Proc Indian Natn Sci Acad 86 No. 3 September 2020 pp.

1169-1176
 Printed in India. DOI: 10.16943/ptinsa/2020/155491

Review Article
Saline Contamination Mahanadi Deltaic Aquifers: A Review
PRABHU PRASAD DAS*
ACOAST, Amity University Haryana, Gurugram 122 413, India

(Received on 14 August 2020; Revised on 15 September 2020; Accepted on 22 September 2020)

The alluvial aquifers of Mahanadi delta are of Quaternary age. Because of the presence of numerous perched aquifers, they
are commonly referred to as aquifer systems. Not only these hydrostatic units have its place within the massive intricate
Quaternary deposits of the coastal depression, but also, they appear to have been momentously affected by the basement
structural elements as well as from the land-sea exchanges of geologic past. This is precisely why; the aquifers depict a very
muddled distribution of diverse groundwater types both vertically as well as sideways. The lithostratigraphic components
are multifaceted combinations of gravel, sand, silt and clay deposits with an overall layered assembly across the landscape
where the thickness of the discrete horizons lessens with depth. Commonly, the sandy and gravelly layers produce fresh
groundwater away from the shore on the western side close to the hard rock lands and the aquifer assemblage adjacent to
the coast are of brackish as well as freshwater nature. The present article summaries an appraisal of the saltwater
contamination of these deltaic aquifers from the technical studies carried out by the several investigators.

Keywords: Mahanadi; Aquifer; Hydrogeochemistry; Monsoon; Darcy Flow; Isoresistivity

Introduction saline aquifers are in horde to the fresh aquifers in

the coastal saline belt of Odisha. The proportion of
Odisha depicts massive stretches of coastal aquifers the fresh to brackish subsurface deposits is roughly
of closely 480 Km along the eastern coast of India. 1:4 inside a depth range of 300 m (Shukla, 2011). Such
These are the chief warehouse of groundwater of a subtle stability is rather susceptible to any large-
the state limited in the complex unconsolidated and scale exploitation of the reserve without satisfactory
semi-consolidated deposits located under varied appreciation of the geometry of the water bearing
settings, in geological time. Quest for subsurface water horizons and their nature of occurrence at a given
has moved down to a depth of 600 m in the Mahanadi stretch of the coast. Exploitation of the fresh limits
delta which forms the chief part of the seaside area. has continuously been the core problem, be it for
The aquifers encompass saline as well as fresh ground domestic, irrigation or commerce (Naik, 2018). Though
water of flexible quantity and quality. The aquifers the grade of growth of the aquifers across the coast
occurring near the western parts of the coast adjacent has neither been excessive nor equal, sporadic over-
to the rigid rock landscape are fresh throughout, while exploitation has revealed in deteriorating water level.
those towards the coast (the saline belt) are fresh as Such decrease in water level below the sea level may
well as salty. The fresh and saline aquifers are lead to marine water incursion in future. Apart from
assembled in varied sequences over diverse settings this, the inherent subsurface water value complications
of the coast. The fresh aquifers are overlaying the such as superfluous iron, salinity and fluoride
salty ones in numerous expanses, while in others it is concentration that have been chiefly geogenic may
inverted. A structure of alternating fresh and saline become magnified from anthropogenic influence if
aquifers creates the overall set up (Sahu et al., 2018). the exploitation of the fresh aquifers goes persistent
The fresh and saline limits owning inconsistent physical (Das et al., 2016a; Das et al., 2016a; Das et al.,
and chemical features, laterally as well as vertically, 2016c). This is a perilous issue demanding an apt
are similarly distributed over the geological past. The supervision of the reserve. Added to this is the
*Author for Correspondence: E-mail: [email protected]
1170 Prabhu Prasad Das

