F & O - VII_1.

GENERAL CHEMISTRY :

CHAPTER
01 GENERAL CHEMISTRY
Terminologies
Matter, Atom, Dalton Atomic Theory, Modern Atomic Theory, Atomic Number, Mass
Number, Electronic Configuration, Valence Shell, Valence Electron, Ions, Molecule,

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Chemical Formula, Atomic Mass, Molecular Mass.

INTRODUCTION
Chemistry is defined as that branch of science which deals with the composition and properties

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of matter and the changes in that matter undergoes by various interactions.

1.1 MATTER
Anything that occupies space, has mass and offer resistance is called matter.
The food that we eat, the water that we drink, the air that we breathe and the clothes that we
wear are all made up of matter.
•The space anything occupies is called its volume.
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•The amount of matter anything contains is called its mass.

(a) Charge Particle in Matter

The electrical nature of matter was known in 600 BC. It was produced by rubbing two articles
together such as glass rod or ebonite rod with silk or fur. As a result of rubbing, they got
electrically charged.
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Activity
To Show the nature of charge particles present in matter.
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•Materials required : Two pieces of glass and two pieces of resin.

•Procedure :
– Take two pieces of glass or two pieces of resin
– Rub glass pieces with each other, bring in contact
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– Rub resin pieces with each other, bring in contact

– Bring glass and resin pieces in contact with each other.
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•Observations :
– Both glass pieces repel each other.
– Both resin pieces repel each other.
– Glass and resin pieces attract each other.
•Conclusion : This experiment shows that nature of charged particles present in matter
may be different. The electrical nature of two pieces of glass are similar to each other but
opposite to those of the two pieces of resin.

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(b) State of Matter-

(i) Solid- A solid has a fixed volume and a definite shape & definite mass.

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(ii) Liquid- A liquid has a fixed volume but not a definte shape. It takes the shape of the
container.

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(iii) Gas - A gas has neither a fixed volume nor a definte shape. It assumes the volume and
shape of the container.
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Ask yourself

1. Write down the physical state of following :

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(a) Oil (b) Oxygen (c) Diesel (d) Gold

(e) Mercury (f) Nitrogen dioxide
2. Write down the definite property of matter.
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3. Give the name of the process in which solid changes into liquid.

4. What is matter ?
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5. Name the state of matter which is having fixed volume and mass but not shape.

1.2 ATOM AND ATOMIC THEORIES

An atom is the smallest particle of an element that can take part in a chemical reaction. The
size of an atom is indicated by its radius which is called "atomic radius" (radius of an atom).
Atomic radius is measured in "nanometre"(nm).
1 metre = 109 nanometre or 1nm = 10-9 m.
Hydrogen atom is the smallest atom of all having an atomic radius 0.037nm or 0.37 Å
(1 Å = 10–10 metre)

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F & O - VII_1. GENERAL CHEMISTRY :

(a) Discovery of Atom :

Ancient Indian and Greek philosophers have been thinking about what matter is ultimately
made up of. It was around 500 BC that an Indian philosopher, Maharishi Kanad had postulated
that matter is divisible i.e., if we go on breaking matter, we will get smaller and smaller particles
and ultimately, the particles obtained may be so small that they cannot be further divided.
These indivisible particles were named as “paramanu”. Almost during the same period, ancient
Greek philosophers, Democritus and Leuciphous, also put forward the same idea. However,
they called the smallest indivisible particles as “atoms” (Greek : means un-cutable)

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(b) How big are the atoms ? Can we see them ?
Atoms are extremely small particles, so small in size that they cannot be seen even under a
microscope. To imagine about their size, it is interesting to mention here that if millions of
atoms are stacked one above the other, the thickness produced may not be equal to the
thickness of the sheet of a paper.

(c) Symbol

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"A symbol is a brief representation of the name of the element". Berzelius, a Swedish chemist,
was the first to introduce the system of using letters as symbols for the elements.
Symbol and Name of some elements
Atomic Atomic
No. Element Symbol No. Element Symbol
1 Hydrogen H 11 Sodium Na
2 Helium He 12 Magnesium Mg
3 Lithium Li 13 Aluminium Al
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4 Beryllium Be 14 Silicon Si
5 Boron B 15 Phosphorous P
6 Carbon C 16 Sulphur S
7 Nitrogen N 17 Chlorine Cl
8 Oxygen O 18 Argon Ar
9 Fluorine F 19 Potassium K
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10 Neon Ne 20 Calcium Ca
• Symbols may be derived from the first letter of the English name of the element.
• Symbols may be derived from the first letter and another significant letter of the name of
element.
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• Symbols may be derived from their Latin names of the elements.

