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Class 16 : Geometry 1
41 0 McGraw-Hill Education: SAT

The SAT Math:

Additional Topics
What other special topics are included o n the SAT Math test?

About 10% (6 out of 58 points) of the SAT M ath questions are "Additional Topics" questions. These include
topics like
analyzing triangles using the Pythagorean Theorem
graphing circles and other figures i n the xy-plane
• analyzing areas, circumferences, chords, and sectors of circles
measuring angles and arcs in radians
working with area and volume and their formulas
using the theorems of congruence and similarity
working with basic t rigonometric relationships including cofunction identities
calculating with imaginary and complex numbers

Why are these topics important?

These topics from geometry, trigonometry, and advanced analysis are crucial to work i n engineering, physics,
architecture, and even design. Although they are not essential to every college m ajor, they do provide tools for
understanding and analyzing advanced concepts across the curriculum.

Sound intimidating? It's not.

Some of you h ave already spent some time i n math class studying these topics. If not, the three skills described
i n these 12 lessons will give you the knowledge and practice you need to master them.

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CHAPTER 1 0 / THE SAT MATH: ADDITIONAL TOPICS 41 1

S ki l l 1 : U ndersta nding Geometric Relation s h i ps

Lesson 1: I n tersecti ng and pa ra l lel l i nes

D c

180 - X 0

A B E
I n the figure above, ABCD is a parallelogram, and Helpful Tip
point B lies on AE . I f x = 40, what is the value of y7 When dealing with p arallel lines, especially i n
A) 40 B) 50 C) 60 D) 70 complicated figures, w e c a n simplify t hings by
considering angles in pairs. The important pairs
(Medium) Since ABCD is a parallelogram, we can take for m one of four letters: F, Z, C , or U.
advantage of the Parallel Lines Theorem.

The I ntersecting Lines Theorem

When two lines cross, four angles are formed. The

vertical angles are congruent and adjacent angles
are supplementary (that is, they have a sum of 180°).

1 80 - X 0

1 80 - X 0

The P arallel Lines Theorem

When two parallel lines are crossed by a third

line, eight angles are formed. I f the third line i s
perpendicular to o n e of the parallel lines, then
it's perpendicular to the other and all eight
angles are right angles. Otherwise, all four acute First, let's mark up the diagram with what we know from
angles are congruent, all four obtuse angles are the Parallel Lines Theorem.
congruent, and any acute angle i s supplementary
to any obtuse angle. D c
Yo 1 80 - Yo

1 80 - y0
A B E

Since the pairs of opposite sides are parallel, the consec­

utive angles in the parallelogram must b e supplemen­
tary (that is, have a sum of 180°). Notice that these pairs of

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412 McGraw-Hill Education: SAT

consecutive angles form "U"s or "C''s as mentioned i n the (Hard) Although our diagram includes parallel lines,
previous Helpful Tip. This implies that opposite angles it doesn't seem to show any of the parallel line " letter
are congruent in a parallelogram . pairs" that we discussed above, because no line directly
connects the parallel lines. We can fix this problem by
Since ABE is a straight ( 1 8 0 ° ) angle: drawing an extra line that's parallel to l and m through
y + x + x + x 180
= the vertex of the angle.
=
Substitute x 40 and simplify: y + 1 2 0 180
=

Subtract 1 20 : y = 60
Therefore, t h e correct answer is (C ) .

Now we h ave two "Z" pairs of angles (otherwise

m known as "alternate interior" pairs) that show that the
middle angle is actually the sum of two smaller angles
I n the figure above, lines l and m are parallel. What of 36° and 43°, and therefore, x = 3 6 + 43 = 79, and the
is the value of x? correct answer is (B).

A) 43 B) 79 C) 86 D) 101

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CHAPTER 1 0 / THE SAT MATH: ADDITIONAL TOPICS 413

Lesson 2: Tria ngles

Angle S u m Theorem Exterior Angle Theorem

The sum of the measures of the a ngles in any tri­ If the side of a triangle is extended b eyond a ver­
angle is 180°. tex, it makes an exterior angle with the adj acent
side. The measure of this exterior a ngle is equal
to the sum of the two remote i nterior angles.

