Slowing Climate Change and Ocean Acidification by Converting Atmospheric Carbon

Dioxide to Graphite (CD2G)

Submitted 3/29/2025; Accepted 4/2/2025.

This paper is a non-peer reviewed preprint submitted to arXiv.

Subjects: Atmospheric and Oceanic Physics (physics.ao-ph); General Economics (econ.GN)

Cite as: arXiv:2504.01033 [physics.ao-ph]

https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2504.01033

https://arxiv.org/pdf/2504.01033

Kevin Geyer Harrison, Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Denison

University, Granville, OH 43023 USA
[email protected]
Orcid ID # 0000-0002-6921-7203
www.KevinGeyerHarrisonPhD.org

Keywords: carbon capture storage and utilization, direct air capture, climate change, renewable
energy, energy storage, lithium battery, fuel cell, thermal battery, graphite, graphene, solar
energy, wind energy, negative carbon emissions, Wright’s law, economies of scale, Swanson’s
Law, ocean acidification, heat battery, grid decarbonization, thermal photovoltaics, negative
carbon emissions, batteries, alternative energy, power.

1
ABSTRACT

Removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere may slow climate change and ocean
acidification. My approach converts atmospheric carbon dioxide into graphite (CD2G). The net
profit for this conversion is ~$381/ton CO2 removed from the atmosphere. At the gigaton scale,
CD2G factories will increase the affordability and availability of graphite. Since graphite can be
used to make thermal batteries and electrodes for fuel cells and batteries, CD2G factories will
help lower the cost of storing renewable energy, which will accelerate the transition to renewable
energy. Replacing fossil fuel energy with renewable energy will slow the release of carbon
dioxide to the atmosphere, also slowing climate change. Converting atmospheric carbon dioxide
into graphite will both generate a profit and slow climate change.

INTRODUCTION

Increasing levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide may cause climate change and prove costly.
Multiple researchers have estimated the costs associated with increasing atmospheric carbon
dioxide levels. Rennert et al. (2022) have estimated that the social costs for a ton of carbon
dioxide released to the atmosphere range from $44 to $413. Kikstra et al. (2021) have estimated
that the social cost of carbon dioxide is $307/ton. Archer et al. (2020) have estimated that the
“ultimate” cost of carbon dioxide is ~$100,000/ton. Some of the social costs of additional carbon
dioxide include their impact on infectious disease (Kupferschmidt, 2023). It would be hard to
overestimate the cost of the damages associated with increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide
levels. For example, Wong (2023) has reported that the 12 months preceding November 2023
were the hottest on record and were 1.32 oC. above pre-industrial temperatures. Rodrigues (2023)
has linked extreme drought in the Amazon rainforest with climate change. Carbon dioxide levels
reached record highs of about 421 ppm in May of 2022 (Fountain, 2022). Coal-fired power
plants release particulate matter that kills people (Henneman et al., 2023, Mendelsohn & Kim,
2023), along with releasing a significant amount of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere (Houghton,
2004). Replacing coal-fired plants with renewable energy will save lives, in addition to slowing
climate change.

Two ways to decrease the chances of catastrophic climate change are by switching to renewable
energy and using Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS). My approach uses CCUS to
both remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and to accelerate the transition to renewable
energy by converting carbon dioxide to graphite (CD2G) using Direct Air Capture (DAC; Fig.
1). The CD2G approach removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere via adsorption and
converts it into graphite using the Bosch reaction (Fig. 1). Lin et al. (2021) have developed a
metal-organic framework to capture carbon dioxide, and Zhou et al. (2021) made an iron-
containing mordenite monolith to trap carbon dioxide. When the carbon dioxide is released, it is
converted into graphite (Fig. 1).

Graphite is essential for the renewable energy transition, which requires energy storage. For
example, carbon blocks can be used to store renewable energy as thermal energy (Ramkumar &
Patterson, 2024). Graphite bocks may serve the same purpose. Graphite is already used for fuel
cell electrodes (Rao et al., 2020) and lithium-ion battery electrodes (Gastol, et al., 2021). Since
thermal batteries, fuel cells and lithium-ion batteries can store renewable energy, increasing the

2
availability and affordability of graphite will accelerate the transition to renewables by
decreasing the cost and increasing the availability of energy storage. The amount of graphite
needed for batteries is large. For example, electric vehicles need 50 to 100 kgs of graphite on
average (Lienert & Carey, 2023).

Currently, graphite is in short supply and the demand for graphite is growing faster than the
supply (Ballinger et al., 2019). Prices for flake graphite range from $500/ton to $2,300/ton
(Table 1). The increased demand for graphite coupled with reduced availability may increase the
price of graphite and slow the transition to renewable energy. Graphite is used by metal,
chemical, electrical, nuclear, and rocket industries (Moore & Volk, 2020). For example, graphite
electrodes are used in electric furnaces to make steel; graphite anodes are used in the electrolytic
production of various substances, such as hydrogen; graphite is used to make motors/generator
brushes, seals, bearings, nozzles for rocket motors, metallurgical molds and crucibles, reaction
vessel linings, heat exchangers, pumps, pipings, and valves (Moore & Volk, 2020). Graphite
electrodes can be used for generating hydrogen (Yuvaraja & Santhanaraj, 2014).