Name of element Chemical Symbol Name of element (Language)

Potassium K Kalium (Latin)
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Iron Fe Ferrum (Latin)

Copper Cu Cuprum (Latin)
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Silver Ag Argentum (Latin)

Tin Sn Stannum (Latin)
Gold Au Aurum (Latin)
Mercury Hg Hydrargyrum (Latinized Greek)
Lead Pb Plumbum (Latin)
Tungsten W Wolfram (German)

Note : Dalton was the first to use symbols to represent elements.

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(d) Dalton atomic theory

Dalton put forward his atomic theory of matter in 1808. The various postulates (or assumptions)
of Dalton’s atomic theory of matter are as follows:
• Matter consists of small indivisible particles called atoms.
• All atoms of an element are identical in nature.
• The atoms of an element are different from the atoms of any other element.
• A compound is formed by combination of atoms of two or more elements in simple ratio.

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e.g. Ratio between H and O in water is 2 : 1 by volume.
• Atoms take part in chemical reactions.
• Atoms can neither be created nor be destroyed.
(i) Merit

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• Dalton’s atomic theory explains the law of conservation of mass and law of constant proportion.
• Atoms of elements take part in chemical reaction this is true till today.
(ii) Demerit

• The atom is no longer supposed to be indivisible.

• He could not explain that why do atoms of same element combined with each other.
• Atoms of the same element may not necessarily be identical in all aspects. e.g. isotopes.
• Atoms of different elements may not necessarily be different in all aspects. e.g. isobars.
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(e) Modern atomic theory
(i) Structure of An Atom : An atom consists of two parts -
(A) Nucleus : Nucleus is situated in the centre of an atom.
All the protons & neutrons are situated in the nucleus, therefore, the entire mass of an atom is
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almost concentrated in the nucleus.

The overall charge of nucleus is positive due to the presence of positively charged protons.
The protons & neutrons are collectively called nucleons.
The radius of the nucleus of an atom is of the order of 10–13 cm and its density is of the order of
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1017 kg/m3.
(B) Extra nuclear region : In extra nuclear part electrons are present which revolve around
the nucleus in orbits of fixed energies.
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(ii) Composition of an Atom : The atom is not the ultimate particle. There are still smaller
particles which the atom itself is made of. These are electrons, protons and neutrons called
the fundamental or subatomic particles.
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S.No. Property Electron Proton Neutron

1 Discovery J.J. Thomson E. Goldstein James chadwick
2 Symbol e p n
3 Nature Negatively charged Positively charged Neutral
4 Relative charge –1 1 0
–19 –19
5 Absolute charge 1.602 × 10 C 1.602 × 10 C 0
6 Relative mass 1/1837 1 1
–28 –24
7 Absolute mass 9.109 × 10 g 1.6725 × 10 g 1.6748 × 10–24 g

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(f) Atomic number (Z)

In 1913, moseley introduced an atomic parameter called atomic number.
Atomic number of an element is equal to the number of proton present in the nucleus of an
atom of that element.
For example,
Number of protons in hydrogen atom and carbon atom are 1 and 6 respectively. So, their
atomic numbers are 1 and 6 respectively.
The number of protons in an atom is equal to the number of electrons since atom as a whole

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is electrically neutral.
Thus,
Atomic number of an element = Number of protons in the nucleus
= Number of electrons in the extra nuclear part ( in neutral atom)
Atomic number of an element is generally denoted by the symbol ‘Z’.
e.g. Al Z = 13

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13
p = 13
e = 13
Each element has a unique atomic number.

(g) Mass number (A)

Mass number is the sum of number of protons and neutrons present in the atom of an element.
It is denoted by “A”.The mass number is represented either on the left hand side (LHS) or on the
right hand side (RHS) of the symbol of the element as superscript
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A = no. of protons + no. of neutrons (total no. of nucleons)
A = p+n
A = Z+n
How to Determine the Number of Electrons, Protons and Neutrons is an atom:
From the knowledge of atomic number and mass number of an element, the number of
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electrons, protons and neutrons can be easily predicted.

For an atom
Atomic number (Z) = No. of protons (p) = No. of electrons (e)
Mass number (A) = No. of protons (p) + No. of neutron (n)
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But, No. of protons = Atomic number (Z)

 A=Z+n
n = A –Z
Number of neutrons = Mass number – Atomic Number
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For example, lithium has atomic number (Z) = 3 and mass number (A) = 7, Therefore,
Number of electrons = Atomic number = 3, Number or protons = Atomic number = 3
Number of neutrons = Mass number – Atomic number = A –Z = 7 – 3 = 4.
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Nucleus consist of protons and neutrons and these are collectively known as nucleons. Since
the electrons are of negligible mass, the entire mass of the atom is due to the nucleus i.e.
nucleons.
e.g. Z = 13
A = 27
p = 13
e = 13
n = A – Z = 27 – 13 = 14

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F & O - VII_1. GENERAL CHEMISTRY :

Ask yourself

Q.1 Write down the merit and demerit of Dalton’s atomic theory.

