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Appendix B: Instructions for Randomizing and Counterbalancing
Appendix C: SPSS General Instructions Guide and Statistical
Tables
Glossary
References
Index

8
Detailed Contents
About the Author
Acknowledgments
Preface
To the Student—How to Use SPSS With This Book
P.1 Overview of SPSS: What Are You Looking At?
P.2 Preview of SPSS in Focus
• SECTION I SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY
• Chapter 1 Introduction to Scientific Thinking
1.1 Science as a Method of Knowing
1.2 The Scientific Method
1.3 Other Methods of Knowing
1.4 The Goals of Science
1.5 Approaches in Acquiring Knowledge
1.6 Distinguishing Science From Pseudoscience
• Chapter 2 Generating Testable Ideas
2.1 Generating Interesting and Novel Ideas
2.2 Converting Ideas to Hypotheses and Theories
2.3 Developing Your Idea: Deduction and Induction
2.4 Performing a Literature Review
2.5 Ethics in Focus: Giving Proper Credit
2.6 The “3 Cs” of an Effective Literature Review
2.7 Testing Your Idea: Confirmation and
Disconfirmation
2.8 Ethics in Focus: Publication Bias
• Chapter 3 Research Ethics
3.1 Ethics in Behavioral Research
3.2 The Need for Ethics Committees in Research: A
Historical Synopsis
3.3 Ethics in Focus: Examples From Psychology
3.4 Human Participant Research: IRBs and the APA Code
of Conduct
3.5 Ethics in Focus: Anonymity and Confidentiality
3.6 Animal Subject Research: IACUCs and the APA Code
of Conduct
3.7 Additional Ethical Considerations: Scientific
Integrity

9
• SECTION II DEFINING AND MEASURING VARIABLES,
SELECTING SAMPLES, AND CHOOSING AN
APPROPRIATE RESEARCH DESIGN
• Chapter 4 Identifying Scientific Variables
4.1 Criteria for Defining and Measuring Variables
4.2 Constructs and Operational Definitions
4.3 Types of Variables
4.4 Scales of Measurement
4.5 Reliability of a Measurement
4.6 Validity of a Measurement
4.7 Selecting a Measurement Procedure
4.8 Ethics in Focus: Replication as a Gauge for Fraud?
4.9 SPSS in Focus: Entering and Coding Data
• Chapter 5 Sampling From Populations
5.1 Why Do Researchers Select Samples?
5.2 Subjects, Participants, and Sampling Methods
5.3 Methods of Sampling: Nonprobability Sampling
5.4 Methods of Sampling: Probability Sampling
5.5 Sampling Error and Standard Error of the Mean
5.6 SPSS in Focus: Estimating the Standard Error of the
Mean
5.7 Potential Biases in Sampling
5.8 Ethics in Focus: Participant Pools
5.9 SPSS in Focus: Identifying New Populations Using the
One-Sample t Test
• Chapter 6 Choosing a Research Design
6.1 Designing a Study to Answer a Question
6.2 Categories of Research Design
6.3 Internal and External Validity
6.4 Demonstrating Cause in an Experiment
6.5 Ethics in Focus: Beneficence and Random
Assignment
6.6 Threats to the Internal Validity of a Research Study
6.7 Threats to the External Validity of a Research Study
6.8 External Validity, Experimentation, and Realism
6.9 A Final Thought on Validity and Choosing a Research
Design
• SECTION III NONEXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
DESIGNS
• Chapter 7 Naturalistic, Qualitative, and Existing Data Research

10
 Designs
Naturalistic Observation
7.1 An Overview of Naturalistic Observation
7.2 The Research Setting: Natural and Contrived Settings
7.3 Techniques for Conducting Naturalistic Observation
7.4 Ethics in Focus: Influencing Participant Behavior
Qualitative Designs
7.5 An Overview of Qualitative Designs
7.6 Qualitative Research Designs
7.7 Ethics in Focus: Anonymity in Qualitative Research
Existing Data Designs
7.8 An Overview of Existing Data Designs
7.9 Existing Data Designs
7.10 Ethics in Focus: Existing Data and Experimenter
Bias
• Chapter 8 Survey and Correlational Research Designs
Survey Designs
8.1 An Overview of Survey Designs
8.2 Types of Survey Items
8.3 Rules for Writing Survey Items
8.4 Administering Surveys
8.5 Surveys, Sampling, and Nonresponse Bias
8.6 Ethics in Focus: Handling and Administering Surveys
Correlational Designs
8.7 The Structure of Correlational Designs
8.8 Describing the Relationship Between Variables
8.9 Limitations in Interpretation
8.10 Correlation, Regression, and Prediction
8.11 SPSS in Focus: Correlation and Linear Regression
• SECTION IV QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL AND
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS
• Chapter 9 Quasi-Experimental and Single-Case Experimental
Designs
Quasi-Experimental Designs
9.1 An Overview of Quasi-Experimental Designs
9.2 Quasi-Experimental Design: One-Group Designs
9.3 Quasi-Experimental Design: Nonequivalent Control
Group Designs
9.4 Quasi-Experimental Design: Time Series Designs
9.5 Quasi-Experimental Design: Developmental Designs