Graphene

Graphite can be used to make graphene (Hernandez et al., 2008; Achee et al., 2018). Making
graphite more affordable will also increase the affordability and availability of graphene, which
has great potential to play a key role in advancing technology and solving societal problems
(Allen et al., 2010; Tiwari et al., 2020). Graphene prices range from ~$100 to ~$400/gram
(~$100,000,000 to ~$400,000,000/metric ton) (https://investingnews.com/daily/tech-
investing/nanoscience-investing/graphene-investing/graphene-cost/; accessed 8/6/24). Graphene
may function as a zero-bandgap semiconductor, have applications in ultrafast photonics and
supercomputers, thermal management, batteries, displays, structural composites, and catalyst
supports (Tiwari et al., 2020). Graphene can be used to make metal organic frameworks (Zhang
et al., 2022), catalysts (Zhao et al., 2022), molecular sieves (Huang et al., 2021), for desalination
(Boretti et al., 2018; Liang et al., 2021), to split water to produce hydrogen and oxygen
efficiently (Raj et al., 2022; Wang et al., 2021), as a supercapacitor (Tiwari et al., 2020, Zaka et
al., 2021, Wang et al., 2022), in nanotechnology (Wang et al., 2023), as a superconductor (Zhou
et al., 2022; Kim et al., 2023), for solid state batteries (Pervez et al., 2022), to improve battery
performance (Khan et al., 2023), as a microchip/semiconductor (Zhao et al., 2024; Iocopi &
Ferrari, 2024), for quantum semiconductors (Assouline et al., 2023),for fuel cells (Zhao et al.,
2022), and carbon nanotubes made from graphene can scavenge waste heat (Dyatkin, 2021).
Graphene-copper materials have a 450% higher electrical current carrying capacity, 41% higher
electrical conductivity, and 224% higher thermal heat dissipation compared to pure copper
(https://mae.osu.edu/events/2023/03/can-graphene-based-electrical-conductors-replace-copper;
8/24/24). This increased performance could improve the ability of the grid to move renewable
energy long distances. Thus, increasing the availability and affordability of graphene may help
slow the increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide levels via CCUS and accelerate the transition to
renewable energy. Increasing the availability and affordability of graphene can catalyze scientific
discoveries, innovation, and economic growth. These innovations will also increase
sustainability.

3
PROCEDURE

The procedure for capturing carbon dioxide and converting it into graphite involves 3 steps:
1) Capturing atmospheric carbon dioxide with mordenite
2) Transferring carbon dioxide to the graphite synthesizer
3) Converting carbon dioxide into graphite

Capturing atmospheric carbon dioxide with mordenite

The atmosphere primarily consists of nitrogen (~80%) and oxygen (~20%). In 2023, carbon
dioxide levels were ~419 ppm or ~0.4% (https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2024/04/20-
/upshot/carbondioxidegrowth.html?searchResultPosition=1; accessed on 8/10/2024). Trace
amounts of carbon dioxide can be efficiently trapped by mordenite when air is pumped through it
at room temperature, ~293 oK, while nitrogen and oxygen pass through (Figure 2a). Zhou et al.
(2021) found that mordenite can adsorb 5.68 mmol CO2/gram of mordenite at ~300 oK and 1 bar
and that heating mordenite to 373 oK in a vacuum releases carbon dioxide. Mordenite will be
used to illustrate the costs of removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere for this study (Figure
2a).

Transferring carbon dioxide to the graphite synthesizer

After mordenite becomes saturated with carbon dioxide, increasing the temperature of the
adsorbent by ~100 oK and lowering the pressure to ~6 torr releases the carbon dioxide (Fig. 2b ).
Fig. 3a shows how the evolved carbon dioxide moves to the graphite synthesizer.

Converting carbon dioxide into graphite

The graphite reactor converts carbon dioxide into graphite via the Bosch reaction:

CO2(g) + 2H2(g) ===> C(graphite) + 2H2O(g) Equation 1

Iron catalyzes this reaction, reaction temperatures range from 450 to 600 oC, and higher
pressures favor the forward reaction due to Le Chatelier’s principle. Fig 3b. illustrates how
hydrogen is added to the graphite synthesizer and Fig. 3c illustrates the production of graphite.

ECONOMICS OF CONVERTING ATMOSPHERIC CARBON DIOXIDE INTO

GRAPHITE

Energy cost for carbon dioxide removal and graphite production

Energy is the greatest expense for the CD2G approach. To estimate the energy costs, I use a
value of $0.05/kWh for the cost of electricity, which is based on the $0.049/kWh value for the
levelized cost of electricity for new resources entering service in 2027 (United States Energy
Information Administration, 2022, Table 1b). This value is for solar power with battery storage
and includes transmission.

4
Summary of electrical costs for converting carbon dioxide into graphite

The total electrical costs for converting ~2.5 kg of carbon dioxide into ~0.7 kg of graphite are
~$1.20 (Table 2, Appendices A, B, & C ). These values can be extrapolated to estimate the
electrical cost of removing 1 ton of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere:

(~$1.20)/(2.5 kg CO2) = ~$0.48/kg CO2

~$480/ton CO2 at 100% efficiency ((~$0.48/kg) * (1000 kg) = ~$480/ton)

~$640/ton CO2 at 75% efficiency ((~$0.64/kg) * (1000 kg) = ~$640/ton)

~$960/ton CO2 at 50% efficiency ((~$0.96/kg) * (1000 kg) = ~$960/ton)

Using an estimated efficiency for the prototype CD2G factory of ~50% efficiency results in a
cost of ~$960/ton carbon dioxide removed from the atmosphere.

Summary of non-electrical costs for removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere

Table 3 summarizes estimates for the non-electrical cost of building a prototype factory to
convert carbon dioxide into graphite. 2.5 kg of adsorbent can trap 7300 kg of CO2/year
(Appendix D). Using twice as much adsorbent would double the amount of carbon dioxide
removed from the atmosphere. The non-electrical costs would be about $12,200 (Table 3). This
can be spread out over 30 years, the estimated lifetime of a CD2G plant:

~$12,200/((~7.3 tons)*(~30 years)) = ~$56/ton.

For a prototype factory, the estimated non-electrical costs are ~$56/ton.

Profits generated by CD2G prototype factory

The CD2G prototype factory will produce graphite and oxygen. The graphite can be sold for
~$478/ton of CO2 removed. The oxygen can be sold for ~$182/ton of CO2 removed.

Graphite

1,000 kg of CO2 can be converted into ~273 kg graphite:

(1000 kg CO2) * (~12 grams C/~44 grams CO2) = ~273 kg C (graphite).

The graphite produced by this method can be sold for ~$500/ton to ~$2,300/ton generating
~$137 to ~$628 for each ton of CO2 captured (Table 4). I use ~$478/ton CO2 removed for a
prototype factory.

5
Oxygen

For every ton of carbon dioxide removed from the atmosphere, 736 kg of oxygen will be
produced (Appendix E). The oxygen is produced when water is split. Oxygen has a market value
of ~$570/ton: (https://ycharts.com/indicators/us_producer_price_index_industrial_gas_man-
ufacturing_oxygen_yearly; accessed on 8/14/24).