Q.2 Define the term “Nucleus”.

Q.3 Write down the name of fundamental paticles of atom.

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Q.4 Define atomic number and mass number.

Q.5 Define the term shell.

1.3 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION AND SIGNIFICANCE

We have studied that atoms of different elements differ in their atomic numbers as well as

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mass numbers. Therefore, they have also different number of electrons. These are distributed
in the various energy shells (or energy levels) Which are given by Bohr i.e. K, L, M, N, ....... etc.
This distribution of the electron in the energy shells is known as electronic cofiguration. It is
based on certain guide-lines or rules given by Bohr and Bury. This is known as Bohr-Bury
scheme.
(a) Bohr-Bury Scheme for Distribution of Electrons in Various Shells :
• The maximum number of electrons which can be present in a particular energy shell
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of an atom is given by 2n2. Here ‘n’ is the number of the energy shells or energy levels.
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Name of shells K L M N
Number of shells 1 2 3 4
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Maximum Number of electrons (2n2) 2 8 18 32

• The outermost energy shell in an atom cannot have more than eight electrons even if it has a
capacity to take up more electrons according to first rule.
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• It is not necessary for a given shell to complete itself before another shell starts forming.
As a rule, the new shell is formed as soon as the outermost shell acquires eight electrons.
For example, the atomic number (Z) of the element potassium is 19. Its electronic configuration
is expected to be 2,8,9. But actually it is not so The third shell (M-shell) which is the outermost
shell in this case is shown to have ninteen electrons. However, it cannot have more than eight
electrons. Therefore, the N-shell builds up as soon as the M-shell acquires eight electrons.
The actual electronic configuration of potassium is 2,8,8,1.
K L M K L M N
2 8 9 2 8 8 1
(Expected electronic ( Actual electronic
distribution in K ) distribution in K )

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Simlarly for the next element calcium (Z = 20), N shell can have two electrons.
K L M K L M N
2 8 10 2 8 8 2
(Expected electronic ( Actual electronic
distribution in Ca ) distribution in Ca )

(b) Electronic Configuration of Some Elements :

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(c) Significance of Electronic Configuration :

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• Electronic configuration of an atom helps us to understand the chemical reactivity of the

element.
• When the outermost shell of an atom is completely filled as per Bohr-Bury scheme then the
element is unreactive.
• When the outermost shell of an atom is not completely filled according to Bohr-Bury rule, the
element is reactive.
An atom can get the noble gas electronic configuration in three ways -
• By losing one or more electrons.
• By gaining one or more electrons.
• By sharing one or more electrons with other atom or atoms.

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(d) Valence shell and valence electrons
The outermost shell of an atom is known as the valence shell. The electrons present in the
valence shell of an atom are known as valence electrons.
The remainder of the atom i.e. the nucleus and other electrons is called the core of the atom.
Electrons present in the core of an atom are known as core electrons.
(i) Significance of valence electrons
• The valence electrons of an atom are responsible for chemical reaction and take part in
chemical changes.

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• The valence electron determine the combining capacity or the valency of the atom.
• Elements having the same number of valence electrons in their atoms possess similar
chemical properties. For example, all alkali metals have one valence electron in their atoms.
Hence, their chemical properties are similar.
e.g.
The electronic configuration of the sodium (Na) atom is :-

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Na (11) K L M
2 8 1
Thus, valence electrons in Na atom = 1 and core electrons in Na atom = 2 + 8 = 10
(ii) Valency : Element,other than noble gas elements,contain less than 8 electron in their
outermost shells. These elements are chemically reactive and unstable. They tend to acquire
the stable outermost electronic configuration of the noble gases. It is the tendency on the part
of elements that leads to chemical reactions. The noble gas configuration is achieved by
elements by losing, gaining or sharing electrons.
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The number of electrons gained, lost or shared by the atom of an element so as to complete
its octet (or duplet in case of elements having only K shell) is called the valency of the element.
The valency of an element = number of valence electrons
(when number of valence electrons are from 1 to 4)
The valency of an element = 8– number of valence electrons. (when number of valence
electrons are more than 4)
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(iii) Variable Valency : Certain elements (metals and non - metals ) exhibit more than one
valency.
(A) Among the metals iron, copper, silver etc. show variable valency. For lower valency a
suffix -ous and for higher valency a suffix -ic is attached at the end of the name of the metals
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and non - metals.

e.g.
Ferrous = Fe +2
Ferric = Fe+3
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(B) Among the non - metals nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur etc. show variable valency.
(iv) How Do Atoms Exist ?
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The atoms of only a few elements called noble gases (such as helium, neon, argon and
krypton etc.) are chemically unreactive and exist in the free state (as single atoms). Atoms of
most of the elements are chemically very reactive and do not exist in the free state (as single
atoms).
Atoms usually exist in two ways:
(A) In the form of ions and
(B) In the form of molecules
When atoms form molecules or ions, they become stable (because in doing so they acquire
the stable electron arrangement of noble gases).

