temperature is lower than that of paraffin, the of studies have shown that a single BTM is insufficient for battery
hardness of the CPCM is restored, maintaining and enhancing the temperature control. The PCM-based BTMs provide efficient cooling.
excellent surface contact and the new shape. In addition, the experi­ They can reduce the temperature of a battery system with a low energy
mental results show that adding 3 wt% of EG can significantly increase cost resulting from latent heat. However, with the development of the
the thermal conductivity of the prepared PCM, which is 479 % of the battery and electronic technology, there is an increasing demand for Li-
CPCM thermal conductivity, without adding any thermal conductivity ion battery fast charge and discharge. Combining a PCM-based structure
reinforcing particles, which is a breakthrough improvement. with an active cooling system is an effective method to overcome these
Similarly, Wu et al., [84,85] used OBC as the supporting matrix and setbacks. This paper mainly introduces the related studies of PCM, air,
EG with porous properties as the heat conduction enhancement agent to liquid and heat pipe, the three standard coupling cooling methods.
improve the heat exchange rate of paraffin/OBC blends. They provide Experimental studies on PCM mixed with other cooling methods are
support through capillary force and surface tension. The difference is listed in Table 4.
that their experiment focuses on solving the leakage problem of FPCM
and on the particular structure that supports the EG. Experimental re­ 8. BTMs based on PCM and air convection
sults show that 20 wt% EG can effectively restrain leakage. The results
show that the composites have good physical and chemical compati­ Due to the simple structure and low cost, thermal management with
bility. In later studies, more research has been focused on the actual PCM and air convection could be the earliest hybrid cooling system used
thermal management of the battery. The experimental results show that for BTM. Xie et al., [92] designed a novel PCM coupled with air cooling
when the battery is discharged at a rate of 2.5C, the maximum tem­ thermal management. The results showed that the cooling effect of the
perature of each monitoring point is 28.8 ◦ C lower than that of the integrated system is better than that of the air-cooling system. After the
battery without FPCM, and most of the monitoring points are within the complete melting of the PCM, the battery’s temperature did not rise
optimal operating temperature range of the battery. The results suggest rapidly due to the auxiliary cooling of the air. Besides, it shows that
that the FPCM has high thermal management performance and, because increasing the airflow rate leads to a decreased battery temperature,
of its better thermal flexibility, has a promising future. To further improving the battery temperature stability level. Mehrabi-Kermani et
improve the thermal conductivity of FPCM, at the same time reduce the at. [93], presented in 2019, is a hybrid cooling design combining forced
leakage, Wu et al., [86,87] through the stress-induced orientation of EG air-cooling and paraffin as PCM for a pouch-cell battery module.
to form the graphite nanometer network skeleton of thermal conduc­ Compared with the active thermal management system and the passive
tivity, maximum limit to strengthen the coefficient of thermal conduc­ thermal management system, the cooling time of the hybrid thermal
tivity of composite materials, also have the effect of the stereotypes management system technology was improved by 4.4 and 4.6 times
packaging, in terms of strengthening of thermal conductivity, when EG when the air inlet temperature was 40 ◦ C. This suggests that the com­
content up to 20 wt%, composite material thermal conductivity can bination of active and passive components significantly contributes to
reach 17 Wm-1K− 1.The surface temperature of the battery with high heat dissipation and delays the PCM melting process. Especially in high

8
 J. Luo et al.
Table 3
Summary of FPCM-based BTMs.
Authors PCM Proportion Heat Thermal Flexible Battery Tamb Battery maximum Application
latent conductivity load /◦ C temperature Tmax /
(kJ/kg) (W/m∙K) Battery temperature
difference ΔTmax /◦ C

Wu et al., PA + OBC + EG PA: OBC = 4:1 185.4 2.34 2.5C 25 43.4/-

[85] (PA + OBC):EG = 19:1

Huang et al., Eicosane + OBC Eicosane: OBC:EG = 80:20:3 170.2 1.21 10C 25 55/1.9
+ EG
[82]