Hospitals are converting electricity into hydrogen and oxygen via hydrolysis using the resulting
hydrogen for fuel cells and oxygen for patients. These hospitals include the Rijnstate hospital of
Elst in the Netherlands and Viamed San José Hospital in Spain (https://undecidedmf.com/why-
hydrogen-does-have-a-future/; accessed on 12/28/23).

736 kg of O2 is worth ~$420. Compressing, purifying, and transporting oxygen would decrease
the value of the oxygen produced. The cost of compressing 736 kg of oxygen is ~$238
(Appendix F). So the net value of oxygen produced would decrease to ~$182/ton of captured
carbon dioxide (Table 4).

Carbon credits

Carbon credits may also be a source of profits. These credits were not included in my
calculations to make the profit estimates more conservative.

Summary of Costs using Prototype Technology

Removing a ton of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere would produce ~$660 worth of graphite
and oxygen (Table 4). The electrical and non-electrical costs for removing a ton of carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere total ~$1016/ton of carbon dioxide removed from the atmosphere
(Table 4). The prototype CD2G factory will remove a ton of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
for a net cost of ~$356/ton (Table 4).

FROM PROTOTYPE TO OPTIMIZED CD2G FACTORY

The prototype factory will be used as an experimental platform to increase the efficiency and
profitability of the CD2G process. For example, the graphite synthesizer will be optimized to
produce the largest (most valuable) flakes. The best configuration, temperatures, flow rates,
H2/CO2 ratios, and pressures will be determined. Also, the ideal composition, texture, shape, and
charge of the catalyst will be identified. If the optimized graphite catalyzer produces the largest
flakes, one could sell ~$628 of graphite for every ton of carbon dioxide removed from the
atmosphere.

Decreasing costs: efficiency

At ~50% efficiency, the prototype factory would require ~$960/ton CO2 removed from the
atmosphere. As the technology matures, one expects the efficiency to increase due to Wright’s
law (Wright, 1936; Nagy et al., 2013) and economies of scale (Robinson, 1958; Stigler, 1958;
Scherer, 1980; Pratten, 1991; Morroni, 2006). Wright’s law or the learning curve effect was first

6
observed in the aircraft industry: a doubling of aircraft production caused a 20% decrease in the
amount of work needed to build a new aircraft. This law has been found to apply to other
industries. One expects that as the production of graphite from CD2G factories increases, the
costs will decrease due to the knowledge gained from building and operating multiple factories.
Economies of scale law says that increasing the size of a factory will increase the efficiency of
production. Due to the learning curve effect and economies of scale, one expects that
transitioning to mature factories will increase the efficiency from ~50% to ~75%. This would
drop the cost of removing a ton of CO2 from the atmosphere to ~$640/ton CO2. If the cost of
renewable energy drops (see below), this will further decrease the cost of converting atmospheric
carbon dioxide into graphite.

Decreasing costs: electrical

Over time, the cost of renewable energy should decrease, due to Wright’s law and economies of
scale, as more and larger solar power plants, wind farms, and renewable energy storage facilities
come online. Swanson’s Law, which resembles Wright’s law, states that solar panel costs are
expected to decrease by 20% every time the cumulative shipped volume doubles (Swanson,
2006). In 2006, solar modules that could produce 320,208 of peak kW were purchased in the US;
in 2022, that number grew to 31,679,435. (https://www.eia.gov/renewable/annual/so-
lar_photo/pdf/pv_table3.pdf). Wind power has also grown rapidly since 2000, driven by research
and development, supportive policies, and falling costs. Worldwide wind generation capacity has
increased, jumping from 7.5 GW in 1997 to 733 GW in 2018 (https://www.irena.org/Energy-
Transition/Technology/Wind-energy). The cost of solar energy has decreased from
$0.417/kilowatt-hour in 2010 to $0.048/kilowatt-hour in 2021 (Osman et al., 2023). During the
same time, the cost of onshore wind decreased by 68%, the cost of offshore wind decreased by
60%, and concentrated solar likewise decreased by 68% (Osman, et al., 2023). As renewable
energy prices decrease, demand increases. In turn, producing additional renewable energy
capacity decreases the price of renewable energy, resulting in a synergy between decreasing
prices and increasing demand.

Solar and wind energy must be stored, which adds expense and decreases the efficiency of solar
and wind power. One way to store energy is with lithium batteries. The cost of lithium batteries
is projected to decrease in the future and follow a similar trend as the cost of solar energy. For
example, Ziegler & Trancik (2021) found that the cost of lithium batteries has dropped by 97
percent since 1991. Pumped hydro energy storage, flow batteries, iron-air batteries, and thermal
storage may prove less expensive than lithium ion batteries for long-term energy storage
(Kunzig, 2024). Given the projected cost decrease in renewable energy and lithium batteries, a
40% decrease in electrical costs in ~10 years seems reasonable. Decreasing the electrical rate
from 0.05/kwh to 0.03/kwh (i.e., a 40% decrease), will decrease CD2G electrical costs from
~$640/ton CO2 captured to ~$384/ton CO2 captured (Tables 4 & 5). Furthermore, as the CD2G
technology matures, electrical consumption will decrease. For example, the blower requires 6.5
hp to move 1,121 cubic feet per minute (cfm) of air. A different approach may replace the
blower with an industrial fan, which can move 5,000 cfm using 0.3 hp. The efficiency of the
other pumps used for the CD2G approach will also improve.

7
Decreasing costs: non-electrical

Non-electrical costs will decrease as the technology matures due to economies of scale (see
above) and Wright’s Law (see above). If costs drop by 20%, then the non-electrical costs will
drop to ~$45/ton CO2 removed:

(~$56/ton CO2) * (0.8) = ~$45/ton CO2 removed (Table 5)

One expects the non-electrical costs to drop by at least 20% for a mature C2G factory.

Increasing revenue from selling graphite and oxygen

The graphite synthesizer can be optimized to produce graphite flakes that are larger than 32
mesh, boosting the price of graphite from ~$1750/ton graphite to ~$2300/ton graphite (Table 1).
The demand and price for graphite is expected to increase (Ballinger et al., 2019). The increase
in graphite demand may shift the price of 32 mesh graphite to greater than ~$3000/ton. The
profit generated by selling oxygen will be the same for both the prototype and mature factory.

