PROGRAMMING IN C#

Unit-1 .NET Framework and Visual Studio IDE, Language Basics

 Introduction to .Net Framework:-

.Net Framework is an essential component of the Windows system and helps
create application by integrating different programming languages, such as Visual
c#, visual basic, J#, visual c++, and so on. .Net Framework consists of a virtual
execution system called the common language runtime(CLR) and a set of class
libraries. CLR is a Microsoft product of the common language infrastructure (CLI),
which is an international standard and a basis for creating execution and
development environments in which languages and libraries together. It integrates
presentation technologies, component technologies and data technologies on a
single platform so as to enable users to develop Internet applications as easily as
they do on desktop system.
.Net Framework is one of the most widely used software development in
today’s programming world. Before its introduction, programmers had to face a lot
of difficulties to integrate the code written using different programming languages.
This was due to the reason that each language used a different execution
environment to execute the code written in that language. For example, code
written using Visual Basic 6.0 requires a different execution environment for
execution that that is required by code written using Visual C++. With the .NET
Framework, Microsoft has provided programmers a single platform for developing
applications using different programming languages, such as Visual Basic, Visual
C#, and Visual c++. The .Net Framework reduces the difficulty involved in building
large, reliable application.
Microsoft introduced .Net to bridge the gap and ensure interoperability
between applications created in different languages. .Net framework is used to
integrate the business logic of an application implemented in various programming
languages and services.

 Evolution of .Net:-
At the time of mid ninety, java has been so popular to develop the
application because of its platform independent technique and open source policy if
sun Microsystems. Around 2002, Sun Microsystems has introduced the Java 2
Enterprise Edition (J2EE)to create the distributed application. This means, the
functioning of an application is distributed on several computers based on the N-tier
architecture. This feature of J2EE eventually led to the decline of, Microsoft’s
market share. Consequently, Microsoft started a project called Next Generation
Windows Services (NGWS) to regain the market share. It took more than three
year to develop the product, which is known as .Net.
Microsoft released the first version of .Net with the name .Net Framework 1.0
in February 13, 2002, along with the Visual Studio .Net 2002 integrated
development environment (IDE). .Net’s second version took nearly a year to
release, and was known as .Net framework 1.1 Microsoft Visual Studio .Net, better
known as Visual Studio .Net 2003, was also a part if the second release. The next
version of .Net framework, .Net framework 2.0, was released with Visual Studio
.Net 2005 on November 07, 2005.

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 Then, .Net framework 3.0, formerly called WinFX, was release on November
06, 2006. Finally latest version of .Net Framework, known as .Net framework 3.5,
was released with Visual Studio .Net 2008 on November 19, 2007.

 Origins of .NET Technology:-

Before going into the details of .NET features further, we shall see how the
concept .NET was evolved over the past ten years. The current technology of .NET
has gone through three significant phases of development;
1). OLE Technology Fig:-
2). COM Technology
3). .NET Technology
These development that took place during the 1990’s.

1). OLE Technology:-

OLE (Object Linking and Embedding) Technology was developed by Microsoft
in the early 1990s to enable easy interprocess communications. OLE provided
support to achieve the following;
 To embed documents from one application into another application.
 To enable one application to manipulate objects located in another
application.
This enabled users to develop applications which required inter-operability
between various products such as MS-Word and MS-Excel.

2). COM Technology:-

Till the advent of COM technology, the monolithic approach had been used
for developing software. But when programs become too large and complex, the
monolithic approach leads to a number of problems in terms of maintainability and
testing of software. To overcome these problems, Microsoft introduced the
Component Based Model for developing programs. In this approach, a program is
broken into a number of independent components where each one offers a
particular service. Each component can be developed and tested independently and
then integrated it into the main system. This technology is known as the
Component Object Model.
COM technology offers a number of benefits to developers and users.
 Reduces the overall complexity of software
 Enables distributed development across multiple organizations or
departments
 Enhances software maintainability

3). .NET Technology:-

.NET technology is a third-generation component model. This provides a new
level of interoperability compared to COM technology. COM provides a standard
binary mechanism for intermodule communication. This mechanism is replaced by
an intermediate language called Microsoft Intermediate Language or simple IL in
the .NET technology.

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  Advantages of .Net Framework:-
The .Net framework offers many benefits to application developers. Some of
these benefits are as follows;
1). Consistent programming model:-
.Net framework provides a consistent object-oriented programming model
across different languages. We can use this model to create programs for
performing different tasks, such as connecting to and retrieving data from
databases, and reading from and writing to the files.

2). Cross-platform support:-

Any windows platform that supports CLR can execute .Net application i.e,.Net
application enables interoperability between multiple windows operating system.

3). Language interoperability:-

Language interoperability is a feature which enables codes written in different
languages to interact with each other. This helps in reuse of code and improves the
efficiency of the development process.

4). Automatic management of resources:-

When we create an application by using .Net, we do not need to manually
free the application resources, such as files, memory, and network and database
connections. .Net framework provides a feature called CLR, which automatically
tracks the resources usage and relieves us from the task of manual resource
management.

5). Ease of deployment:-

.Net framework makes the task of deployment easier. In most cases, to
install an application, we need to copy the application, along with its components,
on the target computer.

 Architecture of .NET Framework 3.5:-

.NET Framework 2.0 and 3.0, along with the service packs, form the
foundation of .Net Framework 3.5. In other words, we can say that the architecture
of .Net framework 3.5 includes components of .Net Framework 2.0 and 3.0, apart
from few additional enhancements.
The .Net framework is a revolutionary platform that helps us to write the
following types of applications:
i). Windows application
ii). Web application
iii). Web services
The .Net framework applications are multi-platform applications. The
framework has been designed in such a way that it can be used from any of
the following languages: c#, c++, Visual Basic, Jscript, COBOL, etc. All these
languages can access the framework as well as communicate with each
other.

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Fig:-

.
 Components of .Net Framework 3.5:-
As shown in Fig .Net framework 3.5 is based on .Net framework 2.0 and
.Net framework 3.0; therefore, .Net framework 3.5 includes several
components that are part of .Net Framework 2.0 and .Net framework 3.0.
Following are some of the essential as well as new components of .Net
framework 3.5:
1). Common Language Runtime(CLR)
2). The .Net framework Class Library
3). Common Language Specification (CLS)
4). Common Type System(CTS)
5). Metadata and Assemblies
6). Windows Forms
7). ASP.Net and ASP.Net AJAX
8). ActiveX Data Object for .Net (ADO.NET)
9). Windows Workflow Foundation (WF)
10). Windows Presentation Foundation (WPF)
11). Windows Communication Foundation (WCF)
12). Windows CardSpace(WCS)
13). LINQ
For the jobs and details of each components;

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1). Common Language Runtime(CLR):-
One of the most important components of .Net Framework is the CLR, better
known as the runtime. It provides functionalities such as memory management,
exception handling, debugging, security, thread execution, code execution, code
safety, verification, compilation, and so on. It also supports versioning to any
language that the CLR interacts with.
This indicates that the CLR can host a variety of languages and provide
common tools to these languages. This ensures interoperability between the codes,
such as Visual c#, Visual Basic, or Visual c++ by providing a common environment
for the execution of code written in any of these languages.
Fig:- (Functioning of CLR)

The code that is executed directly by the CLR is known as managed code,
whereas the code that cannot be directly executed by the CLR is known as
unmanaged code. When we run a .Net application, the language compiler first
compiles the source code into an intermediate code called Microsoft Intermediate
Language (MSIL) code. The MSIL code is then used by the Just-In-Time (JIT)
compiler to convert the MSIL code into the native machine code, which is the final
executable code. The CLR also provides automatic memory management for .Net
applications. The managed environment of the runtime eliminates many common
software issues, such as memory leaks and invalid memory references. The CLR
uses the garbage collector to manage the allocation and release of memory for an
application. CLR also supports services that the application uses to access various
resources such as collections, arrays, operating system folders, and so on.

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2). The .Net Framework Class Library:-
.Net Framework consists of classes, interfaces, and value types that help in
speeding up the development process and provide access to system functionality.
Or we can easily say that .Net Framework Class Library is a huge library of reusable
types for use by managed codes.
It is an object oriented library that is used in component- based applications.
The FCL is made up of a hierarchy of namespaces.
Each namespaces contains classes, structures, interfaces, enumerations, and
delegates. The namespaces are logically defined by their functionality. For example,
the System.Data namespace contains all the functionality available for accessing
databases. This namespace is further broken down into System.Data.SqlClient,
which exposes the functionality specific to Structured Query Language (SQL)
Server, and System.Data.OleDB, which exposes functionality required to work with
Object Linking and Embedding Database (OLE DB)data sources. When using the
FCL., remember the succeeding points:
1). The classes, interface, structures, and enumerated vales are collectively
referred to as types.
2). The different types in the framework are arranged in a hierarchy of
namespaces. This solves the problem faced in name collisions.
Namespaces are arranged in a hierarchy having words separated by
periods.
3). The System namespace is the root namespace for fundamental types in
.Net Framework. This namespace includes classes that represent the
base data types used by all applications, such as object, Byte, Char,
Array, Int32, String, and so on.
4). All types must have a base class including user-defined types. The
exception to this rule is the Sytem.Object type, which is the base type for
all types in the .Net framework.

3). Common Language Specification:- (CLS)

The common language specification defines a set of rules that enables
interoperability on the .NET platform. These rules serve as a guide to third party
compiler designers and library builders. The CLS is a subset of CTS and therefore
the languages supporting the CLS can use each others class libraries supporting the
CLS can use each others class libraries as if they are their own. Application Program
Interfaces (APIs) that are designed following the rules of CLS can easily be used by
all the .NET language.