Wu et al., PA + OBC + EG EG Loadings = 5 wt% PA + 159 4.2 9.5 A 30 53.2/-

[87] OBC = 95 wt%
(PA: OBC = 9:1)
9

Lin et al., PA + OBC + EG PA:OBC:EG:AlN 145.26 1.564 3C 25 44.3/0.78

[91] + AlN =57:20:3:20

Huang et al., PA + SBS + AlN PA: SBS: AIN 57.06 0.5 1C 30 32.5/0.9
=35:50:15
[89]

Chemical Engineering Journal 430 (2022) 132741

Huang et al., PA + SBS + EG PA: SBS:EG 79.8 0.87 5C 30 46/4
=14.4:15:0.6
[88] (continued on next page)
J. Luo et al. Chemical Engineering Journal 430 (2022) 132741

temperature, coupling cooling has incomparable advantages.

As for the selection of natural convection and forced air convection,
Yang et al., [94] proposed a BTMs combining air cooling and PCM
cooling. The thermal performance of the battery pack was studied and
compared to the charge–discharge cycles of natural convection only,
natural convection combined with phase change cooling, and forced
convection combined with phase change cooling. The results show that
the thermal performance of the battery pack with forced convection and
PCM is better than that of the battery pack with natural convection and
PCM. As for the role of forced air convection in BTMs, Ling et al., [95],
their study confirmed that PCM alone could not meet the temperature
control demands of the battery pack in the process of continuous high-
Application

rate charge and discharge cycle. They found that because the natural
convection of the air is inefficient, the accumulation of heat in the PCM
will lead to the eventual failure of the passive BTMs. Therefore, forced
convection heat transfer by air was introduced into the BTMs design to
accelerate the release of PCM heat storage and improve the stability of
the PCM system. The PCMs control the maximum temperature and
Battery temperature
difference ΔTmax /◦ C

maximum temperature difference of the battery pack, while the forced

temperature Tmax /
Battery maximum

air active cooling mainly plays a role in the cooling process of the PCMs.
To further study the role of forced air convection in coupled cooling,
66.4/2.5

Jiang et al., [96] proposed a BTM with CPCM and forced air cooling for
cylindrical cells. Compared with natural convection, the results showed
that air cooling could significantly reduce the curing time of PCM, and
when the ambient temperature is 28 ◦ C, the curing time of PCM can be
Tamb
/◦ C

50

reduced from 60 min to 18 min. Besides, it can be seen in Table 4 that the
baffles changed fluid flow direction and the fluid flowed in a tortuous,
zigzag manner across the aluminum tube bundles in the battery pack,
Battery

improving the interaction of fluid and its heat transfer efficiency.

load

3C

Because forced air convection often requires additional fans and

other equipment, the practical design of the coupling system is very
important for improving the performance of the BTMs. Lv et al., [97]
successfully developed a new phase transition cooling structure for BTM.
The novel design effectively reduces the weight of the CPCM module by
about 70 % and increases the energy density of the battery module from
107.8 W-hours to 121.6 W-hours. Safdari et al., [98] studied the passive-
Flexible

active Li-ion BTM. Three different PCM containers with circular, rect­
angular and hexagonal cross-sections were used to test their thermal
properties under natural convection, 0.1 m/s and 0.2 m/s. The experi­
mental results show that the rectangular cross-section container has the
conductivity

best cooling effect after the PCM has completely melted. The cooling
(W/m∙K)
Thermal

effect can be increased by 642 % by 0.2 m/s airflow compared with

natural convection. Qin et al., [99] proposed a new thermal manage­
1.2

ment system combining air forced convection with PCM. The effec­
tiveness of the designed BTMs was verified under dynamic cycling
(kJ/kg)

conditions of 1C, 2C, 3C and 4C. The experimental results showed that
latent

170.1
Heat

the maximum temperature of the battery could not be maintained

within the optimal range at the rate of 3C with pure passive cooling.
While in the coupled BTMs, both the maximum temperature and the
maximum temperature difference can be controlled within the recom­
mended range.
PA: SBS:EG: TPEE