vulnerability of the coastal province to tidal impacts Fuloria, 1992). The Quaternary deposits are a slice
and tsunamis which cannot be underrated. Such natural of the sedimentation taken place in the coastal
calamities disrupt the nature of the coastal aquifers depression of the Odisha coast and those fitting to
directly and through the unprotected and poorly the Mahanadi onshore basin. These formations are
constructed subsurface water abstraction edifices very complicated concerning their depositional account
(Shukla, 2011). Therefore, it is vital that not only and seem to have been momentously impacted by
development but also management of the groundwater the basement tectonic elements (Das et al., 2016a;
reserve ought to progress on a inclusive logical and Das et al., 2016a; Das et al., 2016c).
methodical footing. Variable quantity of evidence on
the coastal aquifers made by various organizations is Tectonics
present but rather disjointedly. An appropriate and During Mesozoic, Gondwana land was exposed to
rational valuation of the system licenses a methodical rifting ensuing in the creation of the multiple coastal
gathering, collation, inspection, and elucidation of the grabens observed along the Indian east coast. Federov
plentiful qualitative and assessable parameters. et al. (1982) and Hofmann (1996) recommended the
Mahanadi Delta Coastal Aquifers Mahanadi graben as extension of the Lambert rift of
eastern Antarctica. The basin was formed because
The seaside aquifers of concern exist beside the of reactivation of ESW-NNW trending provincial
eastern shore of India. The northern coastal aquifer faults named the North Orissa Boundary Fault
system (lying to the north of the river) create the (NOBF) and the Mahanadi-Ong shear (Mahalick,
massive alluvial interfluves of River Mahanadi and 2006). Out of the above two, NOBF is found to cut
River Brahmani while those located on the south fit across the district of Kendrapara and extend
to the interfluves of Mahanadi and Devi River (Fig. westwards into the state of Chhattisgarh (Fig. 2).
1). These coastal aquifers largely engulf the two Geophysical research and investigative drilling have
administrative blocks of Jagatsinghpur (on south) and showed the occurrence of several sub parallel
Kendrapara (on north). However, there is a longitudinal faults disturbing the basement of the
distinguishing socio-economic difference between Mahanadi basin. These are accountable for the
these two political units with the former exhibiting vertical movements imparting the typical graben and
great economic advance and the later still to observe horst structures and are fundamentally related to the
any sort of industry, minor or major, till date. These Himalayan orogenic and post orogenic disturbances.
sandy formations belong to the Quaternary deltaic The coastal aquifer systems have been placed on the
deposits of the Mahanadi. basement grabens of Cuttack-Chandbali, Paradeep
and Puri depressions separated by the horst structures
The depth of the formations is very great and of Bhubaneswar-Kendrapara and Nimapara-Balikuda
reaches more than 1000 m at places (CGWB, 2002;

Fig. 1: Physiographic setting of the coastal aquifers of Fig. 2: Regional tectonics of coastal Mahanadi deltaic region
Mahanadi delta
Saline Contamination Mahanadi Deltaic Aquifers: A Review 1171

uplift. In contrast to the longitudinal faults sub parallel analysis. The explanation and material on water level
to the coast, the transverse faults with sideways from hydrograph system stations and piezometers of
movements have affected the basin resulting in the CGWB and additional state administration agencies
multilateral blocks (Fuloria, 1992). One of these establish long term upsurge or drop of water level as
transverse faults in the northern side divides the well as the revival of the aquifers. The general aquifer
Mahanadi basin from the Bengal basin (Mahanadi- geometry of seaside tract and the deltaic sediments
Bengal (M-B) fault) and the other approximately in specific, is based on the borehole data and electrical
separates Mahakalapara block from Rajnagar block resistivity data. The geological skeleton of Odisha
(Mahakalapara-Rajnagar (M-R) fault) of the coastal coastline and the Mahanadi – Brahmani and Mahanadi
Kendrapara province. Several rivers discharge – Devi deltaic structure form the basis of gaining the
sediments in the coastal depression of the study hydrogeological set up.
expanse.
The coastal aquifers display a complicated
Geology hydrogeological background due to the varied
sedimentation design ascribed essentially to the diverse
Analysis of the borehole samples gathered through depositional settings with multifaceted coinciding
drilling into the ground is the only straight means to events in space and time (Das, 2006). Therefore, the
comprehend the sub surface geology. In the unconsolidated formations exhibit wide discrepancy
progression of construction of water wells in the in physical and chemical nature. According to Shukla
coastal zones, a great number of drillholes have been (2011) the drilling data point to two distinct sedimentary
bored and these drill cuttings have been investigated layers. The shallow subsurface formed under
with respect to the drilled depths and megascopically terrestrial paleoenvironment within an oxidizing
examined to deduce the subsurface geology (Shukla, ambience is fluvial. The sediments are light toned and
2011). Lithologs of individual borehole, thus prepared extremely heterogeneous in fabric. The granular
in this manner, describes the presence of the principal horizons are quartzo-feldspathic, sub-rounded and
components and subcomponents of the altered contain fine gravels. Along the southern and western
granular and non-granular horizons underground. landscape, the granular fractions are in majority over
Marker horizons of fossiliferous, lateritic, and heavy the clayey sections, whereas those across the northern
minerals as well as the drilling duration and rate also one exhibit predominance of clayey horizons. This
aid in classifying the varied physical features of the terrain constitutes a substantial repository of
abundant subterranean layers (Shukla, 2011). Granular subsurface water which ensues under unconfined to
layers are primarily made up of sands and gravels semi-confined settings. Coastward salinity of
and the principal physical qualities examined are tone, groundwater is a limitation in its development. At
mineral composition, shape, sorting and compaction greater depth the layers are comprised of dark gray
of the deposits. The non-granular deposits which are deposits that are unvarying, smoothed and typically
mostly composed of clays and silts, similarly, are quartzitic. They comprise infrequent green sand,
examined based on the color and plasticity. fragmented fossil molluscs, fish teeth and
foraminiferal limits representing a shallow paleo-
Hydrogeology
marine state of deposition. The subsurface water is
Hydrogeology is interpreted from the drill holes, under confined condition. Alternating fresh and saline
logging data, well construction and water chemistry water bearing horizons, parted by limiting clay layers,
data of various agencies such as the Central Ground are witnessed in these higher depths. The granular
Water Board (CGWB), Danish International elements comprise 36 to 42% in Puri district of
Development Agency (DANIDA) and the state Rural southern coast, 35% to 70% in the middle section
Water Supply & Sanitation (RWSS) department along Balikuda-Ersama sector (Chakladar, 1981). The
involved in the examination and development of breadth of the discrete granular regions fluctuates
groundwater for consumption and other purposes over extensively from 1.5 m to more than 40 m. The usual
the past few years. Yield and draw down data of the thickness of the grainy zones is about 10 m across
boreholes and the aquifer characteristics gained from the southern part, increases to 25 m in the central
the pumping assessments are employed for numerical region of the coast. The thickness of the intervening
1172 Prabhu Prasad Das