11
 9.6 Ethics in Focus: Development and Aging
Single-Case Experimental Designs
9.7 An Overview of Single-Case Designs
9.8 Single-Case Baseline-Phase Designs
9.9 Validity, Stability, Magnitude, and Generality
9.10 Ethics in Focus: The Ethics of Innovation
• Chapter 10 Between-Subjects Experimental Designs
10.1 Conducting Experiments: Between-Subjects Design
10.2 Experimental Versus Control Group
10.3 Manipulation and the Independent Variable
10.4 Variability and the Independent Variable
10.5 Ethics in Focus: The Accountability of
Manipulation
10.6 Comparing Two Independent Samples
10.7 SPSS in Focus: Two-Independent-Sample t Test
10.8 Comparing Two or More Independent Samples
10.9 SPSS in Focus: One-Way Between-Subjects
ANOVA
10.10 Measuring the Dependent Variable
10.11 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Between-
Subjects Design
• Chapter 11 Within-Subjects Experimental Designs
11.1 Conducting Experiments: Within-Subjects Design
11.2 Controlling Time-Related Factors
11.3 Ethics in Focus: Minimizing Participant Fatigue
11.4 Individual Differences and Variability
11.5 Comparing Two Related Samples
11.6 SPSS in Focus: Related-Samples t Test
11.7 Comparing Two or More Related Samples
11.8 SPSS in Focus: One-Way Within-Subjects ANOVA
11.9 An Alternative to Pre-Post Designs: Solomon Four-
Group Design
11.10 Comparing Between-Subjects and Within-Subjects
Designs
• Chapter 12 Factorial Experimental Designs
12.1 Testing Multiple Factors in the Same Experiment
12.2 Selecting Samples for a Factorial Design in
Experimentation
12.3 Types of Factorial Designs
12.4 Ethics in Focus: Participant Fatigue and Factorial

12
 Designs
12.5 Main Effects and Interactions
12.6 Identifying Main Effects and Interactions in a Graph
12.7 Including Quasi-Independent Factors in an
Experiment
12.8 Reasons for Including Two or More Factors in an
Experiment
12.9 Higher-Order Factorial Designs
12.10 SPSS in Focus: General Instructions for Conducting a
Factorial ANOVA
• SECTION V ANALYZING, INTERPRETING, AND
COMMUNICATING RESEARCH DATA
• Chapter 13 Analysis and Interpretation: Exposition of Data
13.1 Descriptive Statistics: Why Summarize Data?
13.2 Frequency Distributions: Tables and Graphs
13.3 Measures of Central Tendency
13.4 Measures of Variability
13.5 SPSS in Focus: Central Tendency and Variability
13.6 Graphing Means and Correlations
13.7 Using Correlation to Describe Reliability
13.8 SPSS in Focus: Cronbach’s Alpha and Cohen’s
Kappa
13.9 Ethics in Focus: Deception Due to the Distortion of
Data
• Chapter 14 Analysis and Interpretation: Making Decisions
About Data
14.1 Inferential Statistics: What Are We Making Inferences
About?
14.2 Types of Error and Power
14.3 Parametric Tests: Applying the Decision Tree
14.4 Nonparametric Tests: Applying the Decision Tree
14.5 SPSS in Focus: The Chi-Square Tests
14.6 Effect Size: How Big Is an Effect in the Population?
14.7 Estimation: What Are the Possible Values of a
Parameter?
14.8 Confidence Intervals, Significance, and Effect Size
14.9 Issues for Interpretation: Precision and Certainty
14.10 Ethics in Focus: Full Disclosure of Data
• Chapter 15 Communicating Research: Preparing Manuscripts,
Posters, and Talks

13
 15.1 Elements of Communication
15.2 Writing a Manuscript: Writing Style and Language
15.3 Elements of an APA-Style Manuscript
15.4 Literature Reviews
15.5 Reporting Observations in Qualitative Research
15.6 Ethics in Focus: Credit and Authorship
15.7 Presenting a Poster
15.8 Giving a Professional Talk
Appendix A: APA-Style Writing, Sample Manuscript, and Posters
A.1 Essentials for Writing APA-Style Research Papers
A.2 Grammar, Punctuation, and Spelling (GPS) Writing
Guide
A.3 Sample APA-Style Manuscript
A.4 Poster Template and Sample Poster
Appendix B: Instructions for Randomizing and Counterbalancing
B.1 Random Numbers Table
B.2 Constructing a Latin Square
Appendix C: SPSS General Instructions Guide and Statistical
Tables
C.1 General Instructions Guide for Using SPSS
C.2 Statistical Tables
Glossary
References
Index

14
About the Author

St. Bonaventure University

Gregory J. Privitera
is a professor of psychology at St. Bonaventure University where he
is a recipient of its highest teaching honor, The Award for
Professional Excellence in Teaching, and its highest honor for
scholarship, The Award for Professional Excellence in Research and
Publication. Dr. Privitera received his PhD in behavioral neuroscience
in the field of psychology at the State University of New York at
Buffalo and continued to complete postdoctoral research at Arizona
State University. He is an author of multiple books on statistics,
research methods, and health psychology, in addition to authoring
more than three dozen peer-reviewed scientific articles aimed at
advancing our understanding of health and well-being. He oversees a
variety of undergraduate research projects at St. Bonaventure
University, where dozens of undergraduate students, many of whom
are now earning graduate degrees at various institutions, have
coauthored research in his laboratories. For his work with students
and fruitful record of academic and research advisement, Dr. Privitera
was awarded Advisor of the Year by St. Bonaventure University in
2013. The first edition of this text was a recipient of the “Most
Promising New Textbook” National Award from the Text and

15
Academic Authors Association. In addition to his teaching, research,
and advisement, Dr. Privitera is a veteran of the U.S. Marine Corps,
and he is married with two children: a daughter, Grace, and a son,
Aiden. Notably, Dr. Privitera is also the author of Statistics for the
Behavioral Sciences (3rd edition) and Essential Statistics for the
Behavioral Sciences (2nd edition).