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4). Common Type System:- (CTS)
The .Net Framework provides multiple language support using the feature
known as Common Type System that is built into the CLR. The CTS supports a
variety of types and operations found in most programming languages and
therefore calling one language from another does not require type conversations.
The CTS specifies certain guidelines for declaring, using and managing types
at runtime. It is an integral part of the runtime for supporting cross- language
communications. The functions performed by CTS are;
1). Helps in cross-language communication, type safety, and high performance
execution of code by establishing a framework.
2). Supports object-oriented model for implementation of different programming
languages.
3). Specifies guidelines for different languages to follow, ensuring proper interaction
between objects of different languages.
 Classification of Types:-
The CTS can be classified into two general categories of types which are
further divided into subcategories value types and reference types;
1). Value Types:-
Contain their data directly and their objects that are allocated on the stack.
Value types can be built –in, user defined or enumerations.
2). Reference Types:-
Contain the reference of the data’s memory address and are allocated in a
heap. They can be pointer types, interface types, or self- describing types. The self
describing types can be arrays and class types.

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5). Metadata and Assemblies:-
A metadata describes a program that is in the form of binary information
stored in a CLR portable executable (PE) file or in the memory. When compilation of
the code takes place in a PE file, the metadata is inserted into one part of the file,
while the code is converted into IL and inserted into the other part of the file. The
metadata describes every types and member. When the code is in the run mode,
the CLR loads the metadata into the memory and finds information about the code’s
classes, members and so on.

A metadata describes information about the code in a language-neutral

manner. The metadata contains;

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1). Assembly information, such as its identity which can be a name, version,
culture, public key, the types of assemblies, other referenced assemblies, and
security permissions.
2). Information about types, such as name, visibility, base class, interfaces used,
and members (methods, fields, properties, events, nested types)
3). Maintains the attribute information which modifies the types and members of a
class.
After providing the listed information, CLR is able to create objects, access
data and call member functions. In .NET every application is compiled into an
assembly, which forms the unit of deployment, versioning, code reuse, and security
of the application, This implies that everything we do in an application occurs in the
scope of an assembly.

Assemblies are packaged into units containing programs and libraries. An

Assembly refers to a Portable Executable(PE) file. The PR can be either a Dynamic
Link Library (DLL) or Executable (EXE) file that contains the MSIL code of the
compiled application. In addition to the MSIL, an assembly also contains the files
and resources necessary for the application, assembly metadata, and type
metadata.

The assembly metadata is the metadata about the assembly itself and its
components, while the type metadata is the metadata about the types such as
classes, interfaces, structures, and so on. A single assembly can contain multiple
code files or a single code file can have more than one assembly. An assembly

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contains code which the CLR executes.

Assemblies can be of two types- Static or Dynamic. Static assemblies include

interfaces, classes and resources. These assemblies are stored in the PE files on a
disk. Using .NET Framework, we can create dynamic assemblies,
Which is run directly from the memory without saving to disk before execution?
However, after execution, we can save them on the disk.
 Assembly contents:-
Typically, an assembly is a logical unit which consists of four elements- the
manifest, type metadata, IL code that implements type types and a set of
resources, such as bitmaps, Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG) files. We can
group these elements in various ways, we can group all the elements in a single
physical file or all the elements of the assembly can be stored in various files. Every
assembly contains data that describes how the elements are related to each other
within the assembly.

6). Windows Forms:-

Windows forms are the graphical representation of any window displayed in
an application. It is included as a part of Microsoft’s .Net Framework. We cam
create Windows Forms applications in any CLR supported language. Windows Forms
are used wither to accept input from a user or display information to the user. In
Windows Forms, we add controls to the forms and develop responses to the user
actions, such as mouse clicks or key presses.

7). ASP.Net and ASP.Net AJAX:-

ASP.NET is a web development model, which is used to deliver interactive,
data-driven web applications over the internet. It also consists of a large number of
controls such as text boxes, buttons, and labels form assembling, configuring and
manipulating code to create Hypertext Markup Language(HTML) pages. We can
create ASP.NET application using any CLR complaint language such as visual Basic,
Visual C#, Visual c++, and J#. These languages help we develop ASP.NET
applications that benefit from CLR, type safety, and so on.
AJAX, formally code named as Atlas, is an extension of ASP.NET for
developing and implementing AJAX functionality. ASP.NET AJAX includes both
client-side and server-side components that allows developers to create web
applications such that the applications do not require complete reload of the page
while making any modification to the page.

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It enables us to send only the modified portions of a web page to the web server by
making asynchronous calls to the web server. This decreases network traffic as well
as processing on the web server.

8). ActiveX Data Objects for .NET (ADO.NET):-

ADO.Net is a technology used for working with data and databases of all
types. It provides access to data sources such as Microsoft SQL Server and to data
sources exposed through OLE DB and extensible Markup Language (XML). We can
use ADO.NET to connect to data sources for retrieving, manipulating, and updating
data.
Some features of ADO.NET are;

1). Disconnected data architecture:-

Implies that applications connect to the database only when the data needs
to be retrieved or modified. After the database operation has been performed, the
connection to the database is closed. To perform any database operation, again,
the connection with the database will have to re-established. Application that do not
follow the disconnected data architecture, waste a lot of valuable system resources,
because in such a case, the application maintains a connection with the database
even when not required.

2). Cached data in datasets:-

Specifies that a dataset follows a disconnected architecture for accessing or
modifying data. Hence, it is not required for the applications to connect to the
database for processing each record.

3). Scalability:-
ADO.NET helps in scalability while working with datasets. All database
operations are performed on the dataset instead of on the database. This reduces
the traffic on the database and saves the resources resulting in more efficiency of
the database in meeting the demands of the user.

4). Transfer of data in XML format:-

Indicates that XML is the standard format used for transferring data in
ADO.NET. We can transfer data from a database into a dataset and from the
dataset to another component using XML. We can also use an XML file as a data
source and store the data from it into a dataset.

5). Interaction with the database through data commands:-

Specifies that database operations are performed by executing the data
commands. All operations on database such as retrieving, modifying, or updating of
data are performed using data commands.

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9). Windows Workflow Foundation:- (WF)
Windows Workflow Foundation (WF) is a technology introduced by Microsoft
which provides a programming model, for building workflow based applications on
Windows. It includes activities, workflow runtime, workflow designer, and a rules
engine. WF is a part of .NET Framework 3.0 and 3.5. The most important feature of
WF is the separation between the business process code and the actual
implementation code. Before WF was introduced, it was a practice to write both the
business logic and the actual implementation code together as in Visual c#, Visual
Basic or any other .NET language. Now, we can say that ‘what is done’ is defined in
the WF and ‘how it is done’ was defined in the traditional programming code.

Fig:- Windows Workflow architecture

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10). Windows Presentation Foundation:-
Micorsoft’s Windows Presentation Foundation (WPF) provides the base for
building applications and a clear separation between the user interface and the
business logic. Although Windows Forms Application have a rich user interface(UI),
it required various APIs for working with documents, such as Microsoft word or PDF
files, videos, two dimensional and three dimensional images and multimedia. It
helps in creating Windows client applications with visually stunning user
experiences. We can use WPF for creating both standalone and browser hosted
applications. Example of WPF applications are the Yahoo Messenger, the New York
Times Reader, and the Contoso Healthcare Sample Application.
WPF introduces a new language called XAML( eXtensible Application Markup
Language), which is a language based on XML. Both designers and developers can
easily and efficiently work and collaborate on the development process of WPF
application.

11). Windows Communication Foundation (WCF):-

In current modern times, several application communicate with one another
in such a way that one application uses the features and functionalities extended by
another application. For facilitating such communication between applications,
consistent and reliable protocols and technologies are required. Before the .NET
Framework 3.0, developing connected applications (that means one application that
communicate with another application) was a very difficult task because of the
different protocols and technologies employed by those applications. So, Windows
Communication Foundation (WCF) is one of the new technologies introduced by
Microsoft in .NET Framework 3.0 for building and running connected system.
WCF is a service oriented technology for developing applications. The service
oriented design results in a distributed system that runs between the services and
clients, if we care familiar with concepts such as Web services, remoting,
distributed transactions and message queuing then understanding WCF becomes
easier since it is an enhanced technology for providing the same functions with
better features, with minimum time taken to develop the distributed system.

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Fig:- WCF architecture

12). Windows CardSpace:-

Windows CardSpace (WCS) is a client software provided by Microsoft that
simplifies and improves the safety of accessing resources and helps in sharing
personal information on the Internet. It helps programmers develop Web sited and
software that are less prone to identity related attacks such as phishing. WCS helps
in reducing the problems of traditional online security mechanisms by relying less
on user name and passwords and instead using a separate desktop and
cryptographically strong authentication. It facilitates secure online transactions such
as online shopping, banking and bill payment.

13). LINQ:-
Language Integrated Query (LINQ) is one of the components of
Microsoft.NET Framework 3.5 that adds native data querying capabilities to .NET
languages using a syntax similar to SQL. This implies that with LINQ, we can write
statements similar to SQL statements in a .NET language, such as Visual C#. With
LINQ, we can query SQL server databases, datasets, objects in a collections and
XML documents.

 Terms:-
1). MSIL :- (MicoroSoft Intermediate Language)
MSIL is also known as CIL ( Common Intermediate Language) or IL
(Intermediate Language). It contains instructions for loading, storing, initializing
and calling methods of objects. MSIL is the CPU independent instruction set into
which .NET Framework programs are compiled.