Net profit for optimized CD2G factory

Table 5 summarizes the costs and profits of an optimized CD2G factory.

Cost summary:

electrical costs: (~$640/ton CO2) * (0.6) = ~$384/ton CO2 (electricity costs decrease by 40%)

non-electrical costs: (~$56/ton CO2) * (0.8) = ~$45/ton CO2 (economies of scale)

total cost: ~$429/ton CO2

Profit summary:

graphite (0.273 tons) * (~$2300/ton) = ~$628

oxygen ~$182

gross profit: ~$810/ton CO2

Net profit: (~$810) – (~$429) = ~$381/ton CO2 removed

Removing atmospheric carbon dioxide for a profit provides a strong incentive for decreasing
atmospheric carbon dioxide levels. Increasing the availability and affordability of graphite will
decrease the cost of energy storage, possibly accelerating the transition to renewable energy.

8
SUSTAINABILITY

The CD2G approach is sustainable at the GtC/yr level. The sustainability of the CD2G approach
depends on the amount and type of energy used, water availability, the ecological footprints of
the adsorbents, catalysts, and the chemical and mechanical infrastructure.

Energy

CD2G factories will be powered by solar and wind energy, which are among the most
sustainable energy sources. CD2G factories will increase graphite availability, which will
increase the availability and affordability of energy storage, and increase graphene availability,
which will catalyze the development renewable energy and sustainability technology. For
example, many batteries and fuel cells use use large amounts of graphite. Accelerating the
development of renewable energy storage is key for decreasing atmospheric carbon dioxide
levels.

Water availability

The amount of water needed for CD2G factories is small. For every mole of carbon dioxide
removed from the atmosphere, two moles of hydrogen are required. Further, water will be
regenerated when graphite is produced (Equation 1). Also, seawater can be used to generate the
hydrogen (Seenivasan et al., 2024). Water should not be limiting.

Adsorbents

The amount of adsorbent used for the CD2G approach is small. For example, 10 kg of adsorbent
can remove up to 7.3 tons of carbon dioxide a year. Adsorbents typically last decades. Further,
the ecological footprint of the mordenite adsorbent is small. Zhou et al. (2021) concluded that
synthesizing mordenite is economical, uses little energy, and is environmentally benign. Lin et
al. (2021) produced a metal-organic framework adsorbent with properties similar to mordenite: it
has a small ecological footprint and is durable. New adsorbents with better performance and
smaller environmental footprints may be developed as this field matures. In short, the use of
carbon dioxide adsorbents is both environmentally and economically sustainable.

Catalysts for hydrogen production

The CD2G factory uses catalysts to split water to produce hydrogen and to convert carbon
dioxide into graphite. Catalysts for splitting water that have low costs and small ecological
footprints are being developed (Chen et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2021; Hodges et al., 2022; Gao et
al., 2023). For example, Shiokawa et al. (2024) developed metal anodes for neutral seawater
electrolysis that do not contain noble metals. Also, Seenivasan et al. (2024) developed a nickel-
tungsten nitride (Ni-W5N4) alloy to split seawater more efficiently without the use of exotic
materials. Increasing the efficiency of the electrolyzer decreases the amount of energy needed to
split water to produce hydrogen and oxygen and will lower the costs associated with making
graphite from atmospheric carbon dioxide.

9
Catalysts for graphite production

Iron can be used as a catalyst to convert carbon dioxide into graphite (Equation 1). A kg of iron
can convert 7.3 tons of carbon dioxide into graphite in a year. This catalyst may last for decades.
Iron is inexpensive, abundant, and can be readily recycled. It would be hard to imagine a more
sustainable catalyst.

Mechanical infrastructure

Most of the mechanical infrastructure, such as cement and steel, required for CD2G factories has
a small ecological footprint, a long lifetime, and can be recycled at end of use.

Using Direct Air Capture to remove CO2 from air instead of Flue Gas Capture

While some Carbon Capture Storage and Utilization (CCSU) approaches use Flue Gas Capture
(FGC), these approaches will not be useful after fossil fuel becomes a neglible energy source. In
contrast, the CD2G approach described here will remain effective because it uses Direct Air
Capture (DAC) to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. This approach will work when
fossil fuel is no longer burned.

Scalability

In addition to being sustainable, CD2G technologies can be scaled up in size and quantity to
remove gigatons of carbon dioxide every year.

Energy

Energy is the largest resource needed to convert atmospheric carbon dioxide into graphite.
Using the CD2G approach to remove 1 Gt. CO2 would require ~1.3 x 1013 kWh energy using a
75% efficiency (see table 2):

(~32 kWh/2,500 g CO2) * (1 x 1015 grams CO2/Gt CO2) = ~1.3 x 1013 kWh.

In 2009, Lu et al. estimated that “land-based 2.5-megawatt (MW) turbines restricted to

nonforested, ice-free, nonurban areas operating at as little as 20% of their rated capacity could
supply >40 times current worldwide consumption of electricity, >5 times total global use of
energy in all forms” (10933). Global onshore and offshore wind power potential is 8.7 x 1017
kWh/yr (https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy17osti/65323.pdf). De Castro et al. (2013) estimated the
global capacity for solar energy to range from 1.7 to 3.3 x 1013 kWh/yr. Dupont et al. (2020)
estimated the global capacity for solar energy to range from 5.9 x 1014 to 3.9 x 1015 kWh/yr.
There is sufficient renewable energy potential to power the CD2G approach at the Gt CO2/yr
scale.

10
Non-energy resources

Most materials needed to build Gt/yr scale CD2G plants are not limiting, such as cement, steel,
pipes, valves, and computers. These materials are inexpensive, readily available, and represent
proven and robust technology. To increase the efficiency of the pumps, high efficiency motors
may be used. These would decrease the amount of energy required to convert atmospheric
carbon dioxide into graphite. High efficiency motors are being developed that don’t use rare
materials (Riba et al., 2016).

Only a small amount of catalysts are needed for CD2g factories. These include iron and
mordenite. Iron is abundant and synthesizing mordenite is economical, energy efficient, and
environmentally benign (Zhou et al., 2021).