PCM coupling cooling air cooling is a straightforward way. It has the

advantages of a simple structure and a low cost, suitable for some small
= 80:10:5:5
Proportion

electronic components of low calorific value. Although the form is

simple in comparison to single active and passive cooling, it studied how
initiative and passive cooling combined the benefits of the two cooling
methods to overcome their drawbacks and clarify their roles in BTMs. As
PA + SBS + EG

a consequence, it offers a design concept for a coupled cooling system

with improved heat transfer efficiency.
+ TPEE
PCM
Table 3 (continued )

9. BTMs based on PCM and liquid coolant

Huang et al.,

Hybrid cooling techniques with PCM and liquid are the current trend
for battery thermal management. Because the thermal conductivity of
Authors

[90]

the liquid is much better than that of air, liquid cooling is more domi­
nant during PCM solidification. Kong et al., [100] proposed a hybrid

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J. Luo et al. Chemical Engineering Journal 430 (2022) 132741

Table 4
Summary of hybrid cooling systems.
Authors Strategy Battery load Tamb /◦ C Battery maximum Application
temperature Tmax
/Battery temperature
difference ΔTmax
/◦ C

Single Hybrid
CPCM BTMs

Lv et al., [97] PCM + Air 2C 40 59 /1 53 /0.8

Mehrabi-Kermani et al., PCM + Air 5W 25 48.8 /- 35.8 /-

[93]

Ling et al., [95] PCM + Air 1.5C 25 60 /2.7 45 /1.7

Jiang et al., [96] PCM + Air 5C 28 51 /- 44 /2

Yang et al., [106] PCM + Liquid 32.2 A 25 – 34.5 /-

Ping et al., [109] PCM + Liquid 3C 45 54/- 47.6/4.5

Chen et al., [110] PCM + Liquid 3C 25 35.6/0.9 34.8/0.96

(continued on next page)

11
J. Luo et al. Chemical Engineering Journal 430 (2022) 132741

Table 4 (continued )
Authors Strategy Battery load Tamb /◦ C Battery maximum Application
temperature Tmax
/Battery temperature
difference ΔTmax
/◦ C

Single Hybrid
CPCM BTMs

Zhang et al., [102] PCM + Liquid 5C 25 62.8/0.85 39/0.54

Zhang et al., [120] PCM + HP 5C 30 52.5/4.2 44.9/3.2

Lei et al., [121] PCM + HP 1.92C 40 57.7/9.11 47.9/5.1

Wu et al., [122] PCM + Air + HP 5C 25 53.2/1.8 47.2/2

Hekmat et al., [103] PCM + Air + 0.9C 28 32/1.2 30/0.6

Liquid

Zhang et al., [123] PCM + HP + 5C discharge-1C 20 36.91/- 30/2

Liquid charge

PCM coupled with liquid cooling BTMs, which improves the thermal comparison, when the ambient temperature is higher than the PCM
performance of the battery pack during the cycle at different ambient phase transition temperature, the heat dissipation of the battery pack
temperatures and significantly reduces the unnecessary power con­ depends on liquid cooling. Song et al., [101] proposed a novel conjugate
sumption of liquid cooling in the process. The role of liquid cooling cooling structure using PCM and liquid cooling technology. Compared
BTMs in various stages of battery charging and discharging was inves­ with a single PCM or liquid cooling condition, the rate of temperature
tigated experimentally. Liquid cooling can significantly accelerate the rise and the steady-state cell temperature were significantly reduced by
curing process of PCM during battery charging or rest. It is concluded conjugate cooling. Zhang et al., [102] proposed a new hybrid BTM based
that when the ambient temperature is lower than the PCM phase tran­ on PCM and liquid cooling. The system combines the advantages of PCM
sition temperature, PCM is the main component of heat dissipation. In and the liquid thermal management scheme, which can fully meet the