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2). JIT:- (Just In Time)
It is a smart compiler. JIT does not compile while program each and every
time. It compiles only that portion of the program which functions are called that
time and suppose native code is already present then that data will not again
compiled. If changes are made then possible that it will again generates MSIL to
Native.
VISUAL STUDIO 2008
 Introduction:-
Microsoft Visual Studio is an Integrated Development Environment (IDE)
provided by Microsoft to create and develop Windows-based, Web-based, Console-
based and Mobile-based applications for .NET Framework. These applications might
be created by using different languages such as Visual Basic, Visual C#, and Visual
c++. Traditionally, we created these applications using a Notepad. For this, we
need a compiler that could convert the programming language into machine
language.
Now, we might be wondering if a Notepad can create all these applications,
why do we need Visual Studio as an editor? Building applications using Notepad
would take much time than building the same applications in Visual Studio. This is
because Microsoft Visual Studio provides various benefits to design and create the
applications, as compared to a notepad. For example, we need to memorize all the
language syntax I case we are using a Notepad. In case of Visual Studio, we do not
need to remember the syntax, we need to type the first few letters of a command
and Visual Studio would prompt us with the available options for the command.
The following are some of the benefits of using Visual Studio 2008.
 Helps in minimize the development time
 Simplifies the process of testing application.
 Provides different toolsets for integrating graphic designers into the overall
development process
 Supports multiple versions of the .NET Framework
 Enhancements in data retrieval and data binding
 Inspects code to find sections of code that need to be refactored
 Provides support for web, mobile, client Vista and office application
development
 Integrates with the .NET Framework 3.5

 Features of Visual Studio 2008:-

Visual Studio 2008 is an IDE designed for writing, compiling, and debugging the
code in much easier way. It contains a complete set of development tools for
building ASP.NET web application, web services, desktop applications and mobile
applications.
The following are some of the new features and enhancements made in Visual
Studio 2008.
 Support for Multi-Targeting
 Support for ASP.NET AJAX and Jscript IntelliSense
 Support for Language Integrated Query(LINQ)
 Improved deployment
 Support for client application services
 Support for reporting applications

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 Let’s explore each of these in detail;

1). Support for Multi-Targeting:-

Visual Studio 2008 supports multiple versions of .NET Framework, such as 2.0,
3.0 and 3.5. This means that we can now use Visual Studio 2008 to work with
applications that target any of these .NET Framework versions. In this way, we can
develop applications that are nor only executable on the current .NET Framework
version 3.5 but also previous versions of .NET Framework 2.0 and 3.0. In addition,
we can also upgrade and execute applications developed using previous versions of
.NET Framework 2.0 and 3.0 in Visual Studio 2008.

2). Support for ASP.NET AJAX and Jscript Intellisense:-

One of the new features that developers find interesting in Visual Studio
2008 is its built in IntelliSense support for JavaScript and ASP.NET AJAX scripting.
This has made building applications using JavaScript and AJAX considerably easier.
If we double-click on the HTML Button control in the design mode, this would
automatically create a click event for the button and basic skeleton for the
JavaScript function.

3). Support for Language Integrated Query:- (LINQ)

LINQ, one of the new features of Visual Studio 2008, extends powerful query
capabilities into the language syntax. It adds data querying capabilities to .NET
languages using syntax similar to structures Query Language (SQL). It can support
any kind of data source, such as SQL, Oracle and Access.

4). Improved Deployment:-

Deployment in Visual Studio 2008 has improved with enhancement of
ClickOnce deployment and windows Installer deployment. ClickOnce is a
deployment technology which enables deploying of self-updating windows and
console applications that can be installed, updated and executed from a web site.

5). Support for client Application Services:-

Client application services are newly introduced in the .NET Framework 3.5.
These services enable windows based applications which include both windows
Forms and windows Presentation Foundation applications to easily access the
ASP.NET login, roles and profile services. These services also let us authenticate
users and retrieve user roles and application settings from a shared server.

6). Support for Reporting Application:-

A reporting application is used to prepare reports. Visual Studio 2008
supports many new reporting features and enhancements which are as follows;
 New Report Projects:-
Visual Studio 2008 provides two new project templates for creaing reporting
applications. The first template is the Reports Application template which is
available on the New Project dialog box and the second template is the ASP.NET
reports web site template which is available on the New Web Site dialog box.

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  Report Wizard:-
Visual Studio 2008 provides a Report Wizard, which guides us through a
number of steps to create a basic report.
 Expression Editor Enhancement:-
The Expression Editor provides sample expressions that we can directly use
in our report or customize it according to our requirement.
 Report Viewer Printing:-
When we configure the ASP.NET Report Viewer control for local processing,
the RSClientPrint control becomes available.
 PDF Compression:-
The Report Viewer controls can now compress reports that have seem
rendered or exported to the PDF format.

 Editions of Visual Studio:-

Visual Studio has several editions- Express, Standard, Professional and Team
System. The core languages included with Visual Studio- Visual Basic, Visual c#,
Visual J# are also offered in separate Express editions.

1). Visual Studio Express Edition:-

Visual Studio Express edition is a set of free lightweight IDEs that are
provided as reduced version of the Visual Studio IDE. It is easy to use, easy to
learn and is designed for student developers. This edition does not use the full
Microsoft Developer Network (MSDN) Library but use the MSDN Express Library.
The languages supported by this edition are as follows;
 Visual Basic Express
 Visual c++ Express
 Visual C# Express
 Visual Web Developer Express

2). Visual Studio Standard Edition:-

Visual Studio Standard Edition provides an integrated IDE for all supported
products and it supports the complete MSDN library. It supports editing of XML and
XSLT documents and helps in creating deployment packages that only use
CclickOnce. Mobile application development support was included in Visual Studio
2005 Standard Edition; However, it is now available only with Visual Studio
Professional and higher editions of visual Studio 2008.

3). Visual Studio Professional Edition:-

Visual Studio Professional edition includes all the tools available in Visual
Studio standard edition; in addition, it has integration with Microsoft SQL Server
and has a remote debugger for 2005 editions. It is designed for developers working
with users who are having a standalone setting. For a developer or for a mid-sized
application development, the use of Visual Studio Professional edition is
recommended.

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4). Visual Studio Team System:-
Visual Studio Team system includes a set of software development and
reporting tools, in addition to the features provided by Visual Studio Professional
edition. It offers the following toolsets based o the development role; it is being
used for;
 Team Explorer
 Architecture Edition
 Database Edition
 Development Edition
 Test Edition
It is designed for full programming staffs in large corporations.

 Visual studio 2008 Integrated Development Environment (IDE):-

Some of the important components of the visual studio 2008 IDE are as
follows;
1). Start page
2). Menu bar and Tool bar
3). Solution explorer
4). Properties Window
5). Toolbox and component Tray
6). Designer and code editor
7). Server Explorer
8). Output window
9). Object browser
10). Class view window
11). Task list and Error list
12). Dynamic Help Window
13). CSS Style Manager
14). Object Browser

 Types of Project:-
Before moving on, let us mention briefly all the types of projects we can build
with Visual Studio 2008. The following are some of the different projects that can
be created with Visual Studio .Net 2008.
1). Console Application
2). Windows Application
3). Windows Services
4). Web Application
5). Web Services
6). Class Library
7). Windows Control Library
8). Web Control Library
9). Setup
Describe each type in detail;
1). Console Application:-
Console applications are light weight programs run inside the Command
Prompt (DOS) window. This type of application displays its output on a Command
Prompt window and receives input from the same window.

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 Console applications refer to those .net applications that do not have
graphical user interface except for a command line console. This makes console
applications suitable for situations where user interaction is not required.

2). Windows Application:-

Windows applications are form based standard windows desktop application
for common day to day tasks. Windows based desktop application are those
applications that installed and run on a user’s computer. Through this application
we can develop forms with Graphical User Interface (GUI) provides visual cues such
as menus, buttons and icons that allow a user to enter data and instructions into
the computer. Both Windows and Console applications are also called stand- alone
applications.

3). Windows Services:-

Unlike Console, Windows and web applications, some programs- such as
services- do not require any user interaction at all. A service is a program that runs
in an operating system and performs such tasks as maintenance, information
gathering, security and notification but requires no user interaction.

4). Web Application:-

Web applications are among the most exciting new features of Visual Studio.
A web application is an app that resides on a web server and services requests
made through a browser. An online bookstore is an example of web application.

5). Web Services:-

A web services is a program that provides information to another program
over the web, nut does not have a user interface. The information provided usually
is specific and well defined. A web application that accepts a query and it will return
a page with the results. Whenever, A web service that accepts the same query will
return an xml file with the result.

6). Class Library:-

A class library contains components and libraries to be used inside other
applications. A class library can not be executed and thus it does not have any
entry point.

7). Window Control Library:-

This type contains user defined windows controls to be used by windows
application.

8). Web control library:-

Just as we can build custom windows controls to use with our windows
forms, we can create custom web controls to use with our web pages.

19
9). Setup and Deployment:-
Visual studio provides templates for deployment desktop, web and smart
device setup and deployment projects. Different versions of the development
environment may support setup and deployment for some or all of the c#
application types on the desktop, on the web, and for mobile devices.