16
Acknowledgments

I want to take a moment to thank all those who have been supportive and
endearing throughout my career. To my family, friends, acquaintances,
and colleagues—thank you for contributing to my perspective in a way
that is indubitably recognized and appreciated. In particular, to my son,
Aiden Andrew, and daughter, Grace Ann—every moment I am with you, I
am reminded of what is truly important in my life. As a veteran of the U.S.
Marine Corps, I also want to thank all those who serve and have served—
there is truly no greater honor than to serve something greater than
yourself. Semper Fidelis.

To all those at SAGE Publications, I am so very grateful to share in this

experience and work with all of you. It is your vital contributions that have
made this book possible and so special to me. Thank you.

I especially want to thank the thousands of research methods students

across the country. It is your pursuit of scientific inquiry that has inspired
this contribution. My hope is that you take away as much from reading this
book as I have in writing it.

Last, but certainly not least, I would also like to thank the following
reviewers who gave their time to provide me with valuable feedback
during the development process:

George Alder, Simon Fraser University

Elizabeth Krumrei Mancuso, Pepperdine University
Evan M. Kleiman, Harvard University
Gary Popoli, Stevenson University
Mary E. Saczawa, University of Florida
Vincent Trofimoff, California State University, San Marcos
Shulan Lu, Texas A&M University–Commerce
Bryan Raudenbush, Wheeling Jesuit University
Christopher J. Ferguson, Stetson University

17
Preface

The third edition of Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences uses a
problem-focused approach to introduce research methods in a way that
fully integrates the decision tree—from identifying a research question to
choosing an appropriate analysis and sharing results. This book begins
with an introduction to the general research process, ethics, identifying and
measuring variables, conducting literature reviews, selecting participants,
and more. Research designs are then introduced in a logical order, from the
least controlled (nonexperiments and quasi-experiments) to the most
controlled (experiments). Throughout each chapter, students are shown
how to structure a study to answer a research question (design) and are
navigated through the challenging process of choosing an appropriate
analysis or statistic to make a decision (analysis). This book integrates
statistics with methods in a way that applies the decision tree throughout
the book and shows students how statistics and methods fit together to
allow researchers to test hypotheses using the scientific method. The
following are unique features in this book to facilitate student learning:

Strengthened organization of research design:

Follows a problem-focused organization. This book is
organized into five main sections. Each section builds upon the
last to give a full picture of the scientific process. In Section I,
Scientific Inquiry, students are introduced to the process and
ethics of engaging in the scientific method. In Section II,
Defining and Measuring Variables, Selecting Samples, and
Choosing an Appropriate Research Design, students are shown
how to define and measure scientific variables, and methods
used to select samples and choose an appropriate research design
are described (Chapters 4–6). Sections III and IV fully introduce
each type of research design from Nonexperimental Research
Designs (Chapters 7–8) to Quasi-Experimental and Experimental
Research Designs (Chapters 9–12), respectively. In Section V,
Analyzing, Interpreting, and Communicating Research Data,
students are shown how to summarize and describe statistical
outcomes in words (using American Psychological Association
[APA] style) and graphs. Also included is a full chapter that
introduces how to use APA style to write manuscripts and gives

18
an introduction to creating posters and giving talks (Chapters
13–15). The organization of this book is “problem focused” in
that it introduces the scientific process as it would be applied
from setting up a study, to conducting a study, to communicating
the outcomes observed in that study—all while applying the
decision tree to engage further the critical thinking skills of
students.
Ethics in Focus sections in each chapter. Ethical
considerations are often specific to a particular research design
or methodology. For this reason, the topic of ethics is not only
covered in Chapter 3, but at least one Ethics in Focus section is
also included in each chapter. These sections review important
ethical issues related to the topics in each chapter. This allows
professors the flexibility to teach ethics as a separate section and
integrate discussions of ethics throughout the semester. This
level of organization for ethics is simply absent from most
comparable research methods textbooks.
Introduces three broad categories of research design. In truth,
research design is complex. Many designs are hybrids that
cannot be neatly fit into a single type of category or research
design. For this reason, I simplify research designs into those
that do not show cause (nonexperimental and quasi-
experimental) and those that can show cause (experimental). For
example, other books may introduce correlational designs as
being separate from a nonexperiment. However, such a
distinction is often unnecessary. The correlational design is an
example of a nonexperiment—it does not show cause. Instead,
the organization in this book focuses on understanding how,
when, and why research designs are used and the types of
questions each design can and cannot answer.
Chapters organized from least control to most control. This
book transitions from research designs with the least control
(nonexperimental) to those with the most control (experimental).
There is a logical progression as research designs are introduced
in this book that is clearer than the organization you will find in
many comparable textbooks. Students can clearly distinguish
between the types of research designs they read, and this level of
clarity can make it easier for students to understand how to
appropriately select research designs to answer the many
research questions that researchers ask.