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J. Luo et al. Chemical Engineering Journal 430 (2022) 132741

heat dissipation requirements under extreme working conditions. In this working at its optimum temperature, modest water flow is advised. In
system, the battery’s operating temperature is maintained mainly by the subsequent studies [112], they proposed a novel coupled BTMs with
latent heat of the PCM. When a single cell runs out of control, most latent delayed liquid cooling mode. A constant cooling water flow was used to
heat of the PCM is consumed. At this point, the liquid cooling begins to cool the battery pack after the battery temperature reached the phase
work, and the cooling channel takes heat away through the aluminium transition temperature. Because the low cooling temperature of the
plate, reducing the heat transfer to adjacent cells and avoiding runaway liquid will increase the temperature difference of the battery pack, it
heat transmission. Hekmat et al., [103] proposed a hybrid BTMs reduces the discharge capacity. If the temperature of the battery is
combining PCM with a conventional cooling system for Li-ion batteries within the limits, high water intake temperature should be a priority.
with large capacity prismatic batteries. By embedding cooling water The experimental findings suggest that the delayed cooling system may
pipes into PCM and building a hybrid BTMs, the maximum temperature lower the temperature difference between batteries and decrease the
will be significantly lower than in other conditions, indicating the su­ cooling duration.
periority of the hybrid BTMs. PCM coupled with liquid cooling has the advantage of high cooling
The structural design and liquid flow parameters of coupling BTMs efficiency. Still, due to the objective need for liquid cooling, the coupled
with PCM and liquid cooling have a substantial influence on the per­ BTMs often have the disadvantages of large volume and weight. To solve
formance of BTMs, and there are several studies at work in this sector. the problem, Ling et al., [113] developed an optimization method based
Molaeimanesh et al., [104] investigated the effect of system configura­ on the response surface method and numerical heat transfer model,
tion on the cooling performance of a hybrid BTMs consisting of PCM and which can optimize the PCM composition and active cooling structure,
water-cooling channels. The results show that the parallel/series taking into account the contribution of active and passive cooling, and
configuration provides the best performance for long life running bat­ can help to save up to 94.1 % and 55.6 % of the PCM in mass and vol­
teries, with high heat dissipation rates, low maximum temperatures and ume. It has the advantages of high efficiency, lightweight, simple
a small range of temperature variations at the interface between the structure and flexibility of any battery’s shape. The following research
battery and the BTMs during operation. For short-run batteries, the se­ on PCM-based BTMs should focus on reducing the volume of the system
ries configuration provides better performance. Through experiments and reducing additional equipment. It is of great significance to the
and numerical simulation, Li et al., [105] found that double-sided liquid popularization and practical application of PCM coupled liquid cooling.
cooling has better temperature control performance within the accept­
able range of temperature difference, and the battery temperature is the 10. BTMs based on PCM and HP
lowest. Yang et al., [106] proposed a novel honeycomb-like BTMs. By
referring to the nature of the web structure and hexagonal honeycomb The HP is a working fluid-filled vacuum sealing device that transmits
and integrating the bionic liquid microchannel and the hexagonal heat transfer via a liquid-to-vapor phase change in the working fluid.
cooling plate of PCM, the computational fluid dynamics method was Because of its flexible design, high thermal conductivity, and low
adopted to ensure that the BTMs could stabilize the maximum temper­ maintenance workload, HP has emerged as a viable alternative for
ature and temperature difference energy of the battery within 312.0 K battery temperature control as a passive system. Because of the low
and 3.5 K. The failure of temperature control when PCM is wholly thermal conductivity of PCM, some researchers proposed that HP tech­
melted is avoided. nology should be coupled with PCM to enhance heat transfer, and HP
Generally, for hybrid cooling techniques with PCM and liquid, it is should be used in assisted with PCM-based BTMs. The combination ac­
believed that the higher the inlet flow rate, the lower the inlet temper­ counts for the excellent cooling effect of HP and the immense heat
ature, the better the cooling effect, but this is not the case in practice. An storage capacity of PCM. In this hybrid BTMs, the heat generated by the
et al., [107] proposed a CPCM based on paraffin EG combined with battery is absorbed and stored by the PCM, and then the same heat is
liquid cooling. The effects of different flow rates, channel arrangements partially absorbed by the evaporator of the HP. Heat is further released
and different EG mass fractions on the thermal performance of the into the atmosphere through the condenser section by using natural
battery at 40 ◦ C ambient temperature and 3C discharge rate were convection or forced air/liquid.
measured. The results demonstrate that with the increase of inlet flow Huang et al., [114] investigated the thermal management of a PCM/
rate, the decrease of battery surface temperature tends to be flat. At this HP system. The results demonstrated that the temperature of the PCM/
time, the increase of flow rate has a slight impact on the performance of HP modules could be kept under 50 ◦ C, and the HP played a vital role in
BTMS. Liu et al., [108] found that in a PCM coupled to liquid-cooled the heat transfer and temperature consistency of PCM. Zhou et al., [115]
BTMs, changing the flow rate through a variable pump is more energy proposed a BTM that takes advantage of the cooling capacity and flame
efficient. In addition, when the battery pack gives off less heat, it can be retardancy of PCF immersion and the high heat transfer efficiency of the
adjusted through a variable pump for optimal cooling. When the battery HP. It meets the requirements of safety, high power, continuous long-
pack temperature is very high, the power of the variable pump and term operation and life of high energy density battery applications.
compressor must be increased simultaneously to achieve the best cool­ The proposed BTMs consumes very little battery energy and has no
ing effect. Ping et al., [109] proposed that it is feasible to reduce the complex flow channels due to the direct immersion of the battery pack in
coolant velocity in the charging process while maintaining the cooling the PCL (Phase Change Liquid) and the high heat transfer performance
capacity in the circulating process to save on liquid cooling power of the coupled HP-PCL. The experimental results show that the thermal
consumption. The experimental results of Chen et al., [110] showed that management performance of the proposed HP-PCL module is better than
when the thickness of PCM is 0.39 mm, the maximum temperature of that of forced air cooling in terms of temperature rise and thermal
battery surface is higher than that when the thickness of PCM is 0.26 consistency. The experimental results show that the maximum temper­
mm. Therefore, the highest coolant flow and the maximum PCM thick­ ature of the battery is limited to 47 ◦ C under high discharge rate and
ness may not achieve optimal thermal performance. Cao et al., [111] high power cycle. The corresponding temperature difference at all
studied the performance of a hybrid BTMs with water cooling and CPCM observation points was more than 2.1 ◦ C. It indicates that the proposed
for cylindrical batteries. They discussed the effect of water inlet tem­ BTMs can be used in applications requiring continuous battery operation
perature and flow rate and the content of PCM in the battery on the at high power levels. In addition, the BTMs inhibits thermal runaway
battery cooling. The results show that the best control strategy is to keep and blocks its propagation, as well as achieves thermal stability under
the water temperature below 40 ◦ C and as close to the ambient tem­ extreme operating conditions, enhancing the safety and reliability of the
perature as possible. Furthermore, the high water flow will lower total battery pack. Behi et al., [116] designed an immersive PCM coupled HP
power consumption marginally while dramatically increasing total cooling system for batteries under rapid discharge conditions (8C).
power consumption and power consumption. As a result, if the battery is Compared with natural convection, the maximum temperature of the

