1 - Atomic structure

The atom
Inside the atom
Experiments with subatomic particles
Isotopes
Atomic Orbitals
Electronic configuration
Rules for filling atomic orbitals
Chromium
Copper
Orbitals and the Periodic Table
Ionization energy
Factors affecting ionization energy
Size of the nuclear charge
Atomic radius
Shielding effect of inner electrons
Spin-pair repulsion
Trends of ionization energies
Successive ionization
Down a group
Across a Period

The atom
Each element is composed of atoms, which are the smallest parts that retain the chemical properties of the element. These
atoms are responsible for the chemical properties of the element. The mass number, which represents the number of
particles in the nucleus, determines the physical properties, while the electrons contribute to the chemical properties.

Inside the atom

As surprising as it sounds, an atom is mostly empty space. All of its matter is concentrated in a very dense center known as
the nucleus. This contains the protons and neutrons, leaving it positively charged. The electrons orbit the nucleus in orbits,
known as shells or energy levels. These shells have a dedicated principal quantum number (n), which can be used to
identify orbits like n=1, n=2 and so on…

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 Structure of an atom.

Protons carry a charge of +1.602 × 10−19 coulombs, while electrons carry a charge of −1.602 × 10−19 C . Since these
are quite small numbers, we often use relative charges for simplicity. In this system, protons have a relative charge of +1
and electrons have a relative charge of -1. Neutrons, as their name suggests, are neutral.

Properties Proton Neutron Electron

1
Relative Mass 1 1 1836

​

Relative Charge +1 0 -1

Proton/atomic number: Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom

Mass/Nucleon number: Number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom

Electrons are arranged outside the nucleus in energy levels or quantum shells. These shells are given a principal quantum
number (n), which corresponds to their distance from the nucleus. As this number increases, the electrons in the shell have
greater energy, as the attractive force decreases, causing the electrons potential energy store to increase.

Each n can hold a maximum of 2n2 electrons, for example:

Shell 1: maximum of 2 electrons

Shell 2: maximum of 8 electrons

Shell 3: maximum of 18 electrons

Shell 4: maximum of 32 electrons

Experiments with subatomic particles

We can determine the electric charge of subatomic particles by firing beams of electrons, protons, and neutrons through an
electric field. Protons are attracted to the negative plate and electrons to the positive, due to the principle of opposites
attracting. A cathode ray tube can be used to conduct this experiment.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rb6MguN0Uj4

Isotopes
Every atom of the same element has an equal number of protons, but they may vary in the number of neutrons, resulting in
isotopes. Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different mass numbers. They possess identical chemical properties
due to the same number of electrons. However, they exhibit slight variations in physical properties like density or mass due
to the differing number of neutrons.
Isotopes can be either radioactive or non-radioactive. Radioactive isotopes, or radioisotopes, have various applications
such as monitoring paper thickness, medical treatments, or detecting leaks in oil pipelines.

Atomic Orbitals

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 An atomic orbital is a region around a nucleus that can hold up to two electrons with opposite spins. It shows us a 95%
probability of where an electron will exist. There are 4 types of atomic orbital s, p, d and f. The energy of the electrons in
the sub-shells increases in the order s < p < d.
Each sub-shell contains one or more atomic orbitals. An atomic orbital is a region of space around the nucleus of an atom
that can be occupied by one or two electrons.

Enrichment info
When high-speed electrons hit gas particles at low pressure, colored lines are seen through an instrument called a
spectroscope. The letters s, p and d come from the terms used to describe these lines: ‘s’ for ‘sharp’, ‘p’ for ‘principal’
and ‘d’ for ‘diffuse’.

s 2 electrons 1 orbital

p 6 electrons 3 orbitals

d 10 electrons 5 orbitals

f 14 elecrtrons 7 orbitals

Shapes of atomic orbitals (they can be drawn as hollow)

Shell Orbitals present Maximum ē

4 s p p p d d d

3 s p p p d d d

2 s p p p

1 s

Electronic configuration
Electrons are first filled in the orbital with the highest energy, different sub shells have different energies, but they all
increase as the principal quantum number increases.