19
Reduced bias in language across research designs:
Research design is introduced without bias. Research designs
are introduced as being used to answer different types of
questions. I avoid referring to all studies as “experiments.” In
that spirit, experiments are instead introduced as answering
different types of research questions. It is emphasized
throughout this book that the ability to demonstrate cause does
not make a design superior to other designs; it simply allows
researchers to answer different types of questions (i.e., research
questions pertaining to cause).
The qualitative research design and perspective is given fair
coverage. While many textbooks appropriately focus on
quantitative methods that make up most of the research
conducted in the behavioral sciences, many omit or even are
dismissive of qualitative methodology. This bias can mislead
students into thinking that all research is quantitative. Although
this book does emphasize quantitative methods because these
methods are the most-used methodology in the behavioral
sciences, fair coverage of qualitative methods is also included. In
Chapter 7, for example, a section is included to introduce
qualitative research, and in Chapter 15, an overview for
reporting qualitative outcomes is included.
Emphasis on statistical technologies:
Guide for how to use IBM® SPSS® Statistics* with this
book. It can be difficult to teach from a textbook and a separate
SPSS manual. The separate manual often does not include
research examples or uses language that is inconsistent with
language used in the textbook, which can make it difficult for
students to learn. This book corrects for this problem by
incorporating SPSS coverage into the book, which begins with
the guide at the front of the book, “How to Use SPSS With This
Book.” The guide provides students with an easy-to-follow,
classroom-tested overview of how SPSS is set up, how to read
the Data View and Variable View screens, and how to use the
SPSS in Focus sections in the book. This guide gives students
the familiarization they need to be able to apply the SPSS
instructions given in the book.
SPSS in Focus sections in the chapters. Most research methods
textbooks for the behavioral sciences omit SPSS, include it in an
appendix separate from the main chapters in the book, or include

20
 it in ancillary materials that often are not included with course
content. In this book, SPSS is included in each appropriate
chapter, particularly for experimental design chapters where
specific designs are generally associated with specific statistical
tests. These SPSS in Focus sections provide step-by-step,
classroom-tested instruction using practical research examples
for how the data measured using various research designs taught
in each chapter can be analyzed using SPSS. Students are
supported with annotated screenshot figures and explanations for
how to read and interpret SPSS outputs.
Engages student learning and interest:
Conversational writing style. I write in a conversational tone
that speaks to the reader as if he or she is the researcher. It
empowers students to view research methods as something they
are capable of understanding and applying. It is a positive
psychology approach to writing that involves students in the
process and decisions made using the scientific process. The
goal is to motivate and excite students by making the book easy
to read and follow without “dumbing down” the information
they need to be successful.
Written with student learning in mind. There are many
features in this book to help students succeed. Many figures and
tables are given in each chapter to facilitate student learning and
break up the readings to make the material less intimidating. Key
terms are bolded and defined on a separate text line, as they are
introduced. Each defined term is included in a glossary, and
these terms are also restated at the end of each chapter to make it
easier for students to search for key terms while studying. In
addition, margin notes are included in each chapter to summarize
key material, and many reviews and activities are included at the
end of each chapter to test learning and give students an
opportunity to apply the knowledge they have learned.
Learning objectives and learning objective summaries.
Learning objectives are stated in each chapter to get students
focused and thinking about the material they will learn and to
organize each chapter and to allow students to review content by
focusing on those learning objectives they struggle with the
most. In addition, a chapter summary organized by learning
objective is provided at the end of each chapter. In this
summary, each learning objective is stated and answered. Hence,

21
 not only are learning objectives identified in each chapter, but
they are also answered at the end of each chapter.
Learning Checks are inserted throughout each chapter for
students to review what they learn, as they learn it. Many
research methods textbooks give learning check questions with
no answer. How can students “check” their learning without the
answers? Instead, in this book, all learning checks have
questions with answer keys to allow students to actually “check”
their learning before continuing their reading of the chapter.
MAKING SENSE sections support critical and difficult
material. A research methods course can have many areas where
students can struggle, and the MAKING SENSE sections are
included to break down the most difficult concepts and material
in the book—to make sense of them. These sections, included in
most chapters in the book, are aimed at easing student stress and
making research methods more approachable to students. Again,
this book was written with student learning in mind.
APA Appendices support student learning of APA style. The
appendices include an APA writing guide (A.1); an APA guide
to grammar, punctuation, and spelling (A.2); a full sample APA-
style manuscript from a study that was published in a peer-
reviewed scientific journal (A.3); and instructions for creating
posters using Microsoft PowerPoint, with a sample poster and a
poster template given (A.4). Also included are instructions for
using randomization (B.1) and constructing a Latin square (B.2),
a general instructions guide for using SPSS (C.1), and statistical
tables for common tests (C.2). Hence, this book provides the
necessary support for students who are asked to complete a
research project, and complete an APA-style paper, poster, or
talk. Few books provide this level of comprehensive supportive
materials.