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(A) Ions
The charged particles formed by an atom on the gain or loss of one or more electron(s) is
called ions.
Ion

Cation Anion
(1) Cation : A positive ion gets formed in case atom of an element loses one or more

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electrons. For example, the electronic distribution in sodium i.e. Na is 2,8,1. It loses one electron
to form a positive ion with electronic distribution 2,8. Since in the ion, the number of electrons
(2 + 8 = 10) is one less than the number of protons (11), it has one unit positive charge. It may
be represented as follows :
e.g. Na – e– Na+

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11e– 10e–

(2) Anion : A negative ion gets formed in case atom of an element gains one or more
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electrons. For example, electronic distribution in fluorine i.e. F is 2, 7. It gains one electron to
form a negative ion with electronic distribution 2,8. Since in the ion, the number of electrons
(2 + 8 = 10) is one more than the number of protons (9), it has one unit negative charge. It may
be represented as follows.

e.g. F + e– F–
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9e– 10e–
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LIST OF COMMON ELECTROVALENT POSITIVE RADICALS

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Monovalent Electropositive Bivalent Electropositive Trivalent Tetravalent

Electropositive Electropositive
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2+ 3+ 4+
1. Hydrogen H+ 1. Magnesium Mg 1. Aluminium Al 1. Stannic [Tin (IV)] Sn
+ 2+ 3+ 4+
2. Ammonium NH 4 2. Calcium Ca 2. Ferric [Iron (III)] Fe 2. Plumbic [Lead (IV)] Pb
2+ 3+
3. Sodium Na + 3. Zinc Zn 3. Chromium Cr
2+
4. Potassium K+ 4. Plumbous [Lead (II)] Pb
2+
5. Cuprous [(Copper (I)] Cu + 5. Cupric [(Copper) (II)] Cu
2+
6. Argentous [Silver (I)] Ag + 6. Argentic [Silver(II)] Ag
+ 2+
7. Mercurous [Mercury(I)] Hg 7. Stannous [Tin (II)] Sn
2+
8. Ferrous [Iron (II)] Fe
2+
9. Mercuric [Mercury (II)] Hg
2+
10. Barium Ba

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LIST OF COMMON ELECTROVALENT NEGATIVE RADICALS

Monovalent Electronegative Bivalent Trivalent Tetravalent

Electronegative Electronegative Electronegative
– 2- 3- 4–
1. Fluoride F 1. Sulphate SO 4 1. Nitride N 1. Carbide C
– 2- 3-
2. Chloride Cl 2. Sulphite SO 3 2. Phosphide P
– 2- 3-
3. Bromide Br 3. Sulphide S 3. Phosphite PO 3
– 2- 3-
4. Iodide I 4. Thiosulphate S 2O3 4. Phosphate PO 4
– 2-
5. Hydride H 5. Zincate ZnO 2

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– 2-
6. Hydroxide OH 6. Oxide O
– 2-
7. Nitrite NO 2
7. Peroxide O2
– 2-
8.Nitrate NO 3 8. Dichromate Cr 2O7
– 2-
9. Bicarbonate or Hydrogen carbonate HCO 3 9. Carbonate CO 3
– 2-
10. Bisulphite or Hydrogen sulphite HSO 3 10. Silicate SiO 3
–
11. Bisulphide or Hydrogen sulphide HS
–
12. Bisulphate or Hydrogen sulphate HSO 4

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–
13. Acetate CH3COO

(B) Molecule : A molecule is an electrically neutral group of two (or more) atoms chemically
bonded together by means of attractive forces.
Or
A molecule is the smallest particle of a substance (element or compound) which has the
properties of that substance and can exist in the free state. Molecules can be formed either by
the combination of atoms of the "same element" or of "different elements".
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There are two types of molecules: molecules of elements and molecules of compounds.
(1) Molecules of Elements : The molecule of an element contains two (or more) similar
atoms chemically bonded together. For example, a molecule of hydrogen contains 2 hydrogen
atoms combined together and it is written as H2 representing Hydrogen gas. Similarly, Ozone
gas has 3 oxygen atoms combined together, so ozone exists in the form of O3. The noble
gases like helium, neon, argon and krypton etc., exist as single atoms He, Ne, Ar and Kr
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respectively. So, their atoms and molecules are just the same.
(2) Molecules of Compounds : The molecule of a compound contains two (or more) different
types of atoms chemically bonded together.For example, molecule of hydrogen chloride (HCl)
contains one atom of hydrogen (H) chemically bonded with one atom of chlorine (Cl). Some
more examples of the molecules of compounds are : sulphur dioxide (SO 2),
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methane (CH4) and ammonia (NH3).