Siting

CC2G factories will be most effective if sited near sources of inexpensive and abundant
renewable energy and where there is a demand for graphite and oxygen.

Synergies

Increasing the availability and affordability of graphite will help accelerate the transition to
renewable energy because graphite is needed for some thermal batteries, lithium ion batteries and
fuel cells. For example, some thermal batteries use carbon blocks (Ramkumar & Patterson,
2024). Carbon blocks can be made from graphite. Many electric-vehicle battery electrodes and
some large-capacity battery electrodes use graphite (Gastol et al., 2021). Switching to battery
electric vehicles that are charged by renewable energy and using large-capacity batteries to store
renewable energy on a grid scale will decrease the amount of carbon dioxide released to the
atmosphere by burning fossil fuel. The increased availability and affordability of graphite will
lower the cost of renewable energy, which, in turn, will lower the cost of removing carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere and converting it into graphite using the CD2G method.

Graphite electrodes are also used for fuel cells (Rao et al., 2020). For example, some fuel cells
use graphite for their bipolar plates, gas diffusion layers, or catalysts (https://www.innovation-
newsnetwork.com/graphite-hydrogen-fuel-cell-technologies/26736/; 8/24/24). Fuel cells may
propel cars, trucks, trains, planes, and store energy at scales ranging from residential to grid.
Storing renewable energy in fuel cells can lead to decreased carbon dioxide emissions from fossil
fuel combustion.

In a sustainable feedback loop, increasing the availability and affordability of graphene will
increase the effectiveness of catalysts used for generating hydrogen from water and the catalysts
used for converting hydrogen into energy. More effective catalysts will decrease the cost of
renewable energy. The lower energy cost will lower the cost of converting atmospheric carbon
dioxide into graphite, which will, in turn, increase the affordability and availability of graphene.
Graphene-copper wires exhibit a 450% increase in electrical current carrying capacity, a 41%
higher electrical current and a 224% thermal heat dissipation increase compared to pure copper
(https://mae.osu.edu/events/2023/03/can-graphene-based-electrical-conductors-replace-copper;

11
8/24/24). Most of the wires used for electrical grids are made out of aluminum, which has a
lower conductivy compared to copper. Replacing existing power lines in the grid with graphene-
copper wires would greatly increase the capacity of the grid to absorb and distribute renewable
energy.

Discussion

Burning fossil fuel has been linked with climate change, air pollution, water pollution, solid
waste production, and health problems (Miller & Spoolman, 2009). Increased atmospheric
carbon dioxide levels causes ocean acidification (Harrison, 2019; https://oceanservice.noaa.gov-
/facts/acidification.html; 02/02/25). The transition to new forms of energy is driven by
economics and convenience. The transition from fossil fuel energy to renewable energy will be
rapid when the price of renewable energy is less than half the price of fossil fuel energy and
when renewable energy is easier to use. The primary goal of this research is to decrease the cost
of renewable energy by decreasing the cost of graphite. The secondary goal of this research is to
remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere for a profit. The mature CD2G factory accomplishes
both of these goals. Finally, CD2G factories may stimulate innovation and the economy by
making graphite and graphene more affordable and available.

The technology for creating CD2G factories is mature and robust. A prototype factory could be
built in a year. This factory could be used to optimize the CD2G process and the results could
lead to mature CD2G factories in 2 to 3 years. A CD2G factory is analogous to a gas
chromatograph.

China, India and Brazil mine most of the world’s graphite: from 2015 to 2016, China produced
66%, India produced 14%, and Brazil produced 7% of the world’s graphite (Jara et al., 2019).
Graphite is needed for industry and is important for national security (Jara et al., 2019). CD2G
factories can be built in any country, possibly reducing economic and political tensions
associated with a high-demand substance that is produced mainly by a few countries.

Mining typically often produces solid mine waste and acid mine waste, releases radioactive
materials to the environment, causes landscape degradation, and creates air and water pollution
(Miller & Spoolman, 2009). If CD2G factories produce graphite for a lower cost than graphite
mining, they could eliminate graphite mines and the ecological, economic, and political
problems associated with graphite mining.

It is possible that the supply of graphite will exceed the demand if CD2G factories operate at the
gigaton level for an extended time. At this point, storing the excess graphite at a cost of $429/ton
(Table 5) may be preferable to paying the cost of $100,000/ton (Archer et al., 2020) for leaving
the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

Conclusion

Increasing levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide may cause catastrophic damage. This cost may
be as high as $100,000/ton of carbon dioxide released to the atmosphere (Archer et al., 2020).

12
The Carbon Dioxide to Graphite (CD2G) approach converts atmospheric carbon dioxide to
graphite, which will slow the build-up of atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, which will slow
climate change and ocean acidification. A mature CD2G factory could remove atmospheric
carbon dioxide for a net profit of ~$381/ton. This approach will increase the availability and
affordability of graphite. Since graphite is essential for many thermal and lithium batteries and
fuel cells, increasing the supply and affordability of graphite will decrease the cost of storing
renewable energy. In turn, this will accelerate the transition to renewable energy, decreasing the
release of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere by fossil fuel combustion. Graphite can be converted
to graphene, which will increase the affordability and availability of graphene, and offer
opportunities for additional synergies, scientific advances, technological progress, and economic
opportunities, including increased efficiencies of energy generation, energy storage, and energy
use. CD2G factories are sustainable and can be scaled to remove atmospheric carbon dioxide at
the Gt level.

Acknowledgements

I thank BethAnn Zambella. This paper would not be possible without her encouragement and
support. She also helped with revising, editing, proofreading, and taming the references. I thank
Eric Smith and Lori Weeden for reviewing the manuscript.

13
Atmospheric carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere with a CO2 trap. After being
released from the trap by heating, the carbon dioxide is converted into graphite using the Bosch
reaction.

14
The atmosphere is pumped through a CO2 trap filled with an adsorbent. Carbon dioxide is
trapped, while nitrogen and oxygen are released to the atmosphere.

15
Carbon dioxide is released from the trap by heating it to ~400 oK and in a vacuum of ~6 Torr.
The evolved carbon dioxide is transferred to the graphite reactor.