* SPSS is a registered trademark of International Business Machines

Corporation.

In addition, there is one more overarching feature that I refer to as

teachability. Although this book is comprehensive and a great reference
for any undergraduate student, it sometimes can be difficult to cover every
topic in this book. For this reason, the chapters are organized into sections,
each of which can largely stand alone, to give professors the ability to

22
more easily manage course content by assigning students particular
sections in each chapter when they cannot teach all topics covered in a
chapter. Hence, this book was written with both the student and the
professor in mind. Here are some brief highlights of what you will find in
each chapter.

Chapter 1 is a traditional introductory chapter. Students are introduced to

scientific thinking, the steps of the scientific method, the goals of science,
and more. A key feature in this chapter is the distinction made between
qualitative and quantitative research and between basic and applied
research, as well as tips provided to help students distinguish between
pseudoscience and science. These distinctions are not often made in a
Chapter 1, if at all, but can be important in helping students identify key
perspectives in conducting research.

Chapter 2 introduces students to what constitutes scientific ideas and

provides guidelines for developing these ideas into hypotheses and
theories. A full introduction to using online databases is provided, with
suggestions provided for conducting an effective literature review. In
addition, difficult concepts such as induction versus deduction and
confirmational versus disconfirmational strategies are introduced, with
many illustrations included to guide student learning.

Chapter 3 provides a full overview of key historic events related to ethics

in behavioral research that led to the Nuremberg Code and the Belmont
Report. Examples of historical events in psychology are also included, in
addition to more recent examples. Students are further introduced to the
standards and procedures set by institutional review boards for humans and
institutional animal care and use committees for animals. A key feature in
this chapter is the inclusion of each APA ethical standard stated in the
APA code of conduct.

Chapter 4 identifies the types of variables researchers measure and the

scales of measurement for data and describes ways to identify the
reliability and validity of scientific measures. Note that validity and
reliability of research design (e.g., internal and external validity) are not
discussed in this chapter in order to focus chapter content only on the
validity and reliability of measurement to avoid confusion.

Chapter 5 introduces sampling procedures, including nonprobability and

probability sampling methods. Although the types of sampling are often

23
included as a section within a chapter, this book devotes a full chapter to
this topic—doing so allows for full coverage of sampling techniques,
along with the many advantages and limitations associated with each
sampling method. The concept of sampling error is also identified, with a
section showing how to identify this error in SPSS output tables.

Chapter 6 establishes an organization for introducing research design in

subsequent chapters. A tree diagram for experimental, quasi-experimental,
and nonexperimental designs is provided. These figures outline the
different types of research design that fall into each category—and each
design is introduced in the book. In addition, extensive illustrations
associated with introducing common threats to internal and external
validity are included to facilitate student learning on a topic that is often
difficult for students. In addition, concepts such as manipulation,
randomization, control, and individual differences are defined and
explained because these concepts will be used in later chapters to
distinguish between different research designs.

Chapter 7 introduces three nonexperimental designs: naturalistic designs,

qualitative designs (phenomenology, ethnography, and case study), and
existing data designs (archival, content, and meta-analysis). Qualitative
and existing data designs often use techniques that build on those used
with a naturalistic design, which is why these designs are grouped in the
same chapter. For clarity, each design is described under a separate
heading. A key feature for this chapter is the introduction of the qualitative
perspective prior to introducing qualitative designs, which clearly
distinguishes it from the quantitative perspective.

Chapter 8 introduces two more nonexperimental designs: survey designs

and correlational designs. These designs are grouped in the same chapter
because surveys are often used in correlational research. Suggestions are
provided to help students write good survey items, and a section focused
on issues related to sampling bias is included. For clarity, each design is
described in a separate heading.

Chapter 9 introduces many quasi-experimental designs: one-group, time

series, nonequivalent control group, and developmental designs. Quasi-
experimental designs are clearly defined in that each design includes a
quasi-independent variable and/or lacks a control group. In a separate
heading, the first experimental design is introduced: single-case designs
(reversal, multiple-baseline, and changing-criterion designs). The single-

24
case designs are taught as experimental designs because they can
demonstrate unambiguous cause and effect, which is the traditional way to
introduce such designs.

Chapter 10 introduces the between-subjects experimental design for two

groups and more than two groups. Also, this chapter begins by introducing
what criteria must be met to qualify a study as an experiment
(randomization, manipulation, and control/comparison). These criteria are
used to distinguish the types of experimental designs introduced in the
book. This chapter is unique in that statistical methods are introduced with
research design in order to distinguish between methodological control (of
individual differences) and statistical control (of statistical error). Each
design is introduced in the full context of a research example so that
students can clearly see how a research problem or hypothesis is tested
from design to analysis.

Chapter 11 introduces the within-subjects experimental design for two

groups and more than two groups. The chapter begins with a clear
description of the conditions that must be met for such a design to qualify
as an experiment. Issues related to counterbalancing and order effects are
discussed. As in Chapter 10, statistical methods are introduced with
research design in order to distinguish between methodological control (of
order effects and individual differences) and statistical control (of
statistical error). Each design is introduced in the full context of a research
example so that students can clearly see how a research problem or
hypothesis can be tested from design to analysis.