(3) Atomicity : The number of atoms present in one molecule of an element is called its
atomicity.
The atomicity of an element is indicated by writing the number as a subscript on the right hand
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side bottom of the symbol.

For example, H2 shows that the atomicity of hydrogen is 2. P4 shows that the atomicity of
phosphorus is 4, He shows that the atomicity of helium is 1.
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On the basis of their atomicities, the elements may be classified as monoatomic, diatomic,
triatomic, tetra atomic, etc.

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(e) Chemical formula
Molecule of an element or a compound may be represented by symbols of the elements

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present in one molecule of the compound. It is known as a chemical formula.
E.g. HCl is the formula of hydrogen chloride and NaCl is that of sodium chloride.
(i) Significance of a Chemical Formula :
Name of the substance.
• Name of various elements present in that substance.
• Chemical formula of a substance represents one molecule of that substance.
• Relative number of atoms of various elements present in one molecule of that element or
compound.
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• Relative masses of various elements in the compound.
• We can calculate the gram molecular mass of that substance.
(ii) Writing a Chemical Formula :
Step-I : Write the symbol of the positive ion or the radical to the left and that of the negative ion
or radical to the right.
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Step-II : Put the valency of each radical or the ion on its top right. Divide the valency by the
highest common factor, if any, to get a simple ratio. Now ignore the (+) and (–) signs. Interchange
the valency of radicals or ions.
Step-III : Shift the valency to the lower right side of the radical or ion. If the compound radical
receives number more than 1, enclose it within brackets. Do not enclose simple radicals
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within brackets.

Names of
compounds
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F & O - VII_1. GENERAL CHEMISTRY :

S.No. Compounds Common Names Chemical Names

1 CaO Lime Calcium oxide
2 NaHCO3 Baking soda Sodium hydrogen carbonate
3 Na2CO3.10H2O Washing soda Sodium carbonate decahydrate
4 CaCO3 Limestone Calcium carbonate
5 Ca(OH)2 Slaked lime Calcium hydroxide
6 CuSO4. 5H2O Blue vitriol Copper sulphate pentahydrate

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7 NaCl Common salt Sodium chloride
8 Na2CO3 Soda ash Sodium carbonate
9 NaOH Caustic soda Sodium hydroxide
10 KOH Caustic potash Potassium hydroxide

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11 CaOCl2 Bleaching powder Calcium oxychloride
12 CaSO4.1/2 H2O Plaster of paris Calcium sulphate hemihydrate
13 CaSO4. 2H2O Gypsum Calcium sulphate dihydrate
14 FeSO4. 7H2O Green vitriol Ferrous sulphate heptahydrate
15 H2SO4 Oil of vitriol Sulphuric acid

Ask yourself
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Q.1 What is molecule? Explain with example.

Q.2 Write down the atomicity for following :

(a) S8 (b) CO2 (c) P4 (d) H2O
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Q.3 Write down the common name of following

(a) CaO (b) CuSO4.5H2O (c) NaOH (d) H2SO4
Q.4 Write down the chemical formula of following
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(a) calcium nitrate (b) calcium phosphate

Q.5 What is ion ? Define cation and anion.

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1.4 ATOMIC MASS AND MOLECULAR MASS

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(a) Atomic Mass

Actual masses of the atoms of the elements are very, very small. For example, one atom of
hydrogen (H) has a mass of 1.673 x 10-24 gram. To avoid the inconvenience in using such
small and complicated figures in our calculations, it was necessary to define atomic mass in
such a way that we get simple figures for them. Carbon-12 atom is that atom of carbon which
has 6 protons and 6 neutrons in its nucleus, so that its mass number is 12.
Carbon-12 atom has been assigned an atomic mass of exactly 12 atomic mass units, written
as 12 u.

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Definition of atomic mass : Atomic mass express as to how many time mass of an atom of
1
an element is heavier than the mass of carbon -12 atom.
12
Atomic Mass Unit (u) = One-twelfth the mass of a Carbon-12 atom.
1u = 1.6605 × 10 –24 g.
One atomic mass unit (1u) is defined as exactly one-twelfth the mass of an atom of Carbon-
12.The atomic mass of an element is the relative mass of its atom as compared with the

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mass of a Carbon-12 atom taken as 12 units.

(b) Molecular Mass

The molecular mass of a substance may be defined as the relative mass of its molecule as
compared to the mass of an atom of carbon (carbon-12) taken as 12 units.