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J. Luo et al. Chemical Engineering Journal 430 (2022) 132741

battery can be reduced by 17.3 % and 40.7 %, respectively, by the heat In the following research, Ling et al., [124] experimented with the in­
pipe and PCM coupling heat pipe cooling system. fluence of PCM on the thermal performance of batteries at low tem­
In recent years, research on the structural design of coupling PCM peratures through experimental methods. They tested lithium-ion
with heat pipes has been increasing gradually. Chen et al., [117] studied batteries with and without PCM at − 5 ◦ C, and cooling tests starting at
the BTMs of PCM coupled with HP, as an example. The effects of 40 ◦ C showed that the PCM kept the battery temperature above 5 ◦ C for
different parameters on the cooling performance of BTMs were about 1 h. However, recent experiments have shown that the effect of
analyzed. Under the condition of not increasing the volume and cost of PCM on battery performance depends on cooling time, and long-term
the system, the optimized thickness distribution of PCM can effectively use of PCM at low temperatures is harmful. Leila et al., [130] proved
improve the temperature uniformity of the battery pack. Ren [118] through experiments that PCM would destroy the thermal performance
designed a new sinusoidal HP to replace the circular HP. The effects of and capacity of the battery after long-term cold immersion and charging
different HP temperatures, wave number and sinusoidal amplitude of of the battery pack wrapped in PCM. The heating rate of the battery pack
HP, the volume fraction of nanoparticles and the eccentric position of is reduced by 29 %, and the energy consumption is reduced by 15 %
HP on the melting process of PCM reinforced by nanoparticles were compared with no PCM. Therefore, in the long run, the benefits of PCM
investigated. The results show that the application of sinusoidal HP can for battery preheating are more likely to be reflected in ensuring
significantly improve the energy storage rate of the nanoparticle consistent temperature during the battery heating process and main­
enhanced PCM because it increases the heat transfer area between the taining uniform charging voltage distribution across the EV battery pack
heat transfer fluid and the nanoparticle enhanced PCM. In addition, it is at low temperatures. Huo et al., [131] established the lattice Boltzmann
found that the application of sinusoidal HP with a larger radius is more model of BTMs based on PCM and considered the effects of thermal
effective in improving the thermal energy storage rate than adding high conductivity, latent heat and ambient temperature. The results show
thermal conductivity nanoparticles into the PCM. Gou et al., [119] made that due to the latent heat of PCM and the liquid PCM releases heat
a hollow shaft Ni Mn Battery to solve limited battery pack space. The during solidification, the latent heat value of PCM gradually increases,
PCM fills the cell’s internal space and enters into the cell with the HP to the liquid fraction of PCM gradually increases, which means that PCM is
form a PCM internal cooling battery and an HP assisted PCM internal less likely to solidify. The solidification process of liquid PCM starts from
cooling battery. The battery performance was studied at 1C, 2C and 3C the upper part. Therefore, the temperature in the upper area of PCM is
discharge rates, and it was found that the PCM/HP-based hybrid BTMs higher than that in the bottom area, and the same phenomenon will
was the most effective, with the highest temperature of the batteries occur in the battery. The larger the latent heat of PCM is, the more
reduced by 20 %. In most hybrid BTMs that combine PCM with HP, uneven the temperature distribution of the battery will be, thus reducing
battery heat is initially absorbed by the PCM and then transferred to the the battery life cycle. So it is imperative to find a suitable PCM for
atmosphere via the HP. However, Zhang et al., [120] designed a new thermal management of the battery in a low-temperature environment.
type of battery, in which the heat of the battery is first absorbed by the It has been proposed that the PCM ideal for thermal management at low
HP and then by the PCM. Use additional fans to increase heat dissipation temperatures should have a melting point of about 40 ◦ C, a high thermal