Chapter 12 introduces the factorial experimental design for the between,

within, and mixed factorial designs. To illustrate the features of this
design, many examples in the chapter are for the between-subjects
factorial design. As in Chapters 10 and 11, statistical methods are
introduced with research design in order to distinguish between
methodological control (of order effects and/or individual differences) and
statistical control (of statistical error), which is particularly useful for
identifying main effects and interactions. Each design is introduced in the
full context of a research example so that students can clearly see how a
research problem or hypothesis can be tested from design to analysis.

Chapter 13 introduces descriptive statistics, graphing data, and statistical

measures of reliability. The chapter introduces measures of frequency,
central tendency, and variability and shows how to graph such measures.

25
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Title: Peeps at Royal Palaces of Great Britain

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PEEPS AT ROYAL

PALACES OF GREAT BRITAIN ***
 THE TOWER OF LONDON.

The Bloody Tower and the Wakefield Tower,

in which the Crown Jewels are kept.
 PEEPS AT

ROYAL PALACES

OF
GREAT BRITAIN

BY

BEATRICE HOME

CONTAINING 8 FULL PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS

IN COLOUR AND 21 LINE DRAWINGS

IN THE TEXT

LONDON
ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK
1913
 PREFACE
If a palace be a royal residence, as the dictionary defines it, then
nearly all the famous castles of England would come under that title,
for the Norman and Plantagenet Kings were constantly moving from
one stronghold to another during the unsettled period of the Middle
Ages. Until the fifteenth century, both the English and Scottish Kings
resided in impregnable castles or fortified houses, but their sojourn
was never long in one place. After the Wars of the Roses had
crushed the power of the great nobles, it was no longer necessary
for the monarch to dwell within a fortress, and it was then that the
gracious and commodious palaces of Whitehall, Hampton Court, and
Greenwich, arose in England. The Scottish Kings, having at the same
time reached a greater control over their headstrong nobles, also
began transforming their castles into palaces, and to erect Holyrood
and Falkland to gratify their desire for more luxurious residences.

Within the compass of this small book, it would have been

impossible to detail every castle in which a monarch ever resided, so
that it has been thought better to confine attention to those palaces
which were owned, and most constantly used by the Kings and
Queens of England and Scotland.
 CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I. WESTMINSTER PALACE 5
II. WINDSOR CASTLE 11
III. THE TOWER OF LONDON 19
IV. KENNINGTON PALACE 22
V. ELTHAM PALACE 24
VI. GREENWICH PALACE 27
VII. WHITEHALL PALACE 31
VIII. HAMPTON COURT PALACE 39
IX. ST. JAMES'S PALACE 48
X. KENSINGTON PALACE 53
XI. KEW PALACE 59
XII. BUCKINGHAM PALACE 63
XIII. VANISHED PALACES 67
XIV. EDINBURGH CASTLE 72
XV. DUNFERMLINE CASTLE 76
XVI. STIRLING CASTLE 78
XVII. HOLYROOD PALACE 82
XVIII. LINLITHGOW PALACE 87
XIX. FALKLAND PALACE 91
XX. BALMORAL CASTLE 94
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
IN COLOUR

THE TOWER OF LONDON frontispiece

FACING PAGE
WINDSOR CASTLE 17
HAMPTON COURT PALACE 24
EDINBURGH CASTLE 73
STIRLING CASTLE 80
LINLITHGOW PALACE 91
BALMORAL CASTLE 94
ST. JAMES'S PALACE On the cover
ROYAL PALACES OF GREAT
BRITAIN
 CHAPTER I
WESTMINSTER PALACE

Scarcely anything remains to-day to remind us of the vast size and the
magnificence of the Palace of Westminster, the royal residence of the
English Kings from the time of Edward the Confessor until the reign of
Henry VIII. For five centuries the monarchs of England kept their
Court on the island of Thorney, within the sound of the bells of the
great minster raised by the piety of the saintly Edward. Though the
early Kings were seldom long in one place, they regarded Westminster
as their principal palace, and often kept their Christmas festivals there,
a time of general feasting at the royal expense.

Cnut is supposed to be the first King to settle at Westminster, whither

he had gone, after his conversion to Christianity, to be near his friend
Abbot Wolfstan, and we are told that the incident of his rebuke to his
courtiers concerning the tide occurred on the shores of the River
Thames. At that time Westminster was surrounded by water, being
built on the island of Thorney, an islet that rose out of the low-lying
marshy ground overspread by the wide and unembanked river.

It is customary to attribute the ruin of the many beautiful and stately

buildings of past ages, to the agency of civil wars, the fanatical zeal of
Protestant reformers, or the carelessness of the Cromwellian soldiers;
but far more deadly foes than the cannon-balls of enemies or the
mistaken energies of religious zealots, were the destructive fires that
time and again destroyed the splendid structures that adorned the
vanished centuries. Westminster, though immune from other foes,
suffered terribly from fires, which have robbed us of the greatest part
of one of the most picturesque of palaces. Just after Edward I. had
finished repairing his royal dwelling a huge fire broke out, so
tremendous that the palace was rendered uninhabitable, obliging the
King to accept the hospitality of York Place, the London house of the
Archbishops of York. Edward II. rebuilt the palace, which remained the
main royal residence until a disastrous fire in 1512 drove the monarchs
away for ever. Though much was destroyed, a considerable part of the
King's house remained, together with the beautiful chapel of St.
Stephen and the great hall of the palace; but yet another fire attacked
this remnant in 1834. From this last conflagration only Westminster
Hall, the crypt of the chapel, and an old tower (now hidden away
among the narrow byways of the abbey precincts) survived.