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OR
Molecular mass expresses as to how many times a molecule of a substance is heavier than
1/12th of the mass of an atom of carbon (carbon-12).
Eg. A molecule of water is 18 times heavier than 1/12th of the mass of carbon atom. Therefore,
the molecular mass of water is 18u. Similarly, the molecular mass of CO2 is 44u.

Calculation : The molecular mass is equal to sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms present
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in one molecule of the substance.
Eg. The molecular mass of Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4) can be calculated as follows:
Molecular mass of H2SO4 = Mass of 2 H atoms + Mass of 1 S atom + Mass of 4 O atoms
= (2 x 1) + (1 x 32) + (4 x 16) = 2 + 32 + 64 = 98u.
Thus, the molecular mass of Sulphuric acid is 98u.
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List of atomic masses of some common elements :

Atomic Number Element Symbol Atomic mass
1 Hydrogen H 1
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2 Helium He 4
3 Lithium Li 7
4 Beryllium Be 9
5 Boron B 11
6 Carbon C 12
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7 Nitrogen N 14
8 Oxygen O 16
9 Fluorine F 19
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10 Neon Ne 20
11 Sodium Na 23
12 Magnesium Mg 24
13 Aluminium Al 27
14 Silicon Si 28
15 Phosphorus P 31
16 Sulphur S 32
17 Chlorine Cl 35.5
18 Argon Ar 40
19 Potassium K 39
20 Calcium Ca 40

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F & O - VII_1. GENERAL CHEMISTRY :

Ask yourself

Q.1 Define atomic mass. Give three example.

Q.2 Define molecular mass. Give three example.
Q.3 Write down the molecular mass of the following :
(a) CaCO3 (b) H3PO4 (c) C6H12O6

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Q.4 What is the molecular mass of sulphur ?
Q.5 What is molecular mass of phosphorous ?

Add to Your Knowledge

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1. All atoms except hydrogen contain neutrons, thus the atomic mass of hydrogen is same as
that of a proton.
2. In the elements having atomic number more than 18, electron may go into a new shell even
before the inner shell is completely filled.
3. The atoms of noble gas elements are quite stable and can exist independently. These are
therefore, monoatomic in nature. For example, helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton
(Kr) and xenon (Xe)
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Summary
 An electron has –1 unit (1.6 × 10–19 C) charge and negligible (9.1 × 10–31 kg) mass.
 An electon is regarded as a universal particle i.e. its charge and mass remain the same.
 A proton has + 1 unit (1.6 × 10–19 C) charge and 1 u (1.67 × 10–27 kg) mass.
 Protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom are also called nucleons.
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 The mass of an atom is due to protons and neutrons present in the nucleus. Electrons do not
contribute towards the mass of an atom.
 According to Bohr’s theory, the different energy shells for the electrons are designated as : K, L,
M, N, O, ....... etc.
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 The order of the energy of the energy shells is : K < L < M < N < O ......... etc.
 Atomic number (Z) of an element is equal to number of protons.
 When an atom changes to an ion, the protons present in the nucleus remain the same. Only the
electrons change.
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 Element He,Ne and Ar are knowns as inert elements and have zero valency.
 The formula of a compound should be written in such a way that the positive and negative
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charges are neutralized.

 Atoms of the same elements, having the same atomic number but different mass numbers
are called isotopes of the elements.
 Atoms of the different elements, having the same mass number but different atomic numbers
are called isobars of the elements.
 Atoms of the different elements with same number of neutron but different atomic number
and mass number are called isotone of the element.
 Atoms of the different elements with same number of electrons but different atomic numbers
and mass number are called isoelectron.
PAGE # 35
F & O - VII_1. GENERAL CHEMISTRY :

 The protons and neutrons are concentrated in a small region at the centre of an atom.This
central part is known as nucleus.
 The protons and neutrons present inside the nucleus are called nucleons.
 The outermost shell is called valence shell.
 A group of atoms possessing either positive or negative charge by losing or gaining one or
more electrons is called a radicals.

CONCEPT MAP

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Co
ATOMS
Consist of
subatomic particle
en
Total number of
Nucleus proton and neutron Electron shells
in an atom
are
Is indicated occupied
by by
m

Used to
Nucleon number (A) represent
an element A
X
Proton number (Z) Z
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Electrons (e) 1
Neutrons(n) Proton(p) * Relative mass
* Relative mass : 1 * Relative mass : 1 1837
* Relative charge : 0 * Relative charge :+1 * Relative charge: –1
e

Arrangement
have different have the same of electrons
number of neutrons number of protons in shell is
Sp

represented
using
Electronic
structure
Isotopes Outer/valence
electrons That are found
in outer shells
Atoms are electrically are called valence
neutral electron

PAGE # 36
F & O - VII_1. GENERAL CHEMISTRY :

