dv dv

Newton’s Law of viscosity, F A or F = – A

dx dx
2 r 2 (  )g
Stoke’s Law F = 6 r v. Terminal velocity =
9 
SURFACE TENSION
Total force on either of the imaginary line (F )
Surface tension(T) = Length of the line ( ) ;
W
T=S=
A
Thus, surface tension is numerically equal to surface energy or work
done per unit increase surface area.
4T
Inside a bubble : (p – pa) = = pexcess ;
r
2T
Inside the drop : (p – pa) = = pexcess
r
2T
Inside air bubble in a liquid :(p – pa) = = pexcess
r
2T cos 
Capillary Rise h=
rg

SOUND WAVES
(i) Longitudinal displacement of sound wave
 = A sin (t – kx)
(ii) Pressure excess during travelling sound wave

Pex =  B (it is true for travelling
x
= (BAk) cos(t – kx)
wave as well as standing waves)
Amplitude of pressure excess = BAk
E
(iii) Speed of sound C =

Where E = Ellastic modulus for the medium
 = density of medium
Y
– for solid C=


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 where Y = young's modulus for the solid
B
– for liquid C=

where B = Bulk modulus for the liquid
B P  RT
– for gases 
C= 
  M0
where M0 is molecular wt. of the gas in (kg/mole)
Intensity of sound wave :

2 2 2
Pm2
<> = 2 f A v = <>  Pm2
2v
  
(iv) Loudness of sound : L = 10 log10    dB
 0
where I 0 = 10–12 W/m 2 (This the minimum intensity human ears can
listen)
P
Intensity at a distance r from a point source =  
4r 2
Interference of Sound Wave
if P1 = pm1 sin (t – kx 1 + 1)
P2 = pm2 sin (t – kx 2 + 2)
resultant excess pressure at point O is
p = P1 + P2
p = p0 sin (t – kx + )
2 2
p0 = pm 1
 pm 2
 2pm1 p m2 cos 
where  = [k (x 2 – x 1) + (1 – 2)]
and I = I 1 + I 2 + 2 1  2
(i) For constructive interference
 = 2n and  p0 = pm1 + pm2 (constructive interference)
(ii) For destructive interfrence
 = (2n+ 1) and  p0 = | pm1 – pm2 | (destructive interference)
2
If  is due to path difference only then  = x.

Condition for constructive interference : x = n

Condition for destructive interference : x = (2n + 1) 
2
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(a) If pm1 = pm2 and 
resultant p = 0 i.e. no sound
(b) If pm1 = pm2 and  = 0 , 2, 4, ...
p0 = 2pm & I 0 = 4I 1
p0 = 2pm1
Close organ pipe :
v 3v 5v (2n  1)v
f= , , ,.......... n = overtone
4 4 4 4
Open organ pipe :
v 2v 3v nV
f= , , ,..........
2 2 2 2
Beats : Beatsfrequency = |f 1 – f 2|.
Doppler’s Effect
vv  0
The observed frequency, f = f  v  v 
 s 

 v  vs 
and Apparent wavelength  =   
 v 

ELECTRO MAGNETIC WAVES

Maxwell's equations

 E  dA  Q /  0 (Gauss's Law for electricity)

 B  dA  0 (Gauss's Law for magnetism)

– d B
 E  d  dt
(Faraday's Law)

d E
 B  d   i
0 c  0 0
dt
(Ampere-Maxwell Law)

Oscillating electric and magnetic fields

E= Ex(t) = E0 sin (kz - t)
 z    z t 
= E0 sin 2  – vt  = E0 sin 2  – T 
     
E0/B0 = c

c = 1/  0  0 c is speed of light in vaccum

v  1/  v is speed of light in medium

Page # 79
 U energy transferred to a surface in time t is U, the magnitude of
p
c
the total momentum delivered to this surface (for complete
absorption) is p
Electromagnetic spectrum
Type Wavelength Production Detection
range
Radio > 0.1m Rapid acceleration and Receiver's aerials
decelerations of electrons in
aerials
Microwave 0.1m to 1mm Klystron value or magnetron Point contact diodes
value
Infra-red 1mm to 700nm Vibration of atoms and Thermopiles Bolometer,
molecules Infrared photographic
film
Light 700nm to Electrons in atoms emit light The eye, photocells,
400nm when they move from one Photographic film
energy level to a lower
energy
Ultraviolet 400nm to 1nm Inner shell electrons in photocells photographic
atoms moving from one film
energy level to a lower level
–3
X-rays 1nm to 10 nm X-ray tubes or inner shell Photograpic film, Geiger
electrons tubes, lonisation chamber
–3
Gamma < 10 nm Radioactive decay of the do
rays nucleus

ERROR AND MEASUREMENT

1. Least Count

mm.scale Vernier Screw gauge Stop Watch Temp thermometer

L.C =1mm L.C=0.1mm L.C=0.1mm L.C=0.1Sec L.C=0.1°C
2. Significant Figures
 Non-zero digits are significant
 Zeros occurring between two non-zeros digits are significant.
 Change of units cannot change S.F.
 In the number less than one, all zeros after decimal point and to
the left of first non-zero digit are insignificant
 The terminal or trailing zeros in a number without a decimal
point are not significant.
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