when the battery temperature exceeds the set value. The battery is conductivity of more than 5.4 Wm-1K− 1 and a low latent heat storage
discharged and charged at a constant current rate of 1C, 3C, 4C and 5C. density of less than 0.0145 kJ/m3 [132].
The experimental results show that the BTMs provides a relatively Overcoming the PCM in a low-temperature environment for a long
suitable temperature than other cooling modes, and the system can time causes the battery heating time to have variable-length shortcom­
greatly improve the temperature imbalance in a single battery. ings. Ling et al., [133] subsequently developed a novel heating strategy
Of all PCM-based coupled BTMs, PCM/HP-based BTMs have received that uses the supercooling properties of inorganic PCM to ensure that the
the most attention because air and liquid cooling requires power- battery can quickly reach the optimal operating temperature. The
consuming devices such as pumps or fans that are not necessary for experimental study shows that 0.5 % CMC can guarantee the under­
PCM/HP-based BTMs. BTMs based on PCM/HP are much smaller than cooling stability of PCM. As shown in Fig. 5 (a), the device applies
other coupled systems in terms of system volume and cost investment, external stress manually to the liquid PCM at a low temperature so that
which is also an advantage. the latent heat in the PCM can be released quickly, and the battery has a
role in rapid heating. The instantaneous crystallization of the under­
11. PCM-heated BTMs cooled PCM rapidly heats the cell at a rate of up to 7.5 ◦ C/min, higher
than cells without the undercooled PCM (0.4 ◦ C/min) or PCM (0.8 ◦ C/
At low temperatures, the capacity utilization and battery voltage of min). The discharge capacity and power of the battery can be increased
Li-ion batteries decrease rapidly. Compared with ambient temperature by 9.87 % and 7.56 %, respectively. Another method is to energize the
(about 20 ◦ C), the battery loses 12.6 % at 10 ◦ C and 6.5 % at − 5 ◦ C CPCM in cold conditions through an external power supply (Fig. 5 (b)).
[124]. With the decrease in temperature, the discharge voltage also Luo et al., [134] used CPCM made by EG adsorption of PA to combine
decreases. Therefore, preheating the battery in cold weather is an heating and cooling together. Due to the excellent electro-thermal
effective means of improving battery life and performance. The pre­ conversion performance of the CPCM, the battery pack is heated by
heating of a lithium battery can be divided into two ways: active pre­ the Joule heat effect. The battery pack can work even in a frigid envi­
heating and passive preheating. At present, active heating is still used to ronment of − 40 ◦ C. Yuan et al., [135] combined PCM with HP and the
preheat lithium batteries on the market. In addition to traditional air microchannel plates, as shown in Fig. 5 (c). The HP absorbed heat from
heating and liquid heating, utilizing external electric source supply, the micro-channel fluid to the PCM in a low-temperature environment,
heating films [125], positive temperature coefficient (PTC) resistance and the Li-ion was heated by the PCM. Li-ion can quickly reach the
[126] and semiconductor plates [127] have already been used for bat­ appropriate working range.
tery heating. As for the influence of the thermal conductivity of PCM on the pre­
Passive heating does not require as much energy as traditional air- heating of Li-on batteries, Ling et al., [136] found that PCMs with low
based and liquid-based systems. The most usual method is to preheat thermal conductivity caused great difficulty in transferring heat from
the Li-ion battery pack with PCM. Since PCM has good heat storage the battery, resulting in much higher temperature differences than those
performance, when the Li-ion battery is in a low-temperature environ­ of high-thermal PCMs. In 20 cycle tests, the battery pack reached 12.4 ◦ C
ment, PCM will release the stored heat to ensure the battery’s uniform and 14.9 ◦ C at the ambient temperatures of 5 ◦ C and − 10 ◦ C, respec­
distribution. Rao et al., [128] and Sasmito et al., [129] studied the effect tively. A highly uneven temperature distribution can lead to a high
of PCM on the battery at low temperatures through numerical simula­ voltage difference between the cells, which triggers the premature stop
tion, and the study showed that PCM improved the state of the battery. of the battery pack’s 20 cycle tests, resulting in a loss of capacity in the