(a+b)0
We can prove this with the "draw an extra line"
trick. If we take any triangle, pick any of its ver­
tices, and draw a line through that vertex that is
p arallel to the opposite side, we get a picture like The Triangle Inequality
the one above. Since the line we've drawn is a
180° angle, and since the "Z" angle pairs must be The sum of any two sides of a triangle must always
=
congruent, we've proven that a + b + c 180. be greater than the third side.

Side-Angle Theorem

The largest a::igle in a triangle is always across a+b>c

from the largest side, and the smallest angle is
b+c>a
always across from the smallest side.
c+a>b

a
c
a<b<c

50°
b B

Isosceles Triangle Theorem

If two sides in a triangle are congruent, the two

angles across from those sides are also congru­
ent. Converseiy, i f two a ngles in a triangle are
congruent, the two sides across from them are XO Yo
c
also congruent. A D

I n the figure above, if A D = DB = DC, what is the

value of x + y?

A) 72
B) 90
C) 96
D) 108

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414 McGraw-Hill Education: SAT

(Medium) Since angle ADB and angle BDC

are supple­
mentary and AD = DB = DC, we can take advantage of
the Isosceles Triangle Theorem to mark up the diagram.

The figure above shows three i ntersecting lines.

XO Y0 What is the value of c i n terms of a and b?
A D C A) 180 - a - b
B) 180 - a + b
Now let's look at triangle ABC. Since its interior angles
must have a sum of 180°, x + x + y + y = 180, and therefore, C) 90 + b - a
2x + 2y = 180 and x + y = 90. So the correct answer is (B).
D) a+b
Notice that this fact is independent of the measures of the
other two (108° and 72° ) angles. As long as AD = DB = DC, (Easy) First, we should notice that two of the angles are
this relationship will hold. We can see these angle relation­ "vertical" to two i nterior angles of the triangle, and the
ships if we notice that these three segments could all be other is a n exterior angle.
D.
radii of a circle centered at

D
Since the c0 angle is an exterior angle to the triangle, the
Exterior Angle Theorem tells us that c = a + b, so the cor­
rect answer is (D).
Alternately, we could just choose reasonable values
You may remember from studying geometry that any = =
for a and b, like a 50 and b 90, and then analyze
"inscribed" angle (an angle inside a circle with a vertex the diagram i n terms of these values. Thi s would i mply
on the circle) i ntercepts an arc on the circle that is twice that the interior angles of the triangle are 50°, 90°, and
its measure. Since angle ABC is an inscribed angle that 40°, and c0 would then b e the measure of the supplement
i ntercepts a 180° arc, it must have a measure of 90° and of 40°, which i s 140°. I f we then plug these values for a and
therefore, x + y 90.= b i nto all of the choices, the only one that yields 140 i s D.

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CHAPTER 1 0 / TH E SAT MATH: ADDITIONAL TOPICS 41 5

Les son 3: The xr-plane

y
Finding Slopes. To find the slope of a line in the
A B
xy-plane from a ny two points on the line, use the
slope formula.

Note: Figure not drawn to scale.

I

I n the xy-plane above, points A and B lie on the 1 rise = y - y1

I 2
graph of the line y = 6 . I f OB has a slope of ..!. and I
2 - - - - - - - �
A B = 5, what is the slope of OA ? run = x - x1
--+------�--
2 x

I I I I I
0

rise y - y1
(Medium-hard) To analyze this diagram, we must recall slope = - = ---
2
run x - x1
the definition of slope from Chapter 7, Lesson 5. 2
y
Finding Areas. Remember that the area of a
A 5 B
figure is just the number of unit squares that fit
inside it. You don't always need to use a special
formula to find the area of a figure. Even for very
0 7 C 5 D complicated shapes, you can sometimes find the
1 2- area just by counting squares.
First, let's drop two perpendicular segments from A
y
and B to points C and D, respectively, on the x-axis. Since
A and B lie on the line y = 6 1 they are both 6 units from the I�
x-axis, and so A C = ED = 6. Then, since the slope of OB
is V21 BD/ OD = V2 1 and th erefo re , OD = 12. Since AB = 5,
CD = 5 als �and therefore, OC = g - 5 = 7. (Don't •""-
worry that OC looks shorter than CD in the diagram.
Remember, the figure is not drawn to scale!) This gives us
everything we need to find the slope of OA , which con­ Area = 1 4 . 5 square units
I I I I I I I I I I �
nects (0, 0) to (7, 6). By the slope formula from Chapter 7, � x
Lesson 5, slope = (6 - 0)/(7 - O) = 6/7 = 0.857. I I I I I I I I I I

Working in the Coordinate Plane

Finding S egment Midpoints. To find the coordi­

nates of a midpoint, just average the coordinates
of the endpoints.