16
 Fig. 3a. Graphite synthesis: loading CO2 into graphite synthesizer.

CO2

Graphite
Synthesizer
CO2 From
Trap CO2

Pump (on) Temperature: ambient

Pressure: elevated
Pump (off)

Valve (open)
Valve (closed)

Carbon dioxide is loaded into the graphite synthesizer.

17
 Fig. 3b. Graphite synthesis: loading H2 into graphite synthesizer

CO2 + H2

Fe catalyst

H2 from electrolyzer
CO2 + H2

Pump (on)
Temperature: ambient
Pressure: elevated
Pump (off)

Valve (open)

Valve (closed)

Hydrogen is added to the carbon dioxide in the graphite reactor. The hydrogen is produced by an
electrolyzer.

18
 Fig. 3c. Graphite synthesis: production

CO2 + H2

Fe catalyst

CO2 + H2

Graphite

CO2 + 2H2 ===> graphite [C] + 2H2O

Pump (on)

Pump (off)

Valve (open)
Temperature: high
Valve (closed) Pressure: high

After the carbon dioxide and hydrogen have been added to the graphite reactor at high pressure,
the temperature is increased. The iron in the graphite reactor catalyzes the CO2-to-graphite
conversion. High pressure favors the formation of graphite.

19
Table 1. Graphite prices; larger pieces of graphite command higher prices (Northern Graphite,
https://www.northerngraphite.com/about-graphite/graphite-pricing/, accessed 10/14/24)

Graphite size Price (graphite Price (CO2 removed)

produced)

+32 mesh $2,300/ton $628/ton CO2

+50 mesh $1,750/ton $478/ton CO2
+80 mesh $1,400/ton $382/ton CO2
+100 mesh $1,200/ton $328/ton CO2
+150 mesh $800/ton $218/ton CO2
-150 mesh $500/ton $137/ton CO2

The price per ton of CO2 removed is calculated by multiplying the price per ton of graphite by
0.273 (12 grams C/44 grams CO2). An optimized CD2G factory will make mostly large flakes
(+32 mesh size). To achieve this, the optimum configuration, temperatures, flow rates, H2/CO2
ratios, and pressures will be determined. Also, the optimum composition, texture, shape, and
charge of the catalyst will be determined. See costs and expenses in Tables 2-5.

20
Table 2. Approximate electrical costs for converting 2.5 kg of CO2 to 0.7 kg of graphite

Task Cost
100% efficient 75% efficient 50% efficient

Pump air through $0.40 $0.53 $0.80

Adsorbent (1)

Heat adsorbent to $0.01 $0.01 $0.02

release CO2 (2)

Transfer CO2 to $0.10 $0.13 $0.20

Graphite Synthesizer (2)

H2 generation (3) $0.48 $0.64 $0.96

Pump H2 to $0.10 $0.13 $0.20

Graphite Synthesizer (3)

Heat Graphite $0.01 $0.01 $0.02

Synthesizer (3)

Pump CO2 and H2 $0.10 $0.13 $0.20

mix through Graphite
Synthesizer (3)

Total ~$1.20 ~$1.60 ~$2.40

Pumping air through the adsorbent and splitting water to generate hydrogen use the bulk of the
electricity. Finding a more efficient way to get the adsorbent saturated with carbon dioxide is one
way to reduce costs. (1) Appendix A. (2) Appendix B. (3) Appendix C.

At 100% efficiency, it will take 24 kWh of electricity to trap 2.5 kg of CO2:

($1.20/2.5 kg CO2) * (1 kWh/$0.05) = 24 kWh/2.5 kg

At 75% efficiency, it will take 32 kWh of electricity to trap 2.5 kg of CO2:

($1.60/2.5 kg CO2) * (1 kWh/$0.05) = 32 kWh/2.5 kg

At 75% efficiency, it will take 48 kWh of electricity to trap 2.5 kg of CO2:

($2.40/2.5 kg CO2) * (1 kWh/$0.05) = 48 kWh/2.5 kg

21
Table 3. Carbon trap and graphite synthesizer non-electrical costs

Item System Cost

Positive displacement blower ~$2,000

Vacuum pump ~$2,600

Circulator pump ~$2,600

Pressure gauges, heaters, tubing, valves ~$1,000

CO2 analyzer ~$2,000

H2 generator ~$2,000

Total ~$12,200

22
Table 4. Prototype expenses/profits (all values are approximations)

range ~$/ton CO2 captured

Expenses:

electrical 480-960 960

non-electrical 56

total 1016

Profits:

oxygen 182

graphite 137-628 478

total 660

Net cost 356

Based on Tables 1-3, the prototype CD2G experiment can remove atmospheric carbon dioxide at
a cost of ~$356/ton. See Table 5 for profits as the technology matures.

23
Table 5. Expenses/profits for mature technology (all values are approximations)

$/ton CO2 captured

Expenses:

electrical ~384

non-electrical ~45

total ~429

Profits:

graphite ~628

oxygen ~182

total ~810

Net profit ~381

A mature CD2G factory will generate a ~$381/ton profit for removing a ton of atmospheric
carbon dioxide.

24
References

Achee, T.C., W. Sun, J.T. Hope, S.G. Quitzau, C.B. Sweeney, S.A. Shah, et al. 2018. High-yield
scalable graphene nanosheet production from compressed graphite using electrochemical
exfoliation. Sci Rep 8, 14525. doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-32741-3

Allen, M.J., V.C. Tung & R.B. Kaner. 2010. Honeycomb Carbon: A Review of Graphene,
Chemical Reviews 110 (1), 132-145 doi: 10.1021/cr900070d

Archer, D., E. Kite & G. Lusk. 2020. The ultimate cost of carbon. Climatic Change, 162, 2069–
2086.

Assouline, A., L. Pugliese, H. Chakraborti, S. Lee, L. Bernabeu, M. Jo, et al. 2023. Emission and
coherent control of Levitons in graphene. Science, 382, (6676) 1260-1264. doi:
10.1126/science.adf988

Ballinger, B., M. Stringer, D.R. Schmeda-Lopez, B. Kefford, B. Parkinson, C.Greig, et al. 2019.
The vulnerability of electric vehicle deployment to critical mineral supply. Applied Energy, 255,
113844.