The Palace of Westminster, described by Camden as "large and

magnificent, a building not to be equalled in that age," was of great
extent, stretching from the abbey to the river. It consisted of a mass
of rambling buildings erected with little regard to any fixed plan, but
resulting in a picturesque medley of gabled roofs, carved stonework,
delicate window tracery, noble halls, and exquisite chapels. Medieval
palaces required to be large, for all the King's work was done upon his
own premises. Bakers, brewers, chandlers, armourers, blacksmiths,
carpenters, furriers, masons, gardeners, barbers, stablemen,
embroiderers, weavers—all lived and worked within the palace walls,
and received wages and lodging. As Sir Walter Besant tells us, in his
fascinating history of Westminster, the palace was "a crowded city,
complete in itself, though it produced nothing and carried on no trade;
there were workshops and forges and the hammerings of armourers
and blacksmiths, but there were no stalls, no chepe, no clamour of
those who shouted their goods and invited the passengers to 'Buy,
buy, buy.'" Within this city, crowded within a confined space, dwelt
about fifteen thousand people all occupied with the King's business,
from the judges, bishops, and high State officials, down to humble
laundry-women.

A strongly-fortified wall ran all round the palace, for medieval Kings
needed their royal residences to be places of defence as well as of
regal splendour. There were gates leading to the Abbey, to Whitehall,
and to the river, where the King's barges lay to take him down to the
Tower of London in the city, or up the river towards Windsor.
Immediately beyond the busy throng of the palace and the monastic
buildings of the Abbey, lay green fields and pleasant rural scenes.
Between the palace and the noisy city, a mile away, stood palatial
houses of the great nobles and bishops, facing the broad and
sparkling Thames.

Of all the beautiful buildings that once formed the extensive palace
only the great hall remains, now known as Westminster Hall. William
Rufus built it in 1097, declaring that, large though it might appear, it
was "but a bedchamber" in comparison to what he intended to make.
But practically nothing is left of the work of Rufus, for we learn that
three hundred years later, in 1397, Richard II. ordered the "walls,
windows, and roof to be taken down and new made." The following
year Richard, the most magnificent of the English Kings, kept his royal
Christmas in the newly finished hall. Dressed in cloth of gold, adorned
with pearls and precious stones, Richard entertained ten thousand
people, necessitating the purchase of twenty-eight oxen, three
hundred sheep, and numberless fowls every day for the feeding of his
guests. He little thought that a few months hence the Parliament
meeting in that very hall would depose him.

This famous hall has witnessed some of the most spectacular,

splendid, and tragic events in the history of the nation, from the
Coronation banquets held within its walls, a-glitter with gorgeous
raiment and all the pageantry of the past, to the sombre procedure of
State trials. Perhaps the best remembered scene is that of the trial of
Charles I., who had been brought hurriedly from Windsor, and was
lodged during his trial in part of the old palace, then used as the
residence of Sir Ralph Cotton. Standing, a monarch tried by his
subjects, Charles Stuart remains for all time a dignified figure, not
deigning to plead before such a self-constituted Court.

For many centuries justice was administered from the hall, judges
sitting in different parts determining Chancery cases or those of
Common Pleas.
The most-to-be-regretted loss caused by the fire of 1834 is that of the
chapel royal of the palace, the chapel of St. Stephen. From an account
of its architectural detail, which has fortunately been preserved, one
gathers that it was a most beautiful and exquisite piece of work, as
rich and stately as any in the country. King Stephen is supposed to
have founded it, but Edward I. rebuilt it, only to have his building
burnt down a few years later. His grandson, Edward III., restored it in
such splendour that, as Camden says, "he seems rather to have been
the founder than only the repairer." He made it a collegiate church,
endowing it with so much wealth after his victories in France that it
almost rivalled its wealthy neighbour, the Abbey of Westminster.
Indeed, this royal munificence brought about considerable quarrelling
with the Abbey, whose inmates grudged the Masses being said at St.
Stephen's, when they might have been said in the Abbey and so
enriched their coffers. In this new chapel Richard II. married his first
wife, Anne of Bohemia.

Westminster Hall.

From an engraving by Hollar.

At the Dissolution of the Monasteries, the King granted to the
Commons of England, who had hitherto met in the Chapter House of
Westminster Abbey, the use of St. Stephen's Chapel, and there they
have met ever since, except once during the reign of Charles I. For the
reception of the members the beautiful chapel was ruthlessly altered,
but enough of the original work remained to make the fire of 1834 a
disaster to all lovers of graceful architecture. The present House of
Commons is built upon the site of the old collegiate buildings, and only
the crypt of the church remains to remind us of the royal chapel of our
Plantagenet Kings.