--+------_. x
0

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41 6 McGraw-Hill Education: SAT

y (Medium) To find the m idpoint of a segment, we just

+ need to take �e average of the endpoints. Point M, the

( -- 2-+ 4 , -
12 + 0 )
D ( l 4, 14) midpoint of AB, therefore has coordinates

- = (1, 6) ,
( -14 -+-14 , -
6 + 14 )
and point N, the m idpoint
2- 2
C ( l 4, 6) - has coordinates
of CD, - = (14, 1 0).
2 2
x By t h e Slope Formula, then, t h e slope of M N i s
0 B (4, 0) 10 - 6 4
-- = - = 0.307 or 0.308 .
14 - 1 13
I n the figur� bove, point M (not shown) is the
midpoint of AB and point N (not shown) is the mid­
point of CD . What i s the slope of MN ?

I I

7
CHAPTER 1 0 I THE SAT MATH: ADDITIONAL TOPICS 41 7

Lesson 4: The Pythagorean Theorem a nd

the Dista nce Formula

y
At(2, 18)
The Pythagorean Theorem

B(l5, 18) If a , b, and c represent the sides of a right triangle

l �
in which c i s the longest side (the hypotenuse),

A
D(-3, 6) C(24, 6) x
0
b

What is the perimeter of quadrilateral ABCD in the c a

B
figure above?

I I I I I Special Right Triangles

The SAT Math test expects you to be familiar with

(Medium) The perimeter of a figure is the distance a round fou r fam ilies of special right triangles: 45°-45°-
its edges. It's easy to find the lengths ofAB and DC 900 triangles, 30°-60°-90° triangles, 3-4-5 tri­
angles, and 5-12-13 triangles. Take some time
because they are horizontal. The length of a horizontal
segment is just the difference between the x-coordinates to familiarize yourself with these particular side­
AB 15 - 2 13,
of its endpoints. The length of is = and the side relationships and side-angle relationships
length ofDC 24 - (-3) 27.
is = To find the lengths of so that you can use these relationships when you
recognize these triangles in SAT Math questions .
AD and BC , we can drop two vertical lines from points
� nd to the bottom edge. This shows that
B AD and
BC are hypotenuses of two right triangles as shown in
5°
the figure b elow. 4 C'
S '\/ 2
s x
y 4
5°

t s x J3
A(2, 18) B(l5, 18)

� 5y
13 I

12 1 I

...__ _x
5_ 3x
D(-3, 6) C(24, 6) �
_ --
�--1---- x
0 4x 1 2y

(Take a minute to confirm the lengths of all the segments

(3x)2 + (4x)2 (5x)2 = (5y)2 + (12y)2 = (13y)2
for yourself.) With this information, we can find AD and
BC by the Pythagorean Theorem.
9x2 + 16x2 2 5x2 = 25y2 + 144y2 169y2
=

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41 8 McGraw-Hill Education: SAT

So, according to our diagram: AD2 = 52 + 122 = 169 Take the square root: AD = 13
BC2 = 92 + 122 = 225 BC= 15
Notice that triangle on the left is a 5-12-13 special right Therefore, t h e perimeter o f ABCD i s 13 + 15 + 27 +
triangle, and the triangle on the right is a 3-4-5 special 13 = 68.
right triangle. Noticing these relationships provides a
shortcut to using the Pythagorean Theorem .

The Distance Formula

We can generalize the technique we used in the previous problem to find the distance b etween any two points
in the xy-plane. Just think of this distance as the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle, as i n the figure
b elow. I n other words, the Pythagorean Theorem and the D istance Formula are one and the same.
y

d
lY2 - Yi l

_ _ _ _ _ _ J�
x
0

By the Pythagorean Theorem:

Take the square root:

The 3 - D Distance Formula

If we need to find the distance between two points in three- dimensional xyz-space, we just need to use a modi­
fied version of the distance formula that i ncludes the extra z-dimension. You can see where this formula comes
from if you imagine trying to find the length of the longest diagonal through a rectangular box.
A
I
h
I
B J.... � - - - - -
D c