EXERCISE 01
SECTION -A (FIXED RESPONSE TYPE)

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

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1. The compressibility of which state of matter is high -
(A) liquid (B) solid (C) gas (D) all of these
2. A state of matter which has neither definite shape not definite volume :
(A) liquid (B) solid (C) gas (D) all of these

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3. Which of the following substance is not a liquid -
(A) Oil (B) Syrup (C) Petrol (D) CNG

4. Which of the following is a occur as a gas -

(A) Sand (B) Ozone (C) Soil (D) Milk

5. Liquids have :
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(A) fixed volume and fixed shape (B) fixed shape and no fixed volume
(C) fixed volume and no fixed shape (D) neither fixed volume nor fixed shape

6. The protons and neutrons are collectively called -

(A) deutrons (B) positrons (C) mesons (D) nucleons
m

7. Atomic number of an element represents -

(A) number of neutrons in the nucleus. (B) atomic mass of an element.
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(C) valency of an element (D) number of protons in the nucleus.

8. Atomic size of the order of -

(A) 10–8 cm (B) 10–10 cm (C) 10–13 cm (D) 10–6 cm
e

9. An element with atomic number 9 is :

(A) a rare gas (B) a halogen gas (C) an alkali metal (D) None of these
Sp

23
10. 11Na has :
(A) 11 protons and 23 neutrons (B) 11 neutrons and 11protons
(C) 11 electrons and 11protons (D) None of these

11. The difference between ions and atoms is of -

(A) relative size (B) electronic configuration
(C) presence of charge (D) all of these

PAGE # 37
F & O - VII_1. GENERAL CHEMISTRY :

12. How many types of atoms are present in a molecule of sugar ?

(A) 49 (B) 3 (C) 22 (D) 11

13. An element (A) is tetravalent electropositive and another element (B) is divalent electronegative.
The formula of the compound formed from these elements will be -
(A) A2B (B) AB (C) AB2 (D) A2B3
14. Which of the following element will become stable after losing an electron ?

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(A) Helium (B) Iodine (C) Sodium (D) Oxygen

15. The electronic configuration of the sodium [Na] atom is -

(A) 2, 8,2 (B) 2, 8, 1 (C) 2, 8 (D) 2, 8, 8, 1

Co
16. The correct chemical formula of aluminium sulphate is -
(A) Al2(SO4)3 (B) Al2(SO3)4 (C) Al3(SO4)4 (D) AlSO4

17. Relative atomic mass of O3 is -

(A) 48 (B) 140 (C) 180 (D) 320

18. Chorine’s realative atomic mass is 35.5. Reason for fractional atomic mass.
en
(A) isotopes (B) a half proton (C) a half neutron (D) a half electron

19. Molecular weight of propane (C3H8) is -

(A) 44 amu (B) 40 amu (C) 41 amu (D) 46 amu
m

20. Which of the following is molecular mass of CaCO3 :

(A) 100 u (B) 99 u (C) 98 u (D) 97 u

21. Which of the following is molecular mass of (NH4)2SO4 :

(A) 138 u (B) 131 u (C) 132 u (D) 97 u
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22. What is the atomic mass of iron :

(A) 56 u (B) 26 u (C) 25 u (D) 58 u

FILL IN THE BLANKS

e

1. There is no particle of matter smaller than an ______.

Sp

2. Zincate ion is ________________ .

3. The chemical formula of nitric acid is ________ .

4. Nucleons is collectively called the sum of __________ and ____________ .

5. Nucleus is situated in the ________ of an atom.

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F & O - VII_1. GENERAL CHEMISTRY :

TRUE / FALSE

1. Discovery of electron is done by rutherford

2. One atomic mass unit is defined as exactly one twelfth the mass of an atom of carbon-12.

3. The overall charge of nucleus is positive.

4. J.J. Thomson was the first to introduce the system of using letters as symbols for the elements.

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5. The negatively charged radical is called acidic radical.

MATCH THE COLUMN

Column-A Column-B

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1. Monovalent electronegative a. O 2–2
2. Sulphite b. NO 2– , HS–
3. Peroxide c. SiO32 –
4. Silicate d. SO 23 –

SECTION -B (FREE RESPONSE TYPE)

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SUBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE
1. What are the fundamental particles of an atom.
2. What is an electron? State its relative mass and charge.
m

3. Define the following terms: a) Nucleons b) Atomic number c) Mass number d) Nucleus
4. How many elements are present in calcium carbonate.
5. Calculate number of electrons, protons and neutrons.
a. 18Ar40 b. 7N14 c. 19K39
ci

SHORT ANSWER TYPE

6. Write the electronic configuration of potassium (Z = 19). What is the number of valence electrons
in it ?
e

7. What is the difference between valency and valence electrons.

8. What do you mean by an ion. Define cation and anion.
Sp

9. Write the formulae of following compound with the help of the valency of their constituent
particle.
(i) Ferric sulphate (ii) Mercuric chloride (iii) Calcium bicarbonate

LONG ANSWER TYPE

10. Write the postulates of Dalton’s atomic theory.

11. Differentiate between electron, proton & neutron with respect to their charge and mass.

PAGE # 39
F & O - VII_1. GENERAL CHEMISTRY :
12. What is the significance of electronic configuration ?