Rules for filling atomic orbitals

1. Orbitals with the lowest energy are filled first

2. We can have up to 2 electrons in the same orbital, but they must have opposite spins

3. If we have orbitals with the same energy, then we put electrons into individual orbitals before we pair them. That is
because electrons in the same orbital repel. (spin pair repulsion)

S: P: D: (incomplete)

↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓
↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑

❔ Write the electronic configuration of nitrogen. [1]

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 🖋️ Nitrogen has 7 electrons. Lets try to break it down as shown:
1s2 representing the 2 electrons found in the first shell. 2s2 representing the 2 electrons found in the second shell
and 2p1 completing the 7 electrons found in an atom of nitrogen.

Giving the configuration:

1s2 , 2s2 , 2p3 
Diagram representation of the same equation is as shown:

The atomic orbitals also do not follow a regular pattern in terms of

increasing energy, in this case, the s orbital will have more energy when
held in comparison to the d orbital.
Potassium’s outer electron is in the 4s, not in the 3d, sub-shell. The first
element with an electron in the 3d sub-shell is element 21, scandium.
Electronic configuration of potassium will be:
1s2 , 2s2 , 2p6 , 3s2 , 3p6 , 4s1 
Electronic configuration of scandium will be:
1s2 , 2s2 , 2p6 , 3s2 , 3p6 , 3d1 , 4s2 

There is one exception to the rule mentioned above. We know that the most stable electronic configuration of an atom is the
one that has the lowest amount of energy. The order in which the sub-shells are filled depends on their relative energy. The
3d sub shell is more stable when it is completely full, or half full, giving it a lower energy than the 4s sub shell.

Chromium Copper
2 2 6 2 6 4 2
Expected: 1s , 2s , 2p , 3s , 3p , 3d , 4s  Expected: 1s2 , 2s2 , 2p6 , 3s2 , 3p6 , 3d9 , 4s2 

Since the 3d orbital is more stable when it is half full, the Since the 3d orbital is more stable with the addition of
addition of one more electron would yield the actual another electron (making the 3d orbital complete), the
configuration as shown: correct config would be:
2 2 6 2 6 5 1
Actual: 1s , 2s , 2p , 3s , 3p , 3d , 4s  Actual: 1s2 , 2s2 , 2p6 , 3s2 , 3p6 , 3d10 , 4s1 

Orbitals and the Periodic Table

Shortcut to electronic config, (you know this concept very well, refer to book + freesciencelessons if doubt persists)

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 A free radical is a species with one or more unpaired electrons.

Ionization energy
Ionization energy (IE), as the name suggests, is the amount of energy required to make an atom lose an electron forming an
ion. We do this for many reasons like, checking the stability of atoms based on their tendency to lose electrons, and
understanding atomic structures as in number of electrons in the outer most shell, or simply the number of shells. (←
Evidence for electronic structure)

[IE is measured in KJ mol −1 ]

The first ionization energy of an element is the energy needed to remove one electron from each atom in one mole of atoms
of the element in the gaseous state to form one mole of gaseous 1+ ions.

Ca(g) → Ca+
​

(g)
+ e−
​

Notice the charge on the ion is the same as the name of the successive ionization energy. For second ionization energy (
IE2 ), the equation will look something like this:
​

Ca+
(g)
​→ Ca+2
(g)
+ e− ​

We can continue to remove electrons from an atom until only the nucleus is left. We call this sequence of ionization
energies successive ionization energies.