The length of this diagonal, AC, is also the hypotenuse of right triangle ABC, and so its length is given by the
Pythagorean Theorem.
Pythagorean Theorem for ABC: AC = )(AB)2 + (BC)2
Pythagorean Theorem for BDC: (BC)2 = (BD)2 + (DC)2
Substitute: AC = )(AB)2 + (BD)2 + (DC)2
Since AB = h, BD = w, and DC = l
AC= )t2 + w2 + h2
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CHAPTER 1 0 I THE SAT MATH: ADDITIONAL TOPICS 419

Exerc ise Set 1 : Geometry (No Calcu lator)

M Q N

p 0

In the figure above, MNOP is a square and Q is the

Lines l and m are parallel in the figure above.
midpoint of MN. If QO .J20 3= , what is the area of Which of the following expresses the value of in y

square MNOP? terms of x?

A) 95 - 2x

I I I I I B) 165 - 2x
C) 175 - 2x
II D) 185 - 2x

..
y

(3, 13) (12, 13)

(3, 5) (18, 5)
I I I I --t----- x
0
Lines l and m are parallel in the figure above. What
is the value of x?
In the figure above, what is the distance between the
• midpoints (not shown) of the two line segments?
A) J68 B) J73 C) .fi6
D) J78

Ill
240 °
What is the perimeter of an equilateral triangle
inscribed in a circle with circumference 2411?
A) 36.J2 B) 30J3
C) 3 5.fj D) 24)6

In the figure above, what is the value of a + b + c?

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420 McGraw-Hill Education: SAT

Exerc ise Set 1 : Geometry (Ca lc u la tor)

Questions 7-9 a re based o n the figu re below. • ---

y
A(3, 15)
B(lO, 12) x
3m
Yo

C(lO, 2) 2m + 5
0
Note: Figure not drawn to scale.
Note: Figure not drawn to scale. In the figure above, what is the value of x?
A) 5../2 B) 5J3 C) 15../2 D) 15J3
•
In the figure above, what is the perimeter of quadri­
lateral ABCO, to the nearest integer?
Questions 1 2-1 5 a re based on the situation
desc ribed below.

In the xy-plane, ABCD is a square. Point A has coor­

dinates (-1, 2) and point B has coordinates (3, 5).
Ill
In the figure above, what is the area, in square units,
ofABCO? Which of the following could be the coordinates
of C?
I I I I I A) (0, 9) B) (6, O) C) (2, -2) D) (-4, 6)
.. Ill
In the figure above, point K (not shown) is the mid­ What is the area of square ABCD?
point of OA_.'.._and point M (not shown) is the
midpoint of AB. What is the slope of KM?
A) 25 B) 28 C) 30 D) 32
•
What is the slope of BC?
M
4 m 3 q 3
3 4 4 D) 34
1111
In the xy-plane, point H has coordinates (2, 1) and Ill
point J has coordinates (11, 13). If HK is parallel to Wh� is the distance between C and the midpoint
the x-axis and JK is parallel to the y-axis, what it the of AB?
perimeter of triangle HJK?
A) JSO B) ms C) J50
4 4 2
D) ms
2

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CHAPTER 1 0 / THE SAT MATH: ADDITIONAL TOPICS 42 1

EXE RCISE SET 1 : GEOMETRY ANSWE R KEY

No Calculator 4. C Using the Crossed Lines Theorem and the

Parallel Lines Theorem, we can mark up the diagram
or or
1. 1 6/9 1 .7 7 1 . 78 If we define x as the like this:
length of QN , then the length of one side of the square is
2x, and so the area of square MNOP is (2x)(2x) = 4x2• To
find this value, we can apply the Pythagorean Theorem
to right triangle QNO:
x (2x)2
2
+ = [ �r m

Simplify: 5x = -209
2

Divide by 5: x 4520 49
2
= - This shows that x + y + x + 5 = 180, and soy = 175 - 2x.
4x2 = -169 = 1. 7 7 or 1. 7 8
( 3 � 12 ' 13 : 13 ) [ l; ' 13 } and the midpoint of
Multiply by 4: 5. B The midpoint of the top segment is
the bottom segment is ( 3 � 18 ' 5 : 5 ) = [ 221 ' 5 }
=

2. 1 33The key is to notice simple relationships

between angles until we get around to x.