13. Write molecular mass of the following

a. ZnSO4 b. (NH4)2Cr2O7 c. AgBr d. Hg2Cl2

EXERCISE 02

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SECTION -A (COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION QUESTION)

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. Which is not true about neutron ?
(A) It is a neutral particle (B) It is present in the nucleus of atom

Co
(C) It is highly unstable in nature (D) It contributes to the mass of the atom

2. The number of valence electrons in Cl– ion are :

(A) 16 (B) 8 (C) 17 (D) 18
3. Which is the correct electronic configuration of the element Mg ?
(A) 2, 8 (B) 2, 8, 1 (C) 2, 8, 2 (D) 8, 2, 2
4. Positive ion is formed from the neutral atom by the loss of :
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(A) protons (B) neutrons (C) alpha particles (D) electron
5. Maximum number of electrons which can be filled in the third shell of an atom is :
(A) 8 (B) 18 (C) 10 (D) 32
6. The mass number A, atomic number Z and number of neutrons n are related as :
(A) n = A – Z (B) n = A + Z
(C) n = A × Z (D) none of these is correct
m

7. Which of the following elements has same number of protons, electrons and neutrons ?
(A) Al (B) Mg (C) P (D) Cl
8. Protons, neutrons and electrons are present in chlorine atom in the sequence :
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(A) 17, 17, 18 (B) 17, 18, 17 (C) 18, 17, 17 (D) 17, 17, 17
9. Which of the following has/have 18 electrons ?
(A) K+ (B) Ca2+ (C) Cl– (D) all have 18 electrons
14
e

10. No. of valence electrons in an element 7 X is :

(A) 5 (B) 1 (C) 7 (D) 3
SECTION -B (TECHIE STUFF)
Sp

1. The electronic configuration of an element Z is 2, 8, 6. How many electrons does it require to

have a stable configuration ?
2. A species ’A’ has 9 protons and 8 electrons. What does it represent ?
3. There are 14 protons and 13 neutrons in the nucleus of an element. What is its mass number ?
39
4. Indicate the number of electrons, protons and neutrons in element 19 K .

5. From the following nuclei, choose the isotopes and isobars :

(i) 8p + 8n (ii) 8p + 9n (iii) 18p + 22 n (iv) 20p + 20n.

PAGE # 40
F & O - VII_1. GENERAL CHEMISTRY :

EXERCISE 03
SECTION -A (PREVIOUS YEAR EXAMINATION QUESTIONS)

1. An element X of valency 3 combines with another element Y of valency 2. The formula of the
compound formed is :
(A) XY3 (B) X2Y3 (C) X2Y2 (D) XY2

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2. Read the given statements and mark the correct option :
Statement-1 : Relative atomic mass of chlorine is 35.5.
Statement-2 : Chlorine gas is diatomic element.
(A) Both statements 1 and 2 are true and statement-2 is the correct explanation statement-1.
(B) Both statements 1 and 2 are true but statement-2 is not the correct explanation statement-1.
(C) Statement-1 is true and statement-2 is false.

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(D) Both Statement-1 is true and statement-2 is false.

3. The number of atoms present in a molecule of a substance is called its :

(A) Molecularity (B) Atomicity (C) Valency (D) Reactivity

4. The atomic mass of oxygen is 16 and the molecular mass of ozone is 48. What is the atomicity
of ozone if it is an allotrope of oxygen ?
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4
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5. The nucleus of the atom consist of :
(A) Proton and neutron (B) Proton and electron
(C) Neutron and electron (D) Proton, neutron and electron

6. Which one of the following atoms has a mass number of 40 ?

m

Atom Number of protons Number of neutrons

i 13 14
ii 18 22
iii. 20 22
iv. 20 51
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(A) i (B) ii (C) iii (D) iv

7. The given atomic diagram represents :

1e–
e

1p
Sp

K
(A) Hydrogen atom (B) Nitrogen (C) Helium atom (D) Neon atom

8. Which is not true about neutron ?

(A) It is a neutral particle (B) It is present in the nucleus of the atom
(C) It is highly unstable in nature (D) It contributes to the mass of the atom

9. Which of the following species has more number of protons than the number of electrons ?
–
(A) F (B) Na+ (C) O2– (D) Ne

PAGE # 41