All the other historic rooms have vanished. Nothing is left of the
Painted Chamber, where Edward the Confessor died, the long room
whose painted walls depicted the story of the Confessor's life upon
one side, while the other was devoted to the Wars of the Maccabees.
These paintings were unknown until 1800, when the tapestry that
covered them was removed, and thus revealed the meaning of the
room's designation. Gone, too, is the old House of Lords, used by the
peers until the Commonwealth, where the famous tapestry
representing the defeat of the Spanish Armada was hung. In the
vaults underneath, originally the Confessor's kitchen, Guy Fawkes and
his fellow-conspirators stored the barrels of gunpowder with which to
blow up the Parliament. After the Restoration the Lords removed to
the White Hall of the palace, taking the Armada tapestry with them,
which, together with so much of fascination and historic interest,
perished in the all-embracing fire of 1834.
 CHAPTER II
WINDSOR CASTLE

Standing upon a steep chalk cliff that rises abruptly from the River
Thames, Windsor Castle towers above the low-lying river meadows,
and, looking beyond the town that clusters round it, gazes proudly
over twelve adjacent counties. For more than eight centuries a castle
has stood upon this cliff-top, the defensive qualities of such a perfect
natural stronghold having appealed to all the royal rulers of England.

In Saxon times the mound was defended by some kind of wooden

palisade, which William the Conqueror replaced with stone, nothing of
which now remains. Henry II., the first of the Plantagenet Kings, built
his palace there, erecting it upon what is known to-day as the Upper
Ward, the castle being divided into three distinct sections or tiers. The
Upper Ward, situated upon a higher level of the plateau, is separated
from the Lower Ward by the Round Tower, which stands upon a
mound in the centre.

Perhaps the most exciting times that the castle ever witnessed took
place in the reign of John; certainly one of the most important events
in the history of the English people is connected with its grey walls.
John had filled the castle with mercenary troops, with which to defend
himself against his insurgent barons. Protected by these foreigners,
who fought with extreme bravery, the castle sustained two sieges, the
only active warfare in which it took any serious part. Owing doubtless
to its almost impregnable situation before the days of artillery, it
remained calm and secure, however disturbed other parts of the
kingdom might be. One summer day in the year 1215 King John,
overawed by the great gathering of armed barons within sight of his
castle, left his stronghold on the hill, and full of rage rode down to the
meadow of Runnymede, near Staines. There he was forced to sign the
Great Charter of English Freedom, an action which reduced him to
such a pitch of impotent fury that when he reached the castle again,
he rolled on the ground, gnawing sticks and straws.

It is to John's son, Henry III., that the present aspect of the castle is
due, for though walls and towers have been rebuilt since his time, the
general appearance remains the same. He was the first great builder,
and beginning early with a reign of over fifty years before him, he was
able to carry out his extensive building schemes. Deserting the Upper
Ward, where all his predecessors had lived, he built his palace on the
Lower plateau, also erecting a chapel on the site of St. George's. Less
than a century after his death palace and chapel had vanished, fallen
into a rapid decay, so that almost the only records of his work to-day
are to be found in the Curfew Tower, and the Cloisters.

The first King to be born at Windsor was Edward III., who spent great
sums upon his palace, practically rebuilding the whole castle. Being a
great warrior, loving war and glory, he became enamoured with the
idea of founding an Order of Knighthood that should become as
illustrious as that of King Arthur, who was believed to have some
connection with Windsor. A Round Tower was built upon the mound,
to hold the Round Table, and great festivities were held there in 1344,
but this Round Table idea forms no part of the great Order—the Order
of the Garter—instituted in 1348. It is thought that Froissart confused
these two celebrations.

Under the superintendence of William of Wykeham, afterwards the

great Bishop of Winchester, but employed by Edward III. as his
surveyor of works, the Lower Ward was entirely given up to the
service of St. George, the patron saint of the new Order. This involved
the building of a new palace, which was erected upon the Upper
Ward, hitherto merely walled and left vacant. At the time when these
great building schemes were in progress, there were two captive Kings
within the castle, for Edward did not entirely devote his energy to
palace building, which merely formed a pleasing interlude to the long
and ambitious wars which
occupied his life. David II. of
Scotland had been captured at
Neville's Cross in 1346, and ten
years later John, the King of
France, joined him at Windsor,
having fallen to the Black Prince
at Poitiers. It is said that
Edward, while walking with his
prisoners, discussed with them
the building of his new palace.
They suggested that it would
look more regal if it stood upon
the Upper Ward, at which
Edward cynically remarked that
it should be erected at the cost
of their ransoms. But as King
John's ransom was never paid,
and Scotland was too poor a
country to provide much even to
redeem their King, Edward was Windsor Castle: Entrance to the
obliged to do most of the paying Horseshoe Cloisters.
of the bill himself.

Good Queen Philippa, the sweet woman who had been the gentle
inspiration of Edward's life, fell ill at Windsor in August, 1369, an
illness of which there was "no remedy but death," says Froissart, who
writes very sympathetically of her last moments. Edward, the bravest
knight in Christendom, stood weeping at her bedside as she whispered
to him her last requests, that he should pay her debts, carry on her
charities, and be buried beside her. Froissart tells us that "in all her life
she did neither in thought, word, nor deed, things whereby to lose her
soul." So that he was confident that "the holy angels received her with
great joy up to heaven."

During the reign of Henry V., Windsor again became a royal prison-
house, Scotland's youthful King, James I., spending about ten years of