[ 21 15 ) + c 13 - 5) = ff+B2 = m
therefore, the distance between them is
2
2 2 2

2-2

6. C To solve this problem we must draw a diagram

and find the relationship between the radius of the circle
and the sides of the triangle. By the Isosceles Triangle
Theorem, if all three sides of a triangle are congruent, then
3. 210 Draw three lines as shown: all three angles must be congruent. Since these angles
also must have a sum of 180°, they must each be 60°. Ifwe
draw the bisectors of each of these angles, we divide the
triangle into six smaller triangles. These smaller triangles
are congruent 30°-60°-90° triangles, as shown here:

Since the polygon divides into 3 triangles, the sum of its

internal angles is (3)(180°) = 540°. Therefore a + b + + c

240 + 90 = 540, and so a + b + 210.

c =

Since the circumference of the circle (2nr) is 2411, its

radius is 12. Since each of the hypotenuses of our right
triangles is also a radius of the circle, we can find all
of the sides of these triangles using the 30°-60°-90°
relationships. Each side of the equilateral triangle is
therefore 2 ( 6 ../3 ) = 12 ../3, and its perimeter is therefore
2(12 ../3 ) 36../3.
=

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422 McGraw-Hill Education: SAT

Calculator have measure 15. Using the Pythagorean Theorem or the

7. 43 Using the distance formula, we can calcu­ 45°-45°-90° shortcut, we can see that x = 15..J2.
late the lengths of each segment. OA = -J234 ;::::; 15. 3 0, 12. A The key to questions 12 through 15 is a good
AB = J58 ;::::; 7. 6 1, BC = 10, and OC = Ji04 ;::::; 10. 20. diagram in the xy-plane that represents the given
Therefore, the perimeter is approximately 15. 3 0 + 7. 6 1 + information:
10 + 10. 2 0 = 43.11, which rounds to 43.
8. 1 07 Since we do not have a formula that directly
calculates the area of such an odd-shaped quadrilateral,
we must analyze its area in terms of simpler shapes.
The simplest way to do this is by drawing a box around
it. This turns the area of interest into a rectangle minus
three right triangles, all of which have areas that can be
easily calculated. , C,(6, l )
x

y
A (3, 15) (10, 15)
B(lO, 12)
I If ABCD is a square, then the points A, B, C, and D must
appear in that order around the square. Notice that to get
1 50 - 2 2 . 5 - 1 0 . 5 - 1 0 = 1 07 from point A to point B, we must move 4 units to the right
and 3 units up. This means that, in order to get to point
C along a perpendicular of the same length, we must go
I C(lO, 2) either 3 units right and 4 units down, or 3 units left and
4 units up. This puts us either at (6, 1) or (0, 9).
0
13. A The diagram shows that AB is the length of the
hypotenuse of a right triangle with legs 3 and 4. You
9. 6/5 1 .2 _lhe midpoint of OA is (1.5, 7.5) and
or should recognize this as the special 3-4-5 right triangle.
the midpoint of AB is (6. 5 , 13.5); therefore, the slope If AB = 5, then the area of the square is 52 = 25.
of the segment between them is 6/5.
10. 36 If point K is on the same horizontal line as (2, 1), 14. A Notice that the slope of BC is the same regard­
less of which option we choose for C. In either case, the
it must have a y-coordinate of 1, and if it is on the same slope formula tells us that the slope is -4/3.
vertical line as (11, 13), it must have an x-coordinate
of 11. Therefore, K is the point (11, 1), and so HK= 9, JK = 15. D The midpoint of AB ( point M above) is (1, 3.5).
12, and HJ = �92 + 12 2 = ..fii5 = 15. Notice that it is a We can use the distance formula to find the distance
3-4-5 triangle! between this point and either of the possible locations
of C. (Notice that the distance is the same either way.)
11. C Since the sum of the interior angles of any tri­ Alternately, we might notice that MC is the hypotenuse
angle is 180°, y + y + 2y = 4y = 180, and therefore y = of a right triangle with legs 5 and 2. 5 . Either way, we get a
45. Therefore, this is a 45°-45°-90° right triangle. Since value of ms
two angles are equal, the two opposite sides must also be
equal, so 3m = 2m + 5 and so m = 5 and the two legs each
--

2 .

13