 Introduction of C#:-
Programming languages have strengths in different areas. Some languages
are powerful but can be bug-prone and difficult to work with, while others are
simpler but can be limiting in terms if functionality or performance. There are so
many languages available these days but people definitely are going for languages
that involve less coding and at the same time can develop applications in a visually
powerful environment. C# (pronounced C-Sharp) is no doubt the language of
choice in the .Net environment. It is a whole new language free of the backward
compatibility curse with a whole bunch of new, exciting and promising features. It
is an Object Oriented Programming language and has at its core, many similarities
to Java, C++ and VB. In fact, c# combines the power and efficiency of c++, the
simple and clean OO design of Java and the language simplification of Visual Basic.
C# is one of those languages that involve less of coding and are rich in
graphical user interface. C# is a high level programming language, which means it
is easy to learn and understand unlike low level programming language that
involves creating applications in the machine language. C# includes all the support
for structured, component based, object oriented programming that one expects of
a modern language built on the shoulders of c++ and Java. C#.NET is evolving
faster day by day. The C# language was developed by a small team led by two
distinguished Microsoft engineers, Andes Hejlsberg and Scott Wiltanuth. Hejlsberg
is also known for creating Turbo Pascal, a popular language for PC programming,
and for leading the team that designed Borland Delphi, one of the first successful
integrated development environments for client/server programming. Anders
Hejlsberg was a Java Expert, it is natural that many java features have been
incorporated into the design of c#. In fact, in many cases, the c# code may bear a
striking resemblance to the functionally equivalent java code. Unlike c++, both java
and c# promote a one stop coding approach to code maintenance. They group
classes, interfaces and implementations together in one file so that programs can
edit the code more easily.
C# can be used to develop two categories of programs, namely,
1). Executable application programs
2). Component libraries
Executable programs are written to carry out certain tasks and require the
method main in one of the classes. In contrast component libraries do not require a
main declaration because they are not standalone application programs. They are
written for use by other applications. This concept is something similar to applets
and application programs in Java.

20
  Features of C#:-
C# 2008 has been greatly improved for C# developers as it now includes
new compiler features, new language constructs and improved debugging. In C#
2008, varieties of new features have been added to increase the productivity of c#
developers. These new features help the developers to create c# applications easily
and efficiently. Following are the list of new features added to c# 2008.
1). Implicitly Typed local variables
2). Auto implemented Properties
3). Extension Methods
4). Query Keywords
5). Partial Method Definition
6). Object and Collection Initializers
7). Anonymous Types
8). Lambda Expressions
Discuss all these new features one by one.

1). Implicitly Typed Local Variables:-

C# 2008 introduces a new style of declaring variables where the initializing
expression can derive the applied type. While using the local variables in the C#
applications, we can use the var keyword to instruct the compiler to derive the
variable type or the array elements from the expression (Which can be found on
the right side of the initialization statement).
The derived type that we want to use to declare the new variables may be a built-
in type, anonymous type, a user –defined type, a type defined in the class library or
a type defined in any expression.
E.g:- Var t=13;
Var s=” First Program”;
In the first expression, the variable t is compiled as an integer type because
the value at the right side is 13, which is of an integer type. Alternatively, in the
second expression, the compiler compiles the variable s as a string type because
the value at the right side is a string literal.

2). Auto- implemented Properties:-

While creating a property in c# 2005, even the property is used for a very
simple task; we always require typing a lot of codes. To overcome from this large
typing effort, C# 2008 introduces auto –implemented properties that use a
simplified syntax for the declaration of properties. In other words, we can say that
the auto –implemented properties feature makes the property declaration more
concise. Using this feature, we can create the properties by typing a few line of
code. Remember that the auto implemented properties must declare both the get
and set accessors.
E.g:-
class Result
{
public float No {get; set; }
public string Name {get; set;}
public int Rno {get; private set;} //read only property
}

21
 In this example, a simple class having three auto –implemented properties.
No, Name and Rno. The properties Rno is compiled as read-only properties because
their set accessors are assigned as private.

3). Extension Methods:-

C# introduces the extension methods to specify that a set of methods
available on an instance of a particular type is open for extension. This means that
we can add new methods to existing types without creating a new derived type.
Therefore, extension methods let us increase the set of methods available in a
reference of any type, even when we do not have any control over the given type
or instance. Extensions methods allow us to add the new methods without creating
a new derived type, recompiling or modifying the original type. When we create
extension methods, we care required to call them with using directive.

4). Query Keywords:-

Keywords are the predefined identifiers that have some special meaning
already defined to the compiler. The basic keywords such as int, float, if and for are
the reserved words that cannot be used to declare a variable name. However, C#
also uses contextual keywords that have special meaning in a limited program
circumstance. These keywords can be used as variable names outside that
circumstance. C# 2008 introduces a set of different query keywords to define
clauses in a query expression. These query keywords are listed as follows;
1). From clause:-
Sets a data source on which the query runs as well as a local range variable
to represent each element in the source sequence.
2). Where clause:-
Filters the source elements based on the Boolean conditions having the
logical and (&&) and logical or (||) operators.
3). Select clause:-
Determines the types of elements returned after the execution of the query.
4). Group clause:-
Groups query results and return a sequence of values depending on the
query value of the group.
5). Into:-
Creates a temporary identifier to store the result of the group, join, or select
clause into the new identifier.
6). OrderBy clause:-
Sorts the query results either in ascending order or descending order. The
sorting depends on the default comparer of the element type, which is ascending.
7). Join clause:-
Combines the elements of two source sequence based on the equality
comparison of the specified keys.
8). Let clause:-
Stores the value of the sub- expressions that is to be used in the subsequent
clauses.

22
5). Partial Method Definition:-
while working on a large project, there are times when we need to split the
definition of a class, a struct, an interface, or a method over two or more source
files. Each source file should contain a section of the class or method definition, and
when we compile the application; the compiler combines all the source files.
Splitting and combining a large project helps a group of programmers to work on a
single class of the large project simultaneously. We cam use the partial keyword to
split a class definition. The partial keyword determines that the other source files
of the class, interface, struct or method can be defined in the namespace. However,
note that all the source files must use the partial keyword and be available while
compiling to form final type. Moreover, all the source files must use the same
access modifiers, such as private and public.
E.g:-
Let’s take an Motor class, which contains two subclasses named
MachineryParts and BodyParts. With the Motor class, we create two source files;
one for MachineryParts and another BodyParts, using the partial modifier. When we
compile both the source files, they get combined into a single one. This means that
we have split the Motor class into two different subclasses to work simultaneously.

6). Object and Collection Initializers:-

Object initilizers let us assign values to the accessible fields of properties of
an object at the creation time. The values are assigned, without having to explicitly
create and invoke a constructor.

E.g:-
Public class company
{
public string name {get; set;}
}
public static void ObjectInitialize()
{
company c= new company {name=”Tanmay”}; //object initilizer
}
In the preceding code snippet, we have declared an automatic property,
named name. The value of the name property is assigned by creating an object of
the company class, say c, which does not explicitly create and invoke a constructor.
However, we can also use the object initializers in some other context. The
object initializers play an important role in Language Integrated Query (LINQ)
expressions. The LINQ expressions use a large number of anonymous types and
require the object initializers to initialize these anonymous types.
Collection initializers initialize a collection in a very easy way. They prevent
us from adding a similar line of code multiple times.
E.g:-
List <company> c= new List<company>
{
new company() {name=”Ananya”},
new company() {name=”Vaidehi”}
};

23
7). Anonymous Types:-
When we create properties for our applications, there are times when we
need to crate a few or more read-only properties. These read-only properties can
be encapsulated into a single unit by means of the anonymous types. The
anonymous types can encapsulate the read only properties, without explicitly
defining a type. The compiler generates the type name as required but this type
name is not available at the source code level. The type of the properties is derived
by the compiler. In other words, we can say that the anonymous types create
unnamed structure types that can be added to the collections and accessed by
using the var keyword.
The anonymous types are also called class types, having one or more public
read only properties. However, they do not use any other class members, such as
methods and events. We can use the new operator with the object initializer to
create an anonymous type.
E.g:-
var no= new {Roll= 13 , Name= “Tanmay”};

8). Lambda Expressions:-

C# 2008 uses lambda expressions to replace the delegate functions that
were used in C# 2005 for declaring the method code inline. Therefore, lambda
expressions are the anonymous methods that contain expressions and statements.
We can use lambda expressions to create delegates or expression tree types. The
lambda expression uses the lambda operator (=>) pronounced as goes to. The
precedence of the lambda operator is similar to the assignment operator and is
right associative.
E.g:-
p =>i*j;
The left side of the lambda operator, p, specifies the input parameter
whereas the right side specifies the expression or statement block. Note that
lambdas can not be used on the left side of the is or as operator.

 Data types:-
C# is a strongly typed and rich language; therefore every variable in C# is
associated with a data type. Data types specify the type of values that can be
stored in particular variable. There are a number f data types available in C#, which
allows a programmer to select the type appropriate to the requirement of the
application. From built in types, such as integers or strings or user defined types,
such as structures, enumerations and classes. When dealing with these data types,
remember the two facts about the C# environment:
i). All variables, whether user-defined or built in can be used as object anywhere in
the system.
ii). All variables in the system are automatically initialized to default values by the
system when they are declared.
Generally, the data types in C# are primarily categorized in three parts;
Value type, Pointer type and Reference type.