interconnection, physico-chemical characteristics of

the layers as well as sequence of superposition across
the southern portion of the delta in coastal
Jagatsinghpur district across the administrative blocks
of Erasama and Kujang. His notes point towards the
impact of both pumping drawdown and tidal inundation
for the saline nature of varying degrees and along
diverse directions. Sahu (2010) recognized three
dissimilar kinds of hydrogeological regimes for the
western and southern Jagatsinghpur such as – (i) fresh
aquifers overlain by saline aquifers, (ii) saline zones
overlain by fresh water aquifers and (iii) aquifers
without any specific signatures of fresh and saline
(A) characteristics. Shau et al. (2018) have outlined 3
distinct horizons of hydrogeology depth wise.
Das (2015) has carried out significant study on
the hydrogeology of coastal Kendrapara district and
pointed to numerous units of alternating granular and
non-granular layers of indifferent thickness across the
province with clayey units acting as confining beds.
He has established three divisions of aquifer types
with respect to depth such as (1) shallow aquifers (<
50 m); (2) intermediate aquifers (50 m-150 m) and
(3) deep aquifers (> 150 m). These conclusions diverge
from the view of Mishra (2012) for the interior aquifers
of Kendrapara district, where two distinct zones exist
at shallow subsurface, one within 15 m of the ground
(B)
surface and the other at about 120 m-130 m below
ground level. However, the research of Das et al.
(2016a) indicates a profound increased chaotic nature
across the landscape contiguous to the River Mahanadi
with deeper aquifer condition in contrast to that
happening within the interfluves of Mahanadi and
Brahmani of northern part (Fig. 4). All the research
however depicts an unconfined characteristic for
shallow aquifers and a partially confined to confined
type for the deeper ones.

Saline Influence
Coastal aquifers are very multifaceted and dynamic,
having marine influences which is added up by many
(C) other geologic factors too. Thus, an understanding of
Fig. 3: Isoresistivity map of western and southern part of
groundwater quality in these settings involve
Jagatsinghpur district (Source: Sahu et al., 2018) hydrogeochemical assessment (Walraevens and Van
Camp, 2004). However, because, mixing of saline and
clay layers also demonstrations wide disparity from 3 fresh water is a common phenomenon along the coasts
m to 110 m. Naik (2018) has recognized six deeper where density plays a significant role in quality
and a lonely shallow subsurface layer based on distribution, groundwater composition noteworthily
Saline Contamination Mahanadi Deltaic Aquifers: A Review 1173

Fig. 4: Disposition of aquifer horizons in coastal Kendrapara district (Source: Das et al., 2016a)