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J. Luo et al. Chemical Engineering Journal 430 (2022) 132741

cell, which is not the case with high thermal conductivity PCM. Tian trend.
et al., [137] prepared two different kinds of CPCM. A high thermal (6) The current research focuses on PCM heat absorption and cooling
conductive 80 wt% PA/EG composite and a 75 wt% PA/silica aerogel at high temperature. With the spread of new energy vehicles into colder
(SA) with a low thermal conductivity were used. According to the climates, more study on PCM heat storage at low temperatures is
experimental results, a battery composed of PA/SA composites has a needed.
shorter heating time than a battery composed of PA/EG composites
under the same discharge rate due to the rapid heat transfer in high Declaration of Competing Interest
thermal conductivity material. Because heat dissipation is relatively
slow, the temperature of the PA/EG composite materials composed of The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
the battery pack is quickly raised, making it easy for the consequences of interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the local climate to be excessive. With the increase in discharge power, the work reported in this paper.
the effect of the discharge rate on the heating time is negligible. After 2C
discharge, the solidification of PA/EG composites is faster, and the Acknowledgements
temperature distribution is more uniform than that of PA/SA compos­
ites. Therefore, PA/EG composites with high thermal conductivity are This work was supported by Natural Science Foundation of Ningbo
more conducive to the battery cycle. (2019A610012), National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant
Currently, the application of the PCM preheating power battery is No.51976092) and sponsored by K.C.Wong Magna Fund in Ningbo
mainly in the laboratory stage and has not been put into practical University.
application. The urgent problem is how to realize the use of electric
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