24
 Discuss each type in detail;

1). Value Type:-

We can further categorize value types in two parts; Struct and Enumeration
type.
i). Struct types:-
Struct types are a special form of classes having the properties of value
types. We know that the value types are stored I the stack; inherently the struct
types are also stored on the stack. Since stacks are the efficient and convenient
means storing and accessing the types than heap, the struct types can be copied
and created efficiently. We can find the default value for the struct type by the
value produced by setting all the value types to their default values and all
reference types to null. The struct types encapsulate small group f related
variables, such as name, roll no, age, class and so on of any student. Struct can
also have constructors, methods, properties, operators, events, nested types,
indexers, constants and fields. However, while creating a struct types, we should
remember that the struct members can not be declared as protected. While
declaring struct types, the fields can be initialized only when they are declared as
const or static.

25
 Struct types are created using the struct keyword. When we create a struct
object and assign it to a variable, the variable holds the complete value of the
struct object. The struct type is a value type; so any changes in the new copy do
not affect the old copy. The struct types are categorized into the following five
categories:
• Integeral Type:-
C# uses a set of basic data types, which are known as integral type. This set
consists of the types, such as sbyte, byte, short, ushort, int, uint, long, ulong and
char. Integral types can hold whole numbers only.
• Floating point Type:-
The floating point types take the values in fractions. The floating point types are
divided into two types. Float and double
• Decimal Type:-
The decimal types are equivalent to a long integer that behaves as if it were a
floating point numbers. Decimal values are intended to be used for the calculations
in which truncation beyond precisions and smaller range. To specify a number as a
decimal type, we must append the character M to a value such as 123.45M. If we
omit M, the value is treated as double.
• Boolean Type:-
Boolean types are used to test a particular condition during the execution of
program. Boolean type takes only two values; true or false.
• Nullable Type:-
A programming language supports Nullable data types when dealing with
database or when a user does not want to assign a value to a variable of any type.

ii). Enumeration Type:-

Enumerations are the user-defined integer data types that are declared using
the enum keyword. Enumeration provides a way for attaching the integer type
numbers to the names in a program, which in turn increases the readability of a
code. An enumeration makes our code easier to maintain by assigning legitimate
values to it. Moreover, enumeration is the most basic user defined types, which
makes a list of possible values for a given type.
For example, if we want to develop a traffic signal model. Traffic lights obviously
have three possible states green (go) light, yellow (warning) light and red (stop)
light. The condition of a given traffic light can be one and only one of those states.
It can be only Red, Yellow or Green.

2). Pointer Type:-

When we talk about maintaining type safety and security in the context of
references, C# uses delegates and does not support pointers. However, we can use
the unsafe keyword to define an unsafe context where we are free to use the
pointers. In other words, pointer types are used only in the unsafe context. They do
not inherit the Object base class, which is an ultimate base class of .NET and we
cannot convert pointer types to Object types and vice-versa. A pointer variable is
used to store the address of another variable.

26
3). Reference Type:-
Reference types are of varied lengths and stored on the heap of memory. When
the value has to be assigned between two reference variables, only the reference is
copied and the actual value remains the same in the memory location. We can
further categorize the reference types into two parts; User defined and pre defined
types.
i). Predefined Types:-
Predefined types can be divided into main two types.
• Object Type:-
Object type is the ultimate base type of all the other predefined and user
defined data types in C#. We can use the Object type to convert a value type on a
stack into an object type to be place on the heap.
• String Type:-
String type is used for creating and manipulating strings in C#. We can
perform various operations on strings, such as copying, comparing, and
concatenating on these string objects.

ii). User-defined Types:-

User-defined reference types refer to those types which we define using the
pre-defined types.
• Class:-
C# is purely object –oriented language, so the base of all the C#
programs is the concept of class. Classes provide the best approach to group
together the logically related items and functions that work on them.
• Interface:-
Interfaces are a collection of members, such as methods, delegates,
events and properties, which are implemented by classes. Interfaces cannot be
instantiated but we can use them to offer a set of functionalities that is common to
several different classes. The concept of interface came into scene to support
multiple inheritances because in C#, a class does not support multiple inheritances.
• Array:-
An Array is an ordered arrangement of data elements; in technical words,
it is a data structure that contains a number of variables of the same type at
contiguous locations of the memory.
• Delegates:-
Delegates are the objects that point towards a method which matches its
signature to that delegate. They are the reference types used to encapsulate a
method with a specific signature. In C++, this task could be performed by having a
pointer to a function.

27
Fig:- Actual storing method of value and reference types

 Variables and constants:-

Variables are the names of storage locations. A variable, a storage element
in C#, can be store one or more values of a certain type, such as int, float, char,
string and so on. In other words, we can say that a variable is an identifier that
denotes a storage location in the memory. By using a variable’s name in our
program, we care, in fact, referring to the information stored at that location. As
the name indicates, the value of a variable can be changed but the name remains
same. A variable is a form of field.

We can give any name to a variable but it should be meaningful because it

makes the code more readable. There are certain rules for naming C# variables:
1).The name of the variable may consist of letters, digits and the underscore
characters.
2).The name of the variable must not begin with a digit.
3).The variable names using the uppercase and lowercase letters are distinct.
4).The variable name should not be a keyword.
5).The variable name should not contain spaces.
6).Variable name can be of length determined by its data type.
After specifying a meaningful name and appropriate data type to a variable,
the variable is declared in the program so that the compiler can easily recognize
that the variable is declared with a specific data type.
E.g:- int age, marks;
As we know that the constants are the fixed values that cannot be changed
during the execution of the program.

 C# tokens:-
A programming language is designed to manipulate certain kinds of data
consisting of numbers, characters and strings and provide useful output known as
information to the user. The task of manipulating data is accomplished by
executing a sequence of instructions constituting what is known as program.
A C# program is basically a collection of classes. A class is defined by a set of
declaration statement and method containing instructions known executable
statements. These instructions are formed using certain symbols and words
according to some rigid rules known as syntax rules or grammar.

28
 The smallest, non-reducible, textual elements in a program are referred to as
tokens. The compiler recognizes them for building up expressions and statements.
In simple terms, a C# program is a collection of tokens, comments and white
spaces. C# includes the following five types of tokents;
1). Keywords 2). Identifiers 3). Operators
4). Punctuators 5). Literals
Let’s discuss each in detail;

1). Identifiers and Keywords in C#:-

Identifiers are a sequence of characters used to identify variables, constants,
properties, methods, objects, types and so on. An identifier starts with a letter or
an underscore and ends with the character just before the white space. C#
identifiers are case sensitive; that is, the variable names Sum, sum and SUM all
three are different from each other.
Before creating the identifiers, we should know the rules that an identifier
name must follow at the time of creation. An identifier:
1). Must begin with either a letter, digits or an underscore
2). Must be any combination of letters, digits and underscores
3). Must not be a reserved word
4). Must be a complete word without any blank spaces
While creating an identifier, it is always appreciated to start the identifier
name with a character or an underscore instead of a digit.
Keywords are the reserved words whose meanings are predefined to the C#
compiler. They are similar to the identifiers but we can not use them as variable
name, methods, properties because their names have been already defined a
special functionality.

List of Keywords and Contextual Words in C#

As Abstract Base Bool Break Byte Case Catch

Char Checked Class Const Continu Decimal Defaul Delegate

e t
Do Double Else Enum Event Explicit Extrn False
Finally Fixed Float For Foreach Goto If Implicit
In Int Interfac Internal Is Lock Long Namespac
e e
New Null Object Operato Out Override Param Private
r s
Protecte Public Readonl Ref Return Sbyte Sealed Short
d y
Sizeof Stackallo Static String Struct Switch This Throw
c
True Try Typeof Uint Ulong Unchecke Unsaf Ushort
d e
Using Virtual Volatile Void While

29
Contextual Words:-
From Get Group Into Join Let Orderby Partial
(type)
Partial Select Set Value Where Where Yield
(method) (generic (query
type clause)
constraint)
Irrespective of using reserved keywords as identifiers, contextual keywords
can be used as identifiers outside the context it is limited. This means that the
contextual keywords can have special meanings in two or more contexts. C#
permits the use of keywords as identifiers when they are prefixed with the ‘@’
character.

2). Punctuators:-
Punctuators are symbols used for grouping and separating code. They define
the shape and function of a program. Punctuators are also known as separators in
c# include;
1). Parentheses () 2). Braces { }
3). Brackets [] 4). Colon :
5). Semicolon ; 6). Comma ,
7). Period .

3). Operators:-
Operators are symbols used in expressions to describe operations involving
one or more operands.

30
 Scope Resolution Operator:-
The:: (scope Resolution) operator is added between two identifiers, and the left-
hand identifier of the :: operator is taken as a global identifier, or an extern, or
alias. When the left-hand identifier of the:: operator is global, the global
namespace is searched for the right hand identifier.

4). Literals:- (constants)

Literals are the way in which the values that are stored in variables are
represented. In other words, literals are also called constants. There are three
types of Literal;
i). Numeric Literals:-
The numeric literals have further two categories;
a). Integer Literal b). Float Literals

ii). Boolean Literals:-

iii). Character Literals:-

Character Literals have further two categories;
a). Single character Literal b). String Literal

iv). Backslash Character Literals:-

 Type conversion:-
While writing C# applications, a programmer often needs to perform a typical
task, that is convert one data type into another type. It can be divided into two
types; implicit and explicit conversion.

31
1). Implicit Conversion:-
Implicit conversions are the conversions that the language does for us,
behind the scenes, in a type-safe manner. If a compiler converts one type of data
into another type of data automatically, it is known as implicit conversion.