Factors affecting ionization energy

The amount of energy needed to disband an electron from an atom varies due to 4 factors:

Size of the nuclear charge Shielding effect of inner electrons

The nucleus attracts electrons due to their opposite Electrons, being negatively charged, repel each other. This
charges. As the nuclear charge increases, the attraction repulsion creates a phenomenon known as the shielding
between the nucleus and the electrons strengthens, which effect. Inner electrons repel the outer electrons, which
increases the ionization energy. This trend is observed reduces the effective nuclear charge felt by the outer
across a period, where the atomic number (and thus the electrons. As a result, less ionization energy is required to
nuclear charge) increases, leading to a stronger attraction remove the outer electrons.
and higher ionization energy.
Spin-pair repulsion
Atomic radius Electrons in the same atomic orbital experience greater
The force of attraction between positive and negative repulsion compared to electrons in different orbitals. This
charges decreases rapidly as the distance between them increased repulsion between paired electrons in the same
increases. So, electrons in shells further away from the orbital makes it easier to remove one of them, thereby
decreasing the ionization energy needed.

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 nucleus are less attracted to the nucleus than those closer
to the nucleus, leading to a decreased IE.

Factor Effect on IE after increasing factor

Size of nuclear charge More IE needed

Atomic radius Less IE needed

Shielding effect Less IE needed

Spin-pair repulsion Less IE needed

*Remember, successive IE will always be greater than the first, since the −vecharge is decreasing, pulling the electrons
closer to the nucleus, thus decreasing the atomic radius.

Trends of ionization energies

As mentioned earlier, IE can be used to identify elements, their electronic structure and their chemical properties.

Successive ionization
Sodium is a group 1 element, meaning it has 1 electron in its outer most shell. This electron will experience the greatest
shielding, and have the longest atomic radius. These 2 conditions are ideal for low IE as shown by graph 1.21.

The first electron removed has a low first ionization energy, when compared with the rest of the data. It is very easily
removed from the atom. It is therefore likely to be a long way from the nucleus and well shielded by inner electron
shells.

The second electron is much more difficult to remove than the first electron. There is a big jump in the value of the
ionization energy. This suggests that the second electron is in a shell closer to the nucleus than the first electron. Taken
together, the 1st and 2nd ionization energies suggest that sodium has one electron in its outer shell.

From the second to the ninth electrons removed, there is only a gradual change in successive ionization energies. This
suggests that all these eight electrons are in the same shell.

The 10th and 11th electrons have extremely high ionization energies, when compared with the rest of the data. This
suggests that they are very close to the nucleus. There must be a very great force of attraction between the nucleus

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 and these electrons and there are no inner electrons to shield them. The large increase in ionization energy between the
9th and 10th electrons confirms that the 10th electron is in a shell closer to the nucleus than the 9th electron

In short, IE decreases as:

1. The atomic radius decreases as the value of ndecreases, causing a dramatic shift.

2. The atomic radius decreases as the loss of −vecharge causes the nucleus to pull electrons closer

3. More electrons are lost, causing the shielding effect to decrease

Down a group
As we move down a group in the periodic table, the number of electron shells increases. This results in a greater atomic
radius and a stronger shielding effect from the inner electrons. Although the nuclear charge also increases, its effect is
outweighed by the increased shielding and larger atomic size. Consequently, the ionization energy decreases as we move
down a group.

Atomic radius Increases

Charge on nucleus Increases

Shielding effect Increases

← Atomic representation of Group 1 atoms using the Bohr model

Across a Period
Moving across a period, atoms gain protons increasing the positive charge of the nucleus. This would result a stronger
attraction between electrons, resulting in them being pulled closer to the center. This decreases the atomic radius and
makes it harder to remove the outer most electron, increasing IE.
However, there are a few exceptions. If we plot the graph of period 2, a noticeable fluctuation will be present at boron and
oxygen.

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 Hydrogen and helium are in period 1, and they follow the trend of increasing IE as the nuclear charge increases. Lithium is in
period 2, meaning that its atomic distance has increased (as there is a new shell) and that there is a shielding effect in
place.
There is a fluctuation at Boron as p orbital has a higher energy thus electrons can be easily removed. Note that this is slight
so little drop will be noticed, a similar fluctuation occurs at Oxygen because now there are more than 3 electrons present,
with all of the orbitals having at least one electron. Note that two electrons of opposite spin in the same orbital repel making
it easier to remove the electron.

Notes made by Adam croft.

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