Boretti, A., S. Al-Zubaidy, M. Vaclavikova, M. Al-Abri, S. Castelletto & Sergey Mikhalovsky.

2018. Outlook for graphene-based desalination membranes, Clean Water, 1, 5.

Chen, N., S.Y. Paek, J.Y. Lee, J.H. Park, S.Y. Lee & Y.M. Lee. 2021. High-performance anion
exchange membrane water electrolyzers with a current density of 7.68 A cm−2 and a durability
of 1000 hours, Energy Environ. Sci.,14, 6338-6348.

De Castro, C., M. Mediavilla, L.J. Miguel, & F. Frechoso. 2013. Global solar electric potential:
A review of their technical and sustainable limits. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews,
28, 824-835.

Dupont, E., R. Koppelaar, & H. Jeanmart. 2020. Global available solar energy under physical
and energy return on investment constraints. Applied Energy, 257,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.113968

Dyatkin, B. 2021. Fine-tuned carbon nanotubes scavenge for waste heat. MRS Bulletin, 46,
1003–1004. doi.org/10.1557/s43577-021-00223-z

Fountain, H. 2022. Carbon dioxide levels in atmosphere reach 4-million-year high and continue
to climb. NY Times, June 4, 2022, A, 9.

Gao, W., Y. Wu, X. Wan, J. Gao & D. Wen. 2023. Engineering the electronic structure of FeP
with rare earth elements to enhance the electrocatalytic hydrogen evolution performance. J.
Mater. Chem. A, 2023,11, 18126-18134.

25
Gastol, D., M. Capener, C. Reynolds, C. Constable, & E. Kendricka. 2021. Microstructural
design of printed graphite electrodes for lithium-ion batteries, Materials & Design, 205, 109720.

Harrison, K. G. 2019. The glacial express. EarthArXiv: eartharxiv.org/arv8m/.

https://doi.org/10.31223/osf.io/arv8m

Henneman, L., C. Choirat, I. Dedoussi, F. Dominici, J. Roberts, & C. Zigler. 2023. Mortality
risk from United States coal electricity generation. Science, 382, 941-946.
doi:10.1126/science.adf4915

Hernandez, Y., V. Nicolosi, M. Lotya, F.M. Blighe, Z. Sun, S. De, et al. 2008. High-yield
production of graphene by liquid-phase exfoliation of graphite. Nature Nanotechnology, 3, 563–
568.

Hodges, A., A.L. Hoang, G. Tsekouras, K.Wagner, C.-Y. Lee, G.F. Swiegers, et al. 2022. A
high-performance capillary-fed electrolysis cell promises more cost-competitive renewable
hydrogen. Nat Commun 13, 1304. doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-28953-x

Houghton, J. 2004. Global warming: The complete briefing. Cambridge University Press.

Huang, S., S. Li, L.F. Villalobos, M. Dakhchoune, M. Micari, D.J. Babu, et al. 2021. Millisecond
lattice gasification for high-density CO2- and O2-sieving nanopores in single-layer graphene.
Scientific Advances, 7. doi: 10.1126/sciadv.abf0116

Iocopi, F. & A. C. Ferrari. 2024. Tailoring graphene for electronics beyond silicon. Nature, 625,
34-35.

Jara, A.D., A. Betemariam, G.Woldetinsae & J. Y. Kim. 2019. Purification, application and
current market trend of natural graphite: A review. International Journal of Mining Science and
Technology, 29, 671-689. doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmst.2019.04.003

Khan, B.M., W.C. Oh, P. Nuengmatch, & K. Ullah. 2023. Role of graphene-based
nanocomposites as anode material for Lithium-ion batteries. Materials Science and Engineering:
B, Volume 287, 116141, doi.org/10.1016/j.mseb.2022.116141

Kikstra, J.S., P. Waidelich, J. Rising, D. Yumashev, C. Hope & C.M. Brierley. 2021. The social
cost of carbon dioxide under climate-economy feedbacks and temperature variability.
Environmental Research Letters, 16, 9, 094037.

Kim, H., Y. Choi, É. Lantagne-Hurtubise, C. Lewandowski, A. Thomson, L. Kong et al. 2023.

Imaging inter-valley coherent order in magic-angle twisted trilayer graphene. Nature, 623, 942-
948.

Kunzig, R. 2024. Water batteries. Nature, 393, 358-363.

26
Kupferschmidt, K. 2023. Feeling the heat: Researchers struggle to convey the complex impacts
of climate warming on infectious disease. Science, 381 (6665), 1388-1392. doi:
10.1126/science.adk8767

Liang, L., H. Zhou, J.-C. Li, Q. Chen, L. Zhu, & H. Ren. 2021. Data-driven design of nanopore
graphene for water desalination. Journal of Physical Chemistry C. 125.10.1021/acs.jpcc.1c09470

Lienert, P. & N. Carey. 2023. Focus: Synthetic graphite for EV batteries: Can the West crack
China's code? https://www.reuters.com/world/china/synthetic-graphite-ev-batteries-can-west-
crack-chinas-code-2023-09-12/ [Accessed September 29, 2024.]

Lin, J-B. T.T.T. Nguyen, R. Vaidhyanathan, J. Burner, J.M. Taylor, H. Durekova, et al. 2021. A
scalable metal-organic framework as a durable physisorbent for carbon dioxide capture. Science,
374, 1464-1469.

Lu, X., M.B. McElroy & J. Kiviluoma. 2009. Global potential for wind-generated electricity.
Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences, 106, 27.

Mendelsohn, R. & S.M. Kim. 2023. Measuring the impacts of air pollution: Reduced air
pollution from coal power plants decreased mortality more than expected. Science, 382, 878-879.
doi: 10.1126/science.adl2935

Miller, G.T. & S.E. Spoolman. 2009. Living in the environment: Concepts, connections, and
solutions. 16th ed. Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning.

Moore, P.B. & H.F. Volk. 2020. Graphite. In: AccessScience. McGraw-Hill Education.
doi:10.1036/1097-8542.298300. [Accessed September 29, 2024.]

Morroni, M. 2006. Knowledge, scale and transactions in the theory of the firm. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107321007. Repr. 2009.