2). Explicit Conversion:-

When the data of one type is converted explicitly to another type, with the
help of some predefined functions, it is called explicit conversion; and there may be
data loss in this process because the conversion is forceful. Some conversions
cannot be made implicitly, such as;
1). Int to short
2). Int to unit
3). Uint to int
4). Float to int
• Casting:-
Casting is the process to perform explicit conversion. It occurs when we
prefix a conversion with a data type that defined the type of the conversion we
want to perform.
E.g:- type variable=(type) variable2;

32
  Boxing and Unboxing:-
In object-oriented programming, methods are invoked using objects. Since
value types such as int and long are not objects, we cannot use them to call
methods. C# enables us to achieve this through a technique known as boxing.
Boxing means the conversion of a value type on the stack to a object type on the
heap(global). Conversely, the conversion from an object type back to a value type
is known as unboxing.
1). Boxing:-
Any type, value or reference can be assigned to an object without an explicit
conversion. When the compiler finds a value type where it needs a reference type,
it creates an object ‘box’ into which it places the value of the value type.
E.g:- int t=100;
Object ob_t=t; //creates an object to hold t

2). Unboxing:-
Unboxing is the process of converting the object type back to the value type.
Remember that we can only unbox a variable that has previously been boxed. In
contrast to boxing, unboxing is an explicit operation using C-style casting.
E.g:- int t=10;
Object ob_t=t; //as in above example
Int un_t=(int)t; //unbox ob_t to an int
When performing unboxing, C# checks that the value type we request is
actually stored in the object under conversion. Only if it is, the value is unboxed.
When unboxing a value, we have to ensure that the value type is large enough to
hold the value of the object. Otherwise, the operation may result in a runtime error.
Notice that when unboxing, we need to use explicit cast. This is because in the case
of unboxing, an object could be cast to any type. Therefore, the cast is necessary
for the compiler to verify that it is valid as per the specified value type.

 C# Programming Structure:-
A C# program basically consists of the following parts:
1). A Namespace declaration
2). A class
3). Class Methods
4). Class Attributes
5). A Main method
6). Statements and Expressions
7). Comments

E.g:- First Example

using System;
using System.Collections.Generic;
using System.Linq;
using System.Text;

namespace template_class
{

33
 class Program
{
static void Main(string[] args)
{
Console.WriteLine("National Computer College!!!");
Console.ReadKey();
}
}
}
The first line of the program using system: The using keyword is used to
include the system namespace in the program. A program generally has multiple
using statements. All the code we write exists within an implied namespace that
exists for the current context of our code. Wnother thing worth mentioning about
namespace is that they replace the c++ #include notation and are equivalent of the
import statement in Java. That is, with the use of the using keyword, we can tell
the compiler which namespaces and libraries of the code we want to use in the
system. The most common use of the using keyword is to include the system
namespace in our program.
The next line has the namespace declaration. A namespace is a
collection of classes. In the other word, the concept pf amespace is nor new to
c#. c++ has them, and hava has been using the same concept for a long time. A
namespace is a wrapper around one or more structural elements that make them
unique. This namespace can be implemented to wrap around all the classes defined
for a given company or corporation.
The next line has a class declaration, the class contains the data and method
definitions that our program uses. Classes generally would contain more than one
method. Methods define the behaviour of class.
The next line defined the Main method, which is the entry point for all C#
programs. The Main method states what the class will do when executed.
The comment /*….*/ will be ignored by the compiler and it has been put to
additional comments in the program.
The main method specifies its behavior with the statement
Console.WriteLine("National Computer College!!!"); Writeline is a method of the
Console class defined in the system namespace. This statement causes the
message “National Computer College” to be displayed on the screen.
The last line Console.Readkey(); is for the VS.NET users. This makes the
program wait for a key press and it prevents the screen from running and closing
quickly when the program is launched from Visual Studio.NET.

 Accepting Values from User:-

The Console class in the System namespace provides a function ReadLine()
for accepting input from the user and store it into a variable.
Syntax:-

Variable name=console.ReadLine();

34
  Conditional Statements:-
A C# program is a set of statements that are normally executed sequentially in
the order in which they appear. This happens when options or repetitions of certain
calculations are not necessary. We have a number of situations, where we may
have to change the order of execution of statements based in certain conditions, or
repeat a group of statements until certain specified conditions are met. This
involves a kind of decision- making to see whether a particular condition has
occurred or not and then to direct the computer to execute certain statements
accordingly. Through we can the control flow statements to make only specific
blocks of code to execute in the fulfillment of specific conditions. We can also use
the control flow statements to transfer the program control from one block to
another block.
There may arise a situation when our program is logically correct and compiled
successfully, but in fails to display the required output and terminates abruptly.
This kind of situation may arise due to an exception in our program. An exception is
an event that occurs during the execution of a program and disrupts the normal
flow. C# language possesses such decision-making capabilities and supports the
following statements are known as control flow or conditional statements;
1). If statements
2). Switch statements
let’s discuss each statement in detail;

1). If Statements:-
One of the most important and commonly used conditional statement is if
statement. The if statement is a powerful decision making statement and is used to
control the flow of execution of statements. In if statement, first check the
expression/ condition, if it returns true then evaluate the statements, which is
written within if.
Syntax:- if (Test Expression/condition)
{
//statements;
}
E.g:- static void main(string[] args)
{
int a = 50, b = 70;
if (a < b)
Console.WriteLine("A is less");
if (a > b)
Console.WriteLine("B is less");
if (a == b)
Console.WriteLine("Both are same");
Console.ReadKey();
}

 If..else Statements:-
In if..else statements, first check the expression/condition, if it returns true
then evaluate the true block statements. Otherwise, evaluate the false block
statements.

35
Syntax:- if(test Expression/condition)
{
//true block statement
}
else
{
//false block statement
}
E.g:- static void main(string[] args)
{
int a = 50, b = 70;
if (a < b)
Console.WriteLine("A is less");
else
Console.WriteLine("B is less");
Console.ReadKey();
}

 Nesting If Statements:-
When we use multiple if statements, means that if within if its called nesting
if.
Syntax:- if(condition)
{
if(condition)
{
//statements;
}
}
E.g:- static void main(string[] args)
{
int a = 50, b = 70;
if (a < b)
Console.WriteLine("A is less");
else if (a > b)
Console.WriteLine("B is less");
else if (a == b)
Console.WriteLine("Both are same");
Console.ReadKey();
}

 If..else Ladder:-
There is another way of putting if is together when multipath decisions are
involved. A multipath decision is a chain of if, in which the statement associated
with each else is an if.
Syntax:- if(condition)
//statements;
else if(condition)
//statements;
else if(condition)
//statements;
statements;

36
2). Switch Statement:-
We have seen that when one of many alternatives has to be selected, we can
design a program using if statements to control the selection. However, the
complexity of such a program increases dramatically, when the alternatives
increase. The program becomes difficult to read and follow. At times, it may
confuse even the designer of the program. Fortunately, C# has a built in multiway
decision statement known as a switch. The switch statement tests the value of a
given variable against a list of case values and when a match is found, a block of
statements associated with that case is executable.

Syntax:- switch (expression)

{
case value 1:
//statements;
break;
case value 2:
//statements;
break;
………….
.…………
default:
//default statement;
}
E.g:-
namespace template_class
{
class switch_demo
{
static void Main(string[] args)
{
string name;
int rank;
Console.Write("Enter your Name:-");
name=Console.ReadLine();
Console.Write("Select the rank :-");
rank=int.Parse(Console.ReadLine());
switch(rank)
{
case 1:
{
Console.WriteLine(" I am First");
}
break;
case 2:
{
Console.WriteLine("I am second");
}
break;
case 3:
{
Console.WriteLine("I am Third");
}

37
 break;
}
Console.ReadLine();
}
}
}

 Looping (Branching statements):-

A computer is well suited to perform repetitive operations. It can do so tirelessly
ten, hundred or even ten thousand times. Every computer language must have
features that instruct a computer to perform such repetitive tasks. The process of
repeatedly executing a block of statements is known as looping. In looping, a
sequence of statements is executed until some conditions for the termination of the
loop are satisfied. A program loop therefore consists of two segments, one known
as the body of the loop and the other known as the control statement. The control
statement tests certain conditions and then directs the repeated execution of the
statements contained in the body of the loop. The C# language provides for four
constructs for performing loop operations. They are;
1). The while loop
2). The do.. while loop
3). The for loop
4). The foreach loop

1). While Loop:-

Syntax:-
initialization;
while(condition)
{
statements;
increment;
}
While is an entry controlled loop statements. The test condition is evaluated
and if the condition is true, then the body of the loop is executed. After execution of
the body, the test condition is once again evaluated and if it is true, the body is
executed once again. This process is repeated execution of the body continues until
the test condition finally becomes false and the control is transferred out of the
loop.
E.g:-namespace template_class
{
class w_loop
{
static void Main(string[] args)
{
int i = 1,n;
Console.Write("Enter n:-");
n = int.Parse(Console.ReadLine());
while (i <= n)
{
Console.WriteLine(i);
i++;
}

38
 Console.ReadLine();
}
}
}

2). Do..while Loop:-

Syntax:-
Initialization;
Do
{
statements;
increments;
}while (condition);
The do..while loop is exit controlled statement. In this loop, on reaching the
do statement, the program proceeds to evaluate the body of the loop first. At the
end of the loop, the test condition in the while statement is evaluated. If the
condition is true, the program continues to evaluate the body of the loop once
again. This process continues as long as the condition is true. When the condition
becomes false, the loop will be terminated and the control goes to the statement
that appears immediately after the while statement.
E.g:-
namespace template_class
{
class do_loop
{

static void Main(string[] args)

{
int i = 1,n;
Console.Write("Enter n:-");
n = int.Parse(Console.ReadLine());
do
{
Console.WriteLine(i);
i++;
} while (i <= n);
Console.ReadLine();
}
}
}

3). For Loop:-

Syntax:-
For(initialization;condition;increment)
{
statements;
}
For is another entry controlled loop that provides a more concise loop control
structure. One of the important points about the for loop is that all the three
actions, namely initialization, condition and incrementing are placed in the for
statement itself, thus making them visible to the programmers and users in one
place.