influences hydrodynamics of these aquifers for western section of the district. Together, the
(Goldenberg 1985). While coastal aquifers are subject aquifers of northern fragment demonstrates an
to both marine and continental influences, another upsurge in salt content during postmonsoon phase
obscuring factor of key importance is the large-scale where the cationic exchange course within the
structural variations of the concerned sedimentary sediments theatres a overriding role in bringing about
basin which can lead to groundwater mixing (Schwartz the geochemical changes (Das et al., 2016a; Das et
and Zhang, 2004). Fault structures disturb the al., 2016a; Das et al., 2016c). Comparable to Total
hydraulic behavior of the aquifers in a significant way Dissolved Solids (TDS) in groundwater, the chloride
and expressively influences the spatial disparity of activity of subsurface waters also depicts weighty
hydrogeochemical facies (Das et al., 2016a; Das et augmentations indicative of saline influence.
al., 2016a; Das et al., 2016c; Chihi et al. 2015).
Naik (2018) from his wide-ranging study on the
The nature of Mahanadi deltaic groundwater coastal zones of Jagatsinghpur district describes rather
horizons is unusual and is characteristically dissimilar dissimilar picture in contrast to northern aquifers of
from those of the other foremost deltaic aquifers of Kendrapara coast concerning the salinity of
the nation. The features of the coastal aquifers also groundwater. His investigation indicates a similar
demonstrate a noteworthy discrepancy with relation activity of major ionic components for both the
to the southern and northern fragments of the delta. monsoonal phases. He has designated a somewhat
The CGWB has recognized a subsurface hazardous lower activity of TDS along the upper and lower
zone across the upper part contiguous to the river section of the southern aquifers. However, the salinity
where groundwater search has been tested up to a is heightened within the central and eastern chunks
depth of 600 m. This zone distinctly depicts a of the landscape.
significantly diminished share of clayey mass within
In sharp distinction to the northern aquifers,
the subsurface limits but has a substantial higher
where the western areas depict a lower saline
salinity. The research of Das et al. (2016) specifies
contamination of the groundwater, Sahu (2010) in his
steady higher brackish regimes for both the
wide-ranging study on the western section of the
premonsoon as well as postmonsoon stages for the
Jagatsinghpur district comprising six administrative
coastal tract. Their study linking spatial dispersal of
blocks of Biridi, Raghunathpur, Tirtol, Jagatsinghpur,
Ca2+, Na+, K+ and Mg2+ founds a E-W freshening of
Nuagaon and Balikuda, has designated increased
the aquifers contiguous to the river and a N-S
salinity for the sediments on the western part of the
freshening of the deltaic aquifers across the uppermost
southern delta, although with a comparable activity
part. However, the investigation of Mishra (2012)
for both the monsoonal times (Fig. 6).
designates a substantial less salinity of the subsurface
1174 Prabhu Prasad Das

(A)

(A)

(B)

Fig. 5: Spatial variation of TDS across coastal Kendrapara

district during (A) Premonsoon and (B) Postmonsoon.
(Source: Das et al., 2016a)

The discrete spatial disparity of salinity sideways

as well as down-depth and profound muddled nature
across the topography implies the influence of
prevailing formational water on salinity dynamics. The
regional divergences of groundwater categories and
regimes in association with the northern and southern
landscapes of the delta also indicates the impact of
(B)
structural elements on groundwater facies
diversification. This tectonic impact on aquifers has Fig. 6: Spatial variation of TDS (A-premonsoon and B-
postmonsoon) across the western and southern part
been examined by Das et al. (2016), wherein, they
of Jagatsinghpur district. (Source: Sahu et al., 2018)
have signaled to the effect of Himalayan post-orogenic
movements in distressing the basement faults of the
Mahanadi basin and thereby, principally moving the Inferences
plastic clayey subsurface layers. Their study
concerning steady state flow modelling of the aquifers The coastal groundwater horizons of Mahanadi delta
depicts substantial clustering and spreading of the have its place within the copious Quaternary alluvial
diverse water types along the neighborhood of the deposit along the Indian east coast. These alluvial
structural elements (Fig. 7). deposits are multifaceted with respect to their source
Saline Contamination Mahanadi Deltaic Aquifers: A Review 1175

and construe the subsurface dynamics in terms of an

aquifer system. This copious pile of alluvium is placed
on a series of horst and graben basement faults which
continue to be disturbed by postorogenic Himalayan
instabilities.
Owing to its closeness to the sea as well as to
their existence in a deltaic setting, the aquifers of the
land exhibit an elevated saline characteristic. But this
saline nature is varied across the terrain, both, laterally
and depth wise. This variation is also observed for
northern and southern sections of the delta as well.
While the northern province depicts a weakening
saline impact towards the western elevated territories,
Fig. 7: Steady state flow modelling of the coastal Kendrapara the southern aquifers display contrasting
district (Source: Das et al., 2016) characteristics. This distinct diverse hydrodynamic
aspect is also apparent across the monsoon. The
northern groundwaters display substantial upsurge in
as well as manner of deposition. Provincially the
hydrochemical activity postmonsoon, whereas the
coastal tract is composed of multiple confined,
southern aquifers exhibit rather constant
unconfined, and perched horizons of numerous
hydrochemical composition. Recent studies indicate
extensions where the clayey beds principally act as
noteworthy impact of formational waters as well as
confining beds. Therefore, the landscape can be
basin structural instabilities on aquifer hydrodynamics
assumed to be composed of numerous aquifers
and hydrogeochemistry.
contrary to a single unit. Hence, it is fitting to analyze

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