Nagy, B., J.D. Farmer, Q.M. Bui, & J.E. Trancik. 2013. Statistical Basis for Predicting
Technological Progress, PLOS One. doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0052669

Osman, A.I., L. Chen, M.Yang, G. Msigwa, M. Farghali, S. Fawzy, et al. 2023. Cost,
environmental impact, and resilience of renewable energy under a changing climate: a
review. Environ Chem Lett, 21, 741–764. doi.org/10.1007/s10311-022-01532-8

Pervez, S.A., M. Madinehei & N. Moghimian. 2022. Graphene in solid-state batteries: An

overview. Nanomaterials 12(13), 2310. doi.org/10.3390/nano12132310

Pratten, C.F. 1991. The competitiveness of small firms. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
pp. 16-17.

Raj, S.K., G.R. Bhadu, P. Upadhyay, &V. Kulshrestha. 2022. Three-dimensional Ni/Fe doped
graphene oxide @ MXene architecture as an efficient water splitting electrocatalyst.

27
International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 47, 41772-41782.
doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2022.05.204

Ramkumar, A. & S. Patterson. 2024. New hot climate investment is heat itself. Wall Street
Journal. https://www.wsj.com/business/energy-oil/the-new-hot-climate-investment-is-heat-itself-
72c35979 [Accessed December 22, 2024.]

Rao, L.T., P. Rewatkar, S.K. Dubey, A. Javed & S. Goel. 2020. Automated pencil electrode
formation platform to realize uniform and reproducible graphite electrodes on paper for
microfluidic fuel cells. Sci Rep, 10, 11675. doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-68579-x

Rennert, K., F. Errickson, B.C. Prest, L. Rennels, R.G. Newell, W. Pizer, et al. 2022.
Comprehensive evidence implies a higher social cost of CO2. Nature. 610, 687-692.

Riba, J.-R., C. López-Torres, L. Romera, & A. Garcia. 2016. Rare-earth-free propulsion motors
for electric vehicles: A technology review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 57, 367-
379. doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.12.121

Robinson, A. 1958. [1931]. The structure of competitive industry. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, pp. 22-23.

Rodrigues, M. 2023. The Amazon’s record-setting drought: how bad will it be? Nature, 623,
675-676.

Scherer, F.M. 1980. Industrial market structure and economic performance (2 ed.). Chicago:
Rand McNally, pp 82-83.

Seenivasan, H. I., T. Lim, J.W. Han, & J. Seo. 2024. Schottky switch derived by metallic W5N4 |
catalyst junction: Switch-on to enhance catalytic activity and durability in water splitting
reaction. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 340, 123233.

Shiokawa, F., A.A.H. Tajuddin, T. Ohto, Y. Yu, T. Fujita, H. Tanimoto, et al. 2024. Durable
high-entropy metal anodes for neutral seawater electrolysis. Chemical Engineering Journal, 479,
147862.

Stigler, G.J., 1958. The economies of scale, Journal of Law & Economics , 1, 54-71. Stable url:
https://www.jstor.org/stable/724882.

Swanson, R.M. 2006. A vision for crystalline silicon photovoltaics. Progress in Photovoltaics
14:443–453. doi:10.1002/pip.709.

Tiwari, S.K., S. Sahoo, N. Wang, & A. Huczko. 2020. Graphene research and their outputs:
Status and prospect, Journal of Science: Advanced Materials and Devices, 5, 1, 10-29,
doi.org/10.1016/j.jsamd.2020.01.006

28
United States Energy Information Administration. 2022. Levelized costs of new generation
resources in the Annual Energy Outlook 2022.
https://www.eia.gov/outlooks/aeo/pdf/electricity_generation.pdf [Accessed September 30, 2024.]

Wang, J., C. Cheng, X. Zheng, J.C. Idrobo, A.-Y. Lu, J.-H. Park, et al. 2023. Cascaded
compression of size distribution of nanopores in monolayer graphene. Nature, 623, 956-963. doi:
10.1038/s41586-023-06689-y

Wang, L., H. Yao, F. Chi, J. Yan, H. Cheng, Y. Li, et al. 2022. Spatial-interleaving graphene
supercapacitor with high area density and mechanical flexibility. ACS Nano, 16, 12813-12821.
doi: 10.1021/acsnano.2c04989

Wang, S., Lu, A. & Zhong, C.J. 2021. Hydrogen production from water electrolysis: role of
catalysts. Nano Convergence, 8, 4. doi.org/10.1186/s40580-021-00254-x

Wong, C. 2023. Earth’s hottest year on record: climate change is to blame. Nature, 623, 674-675.

Wright, T.P. 1936. Factors affecting the cost of airplanes. Journal of Aeronautical Sciences, 3,
122+. doi.org/10.2514/8.155

Yuvaraja, A.L., & D. Santhanaraj. 2014. A systematic study on electrolytic production of

hydrogen gas by using graphite as electrode. Mat. Res., 17, 1. doi.org/10.1590/S1516-
14392013005000153

Zaka, A., K. Hayat, & V. Mittal. 2021. Recent trends in the use of three-dimensional graphene
structures for supercapacitors. ACS Applied Electronic Materials, 3, 2, 574-596.

Zhang, X., S. Zhang, Y. Tang, X. Huang, & H. Pang. 2022. Recent advances and challenges of
metal–organic framework/graphene-based composites. Composites Part B: Engineering. 230, 1.
doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2021.109532

Zhao, J., P. Ji, Y. Li, R. Li, K. Zhang, H. Tian, et al. 2024. Ultrahigh-mobility semiconducting
epitaxial graphene on silicon carbide. Nature, 625, 60-65.

Zhao, Z., Z. Liu, A. Zhang, X. Yan, W. Xue, B. Peng, et al. 2022. Graphene-nanopocket-encaged
PtCo nanocatalysts for highly durable fuel cell operation under demanding ultralow-Pt-loading
conditions. Nature Nanotechnology, 17, 968-975.

Zhou, H., L. Holleis, Y. Saito, L. Cohen, W. Huynh, C.L. Patterson, et al. 2022. Isospin
magnetism and spin-polarized superconductivity in Bernal bilayer graphene. Science, 375, 774-
778.

Zhou, Y., J.Zhang, L. Wang, X. Cui, X