39
E.g:-
namespace template_class
{
class for_loop
{
static void Main(string[] args)
{
int i ,n;
Console.Write("Enter n:-");
n = int.Parse(Console.ReadLine());
for (i = 1; i <= n; i++)
{
Console.WriteLine(i);
}
Console.ReadLine();
}
}
}
 Nesting For loop:-
Syntax:-
For(initialization; condition; increment)
{
for(initialization; condition; increment)
{
statements;
}
statements;
}

4). Foreach Loop:-

The for each statement is similar to the for statement but implemented
differently, It enables us to iterate the elements in arraus and collection classes
such as list and HashTable.
Syntax:-
Foreach(type variable in expression)
{
body of the loop
}
The type and variable declare the iteration variable. During execution, the
iteration variable represents the array element for which iteration is currently
being performed. In is a keyword. The expression must be an array or collection
type and ex explicit conversion must exist from the element type of the collection
to the type of the iteration variable. The advantage of foreach over the for
statements is that it automatically detects the boundaries of the collection being
iterated over.
E.g:-
using System;
class for_each
{

40
 public static void Main()
{
int [] arr = {10,20,30,40,50};
foreach(int i in arr)
{
Console.WriteLine(i);
}
}
}
 Jumping Statement:-
Loops perform a set of operations repeatedly until the control variable fails to
satisfy the test condition. The number of times a loop is repeated is decided in
advance and the test condition is written to achieve this. Sometimes, when
executing a loop it becomes desirable to skip a part of the loop or to leave the loop
as soon as a certain condition occurs. C# permits a jump from one statement to the
end or beginning of a loop as well as jump out of a loop. The jumping statements
are;
1). Break Statement:-
An early exit from a loop can be accomplished by using the break statement. We
have already seen the use of break in the switch statement. This statement can
also be used in while, do..while or for loops for an early exit.
2). Continue Statement:-
During the loop operation, it may be necessary to skip a part of the body of the
loop under certain condition. Like the break statement, C# supports another similar
statement called the continue statement. However, unlike break which causes the
loop to be terminated, the continue statement, as the name implies, causes the
loop to continue with the next iteration after skipping any statements in between.
The continue statement tell the compiler. “Skip the following statements and
continue with the next iteration”.
3). Goto Statement:- (Labelled Jump)
As we have seen that the break will enable us to come out of only the nearest
loop and the continue will enable us to restart the current loop. If we want to jump
a set of nested loops or to continue a loop that is outside the current one, we may
have to use the concept labeling and the goto statement. C# has retained the
infamous goto and also permits us to use label. A label is any valid C# variable
name ending with a colon. We can use labels anywhere in a program and use the
goto statement to transfer the control to the statement marked by the label.

 Array:-
An array is a group of contiguous or related data items that share a common
name. For instance, we can define an array name marks to represent a set of
marks of a class of students. A particular value is indicated by writing a number
called index number or subscript in brackets.
 Creating an Array:-
Like other variables, arrays must be declared and created in the computer
memory before they are used. Creation of an array involves three steps;

41
 1). Declaring an array:-
Arrays in C# are declared as follows;
Type[] arrayname;
E.g:- int[] marks;

2). Creating memory locations:-

After declaring an array, we need to create it in the memory. C# allows us
to create arrays using new operator only.
Arrayname= new datatype[size];
E.g:- marks= new int[5];

3). Putting values into the memory locations:-

The final step is to put values into the array created. This process is known
as initialization. This is done using the array subscripts as shown below;
Arrayname[subscript]=value;
E.g:- marks[0]=75; or int[] marks={55,65,40,67,76};
marks[1]=55;
……..
…….
Note that C# creates arrays starting with a subscript 0 and ends with a value one
less than the size specified.
It is possible to assign an array object to another. For instance,
Int[]a = {11,23,43};
Int[]b;
b=a;
are valid in C#. Both the arrays will have the same values. Every member in an
array is automatically set to a default value. For example, if we have an array of
numerical type, each element is set to number 0.
A C# array can also hold reference type elements, An array of reference
types will contain only references to the elements and hot the actual values.
Reference types in an array are automatically initialized to null. Any attempt to
access an element in an array of reference types before they are initialized will
cause an error.

 Types of Array:-
An array can be of the following types;
1). One Dimensional Array:-
An array having only one subscript /dimension is called single or one
dimensional array.
E.g:- int[] a=new int[5];

namespace template_class
{
class one_array
{
static void Main(string[] args)
{
int[] a = new int[10];
int i;

42
 for (i = 0; i < 10; i++)
{
Console.Write("Enter value of an array:-");
a[i]= int.Parse(Console.ReadLine());
}
Console.WriteLine("Result is :-");
for (i = 0; i < 10; i++)
{
Console.Write(a[i]);
}
Console.ReadKey();

}
}
}
2). Multidimensional Array:-
An array having more than one dimension is called a multi dimensional or
rectangular or two dimensional array.
E.g:- int[,]a=new int[2,2];
namespace template_class
{
class two_array
{
static void Main(string[] args)
{
int[,] a = new int[2, 2];
int[,] b = new int[2, 2];
int[,] t = new int[2, 2];
int i, j;

Console.Write("Enter first matrix:-");

for (i = 0; i < 2; i++)
{
for (j = 0; j < 2; j++)
{
a[i, j] = int.Parse(Console.ReadLine());
}
}
Console.Write("Enter second matrix:-");

for (i = 0; i < 2; i++)

{
for (j = 0; j < 2; j++)
{
b[i, j] = int.Parse(Console.ReadLine());
}
}
Console.WriteLine("Addition is :-");
for (i = 0; i < 2; i++)
{
for (j = 0; j < 2; j++)
{
t[i, j] = a[i, j] + b[i, j];
Console.Write(t[i, j]);
}

43
 Console.WriteLine(" ");
}
Console.ReadKey();

}
}
}
3). Jagged Array:-
A jagged array is an array whose elements are also arrays. The elements of
a jagged array can be of different dimensions and sizes. In other words, we can call
a jagged array as an array of arrays or we can say that it’s a variable sized
array.
E.g:-

namespace template_class
{
class jagged_array
{
static void Main(string[] args)
{
int[][] student=new int[4][];
student[0]=new int[4];
student[1]=new int[2];
student[2]=new int[1];
student[3]=new int[3];

//prints the number of rows in the student array

Console.WriteLine("Row count:-" + student.Length);

//first row
student[0][0] = 65;
student[0][1] = 55;
student[0][2] = 78;
student[0][3] = 88;

//second row
student[1][0] = 62;
student[1][1] = 87;

//third row
student[2][0] = 83;

//fourth row
student[3][0] = 54;
student[3][1] = 74;
student[3][2] = 65;
Console.WriteLine("Result is:-");
for (int i = 0; i < student.Length; i++)
{
//returns the no. of elements in each row and this varies row from row
for (int j = 0; j < student[i].Length; j++) {
Console.Write(student[i][j]);
}
Console.WriteLine(" ");
}

44
 Console.ReadKey();
}
}
}
 Array with Foreach Loop:-
E.g:-
namespace template_class
{
class foreach_array
{
static void Main(string[] args)
{
int[] a = new int[10];
int i;
for (i = 0; i < 10; i++)
{
Console.Write("Enter an array:-");
a[i] = int.Parse(Console.ReadLine());
}
Console.WriteLine("The result is:-");
foreach (int j in a)
{
i = j;
Console.WriteLine(j);
}
Console.ReadKey();
}
}
}
 Param Array:-
At times, while declaring method, we are not sure of the arguments passes as a
parameter. C# param arrays or parameter arrays come into help at these times.
E.g:-
Namespace paramarray
{
class array_param
{
public int addele(params int[] a)
{
int s=0;
foreach(int i in a)
{
s+=i;
}
return s;
}
}
class Test
{
static void Main(string[] args)
{

45
 array_param ap=new array_param();
int s=ap.addele(11,12,13,14,15);
Console.WriteLine(“The sum is :-“+s);
Console.ReadKey();
}
}
}

 The Array Class:-

In C#, every array we create is automatically derived from the System.Array
class. This class defined a number of methods and properties that can be used to
manipulate arrays more efficiently.

 Properties of Array Class:-

Name Description

IsFixedSize Gets a value indicating whether the Array has a fixed size.

IsReadOnly Gets a value indicating whether the Array is read only.

Length Gets a 32-bit integer that represents the total number of

elements in all the dimensions of the array.
LongLength Gets a 64-bit integer that represents that total number of
elements in all the dimensions of the Array.
Rank Gets the rank(number of dimensions) of the Array.
 Methods of the Array Class:-
The following table provides some of the most commonly used methods of the
Array class:
Name Description

Clear Sets a range of elements in the Array to zero, to false,

or to null, depending on the element type.

Copy(Array,Array,Int32) Copies a range of elements from an Array starting at the

first element and pastes them into another Array
starting at the first element. The length is specified as a
32- bit integer.
CopyTo(Array,Int32) Copies all the elements of the current one dimensional
Array to the specified one- dimensional Array starting at
the specified destination Array index. The index is
specified as a 32 bit integer.
GetLength Gives the number of elements in a given dimension of
the array.

46
GetValue Gets the value at the specified position in the one
dimensional Array.
IndexOf Searches for the specified object and returns the index
of the first occurrence within the entire one dimensional
array.
Reverse Reverses the sequence of the elements in the entire one
dimensional Array.
SetValue Sets a value to the elements at the specified position in
the one-dimensional Array.
Sort Sorts the elements in an entire one-dimensional Array.

 ArrayList Class:-
System.Collection namespaces defines a class known as ArrayList that can
store a dynamically sized array of objects. The ArrayList class includes a number of
methods to support operations such as sorting, removing and enumerating its
contents. It also supports a property a count that gives the number of objects in an
array list and a property Capacity ti modify or read the capacity.
An array list is very similar to an array, except that it has the ability to grow
dynamically. We can create an array list by indicating the initial capacity we want.
E.g:- ArrayList cities= new ArrayList(30);
It creates cities with a capacity to store thirty objects. If we do not specify the
size, it defaults to sizteen. An array list can be really useful if we need to create an
array of objects but we do not know in advance how big the array would be.
Lists some of the most important methods and properties supported by the
ArrayList class.

Methods/Properties Description

Add Adds an object to a list

Clear Removes all the elements from the list.

Contains Determines if an element is in the list

CopyTo Copies a list to another list
Insert Inserts an element into the list
Remove Removes the first occurrence of an element
RemoveAt Removes the element at the specified place

RemoveRange Removes a range of elements

Sort Sorts the elements

Capacity Gets or sets the number of elements in the list

Count Gets the number of elements currently in the list

47
E.g:-
namespace array_demo
{
class Program
{
static void printarray(int[] arr)
{
Console.WriteLine("\nElements of array is:\n");
foreach (int i in arr)
{
Console.Write("\t{0}", i);
}
Console.WriteLine("\n");
}
static void Main(string[] args)
{
//Initializing and storing value in arr1
int[] arr1 = new int[5] { 43, 25, 33, 14, 5 };
int[] arr2 = new int[5];
int len, rank;
bool fixedsize, read_only;

//Check array length

len = arr1.Length;
Console.WriteLine("Length:\t{0}", len);

//Check array rank

rank = arr1.Rank;
Console.WriteLine("Rank:\t{0}", rank);

//Check whether array is fixed size or not

fixedsize = arr1.IsFixedSize;
Console.WriteLine("Fixed Size:\t{0}", fixedsize);

//Check whether array is read only or not

read_only = arr1.IsReadOnly;
Console.WriteLine("Read Only:\t{0}", read_only);

//Sorting an array
Array.Sort(arr1);
printarray(arr1);

//Returning Lenght from specified position

Console.WriteLine("Get Length:\t{0}", arr1.GetLength(0));

//Returns value of specied position

Console.WriteLine("Get Value:\t{0}", arr1.GetValue(2));

//Returns Index position of specified value

Console.WriteLine("Get Index:\t{0}", Array.IndexOf(arr1,33));

//Copying arr1's items to arr2

Array.Copy(arr1, arr2, 5);
printarray(arr2);

48
 //Removing items from array.
Array.Clear(arr1, 0, 5);
printarray(arr1);

Console.ReadLine();

}
}
}
 Array as an Argument:-
An array can also be passed to method as argument or parameter. A method
process the array and returns output. Passing array as parameter in C# is pretty
easy as passing other values as parameter. Just create a function that accepts
array as argument and then process them.
E.g:-
namespace array_demo
{
class parameter
{
static void printarray(int[] newarray)
{
int i,sum=0;
Console.Write("\n\nYou entered:\t");
for (i = 0; i < 4; i++)
{
Console.Write("{0}\t", newarray[i]);
sum = sum + newarray[i];
}
Console.Write("\n\nAnd sum of all value is:\t{0}", sum);
Console.ReadLine();
}
static void Main(string[] args)
{
int[] arr = new int[4];
int i;
for (i = 0; i < 4; i++)
{
Console.Write("Enter number:\t");
arr[i] = Convert.ToInt32(Console.ReadLine());
}
// passing array as argument
parameter.printarray(arr);
}
}
}
In the above example, we create an array and accept some integer values
from the user at a runtime. Then we passes array as argument to printarray(int[]
newarray) for printing and other calculation. It is same as other value passed as a
parameter to the function.

49
 BitArray Class:-
The BitArray class allows us to deal with the values in their binary
representation. Data that we add to such collections gets stored in these
collections- represented in their binary form, with each element signifying a bit’s
value(with the value false representing 0 and true representing 1).
 Properties of the BitArray class:-
Name Description

Count Gets the number of elements contained in the BitArray.

IsReadOnly Gets a value indicating whether the BitArray is read

only.
Item Gets or sets the value of the bit at a specific position in
the BitArray
Length Gets or sets the number of elements in the BitArray.

 Methods of the BitArray class:-

Name Description

BitArray And Performs the bitwise AND operation on the elements in

the current BitArray against the corresponding elements
in the specified BitArray.
bool Get Gets the value of the bit at a specific position in the
BitArray.
BitArray Not Inverts all the bit values in the current BitArray, so that
elements set to true are changed to false, and elements
set to false are changed to true.
BitArray Or Performs the bitwise OR operation on the elements in
the current BitArray against the corresponding elements
in the specified BitArray.
Set Sets the bit at a specific position in the BitArray to the
specified value.
BitArray XOR Performs the bitwise exclusive OR operation on the
elements in the current BitArray against the
corresponding elements in the specified BitArray.

 String:-
In C#, we can use strings as array of characters, however, more common
practice is to use the String keyword to declare a string variable. The string
keyword is an alias for the System.String class.
We can create string object using one of the following methods:
1). Assigning string literals
2). Copying from one object to another
3). Concatenating two objects
4). Reading from the keyboard
5). Using ToString method
50
 Each above points described in below;

1). Assigning String Literals:-

The most common way to create a string is to assign a quoted string of
characters known as string literal to a string object.
E.g:- String s1=”National”;

2). Copying String:-

We can also create new copies of existing strings. This can be accomplished
in tow ways.
1). Using Overloaded = operator
E.g:-
String s2=s1;
2). Using static copy method
E.g:- string s2=string.Copy(s1);

3). Concatenating Strings:-

We may also create new string by concatenating existing strings. There are a
couple of ways to accomplish this.
1). Using the overloaded + operator
E.g:- String s3= s1+s2;
2). Using Concat method
E.g:- string s3=string concat(s1,s2);

4). Reading from the Keyboard:-

It is possible to read a string value interactively from the keyboard and
assign it to a string object.
E.g:- string s=Console.ReadLine();

5). Using ToString Method:-

Another way of creating a string is to call the ToString method on an object
and assign the result to a string variable.
E.g:- int no=132;
String s=no.ToString();

 Properties of String class:-

Name Description

Chars Gets the char object at a specified position in the current string
object
Length Gets the number of characters in the current string object

51
 Methods of String class:-
The string objects are immutable, meaning that we cannot modify the
characters contained in them. However, since the string is an alias for the
predefined System.String class in the common Language Runtime (CLR), there are
many built in operations available that work with strings.
The string class has numerous methods that help us in working with the string
objects. The following table provides some of the most commonly used methods:

Name Description

Compare Compare two strings

CompareTo Compares the current instance with another instance
ConCat Concatenates two or more strings
Copy Creates a new string by copying another
CopyTo Copies a specified number of characters to an array of
Unicode characters
EndsWith Determines whether a substring exists at the end of the
string
Equals Determines if two strings are equal
IndexOf Returns the position of the first occurrence of a substring
Insert Returns a new string with a substring inserted at a specified
position
Join Joins an array of strings together
LastIndesOf Returns the position of the last occurrence of a substring
PadLeft Left-aligns the strings in a field
PadRight Right aligns the string in a field
Remove Deletes characters from the string
Replace Replaces all instances of a character with a new character
Split Creates an array of string by splitting the string at any
occurrence of one
StartsWith Determines whether a substring exists at the beginning of
the string
Substring Extracts a substring
ToLower Returns a lower case version of the string
ToUpper Returns a Upper case version of the string
Trim Removes white space from the string
TrimEnd Removes a string of characters from the end of the string
TrimStart Removes a string of characters from the beginning of the
string

52
E.g:- 1). Compare two strings.
using System;

namespace StringApplication
{
class StringProg
{
static void Main(string[] args)
{
string str1 = "National";
string str2 = "College";

if (String.Compare(str1, str2) == 0)
{
Console.WriteLine(str1 + " and " + str2 + " are equal.");
}

else
{
Console.WriteLine(str1 + " and " + str2 + " are not equal.");
}
Console.ReadKey() ;
}
}
}
o/p:- National and College are not equal

2). Join strings

namespace Stringdemo
{
Class Program
{
static void Main(string[] args)
{
//methods returning string
string[] sarray = { "Hello", "National", "Computer",
"College" };
string message = String.Join(" ", sarray);
Console.WriteLine("Message",message);

//from string literal and string concatenation

string fname, lname;
fname = "National";
lname = "College";
string fullname = fname + lname;
Console.WriteLine("Full Name: ", fullname);
}
Console.ReadKey();
}
}

53
3). Substring a string:-
namespace StringDemo
{
Class program
{
static void Main(String[] args)
{
string s=”National Computer College”;
Console.WriteLine(s);
String s1=s.Substring(18);
Console.WriteLine(s1);
}
Console.ReadKey();
}
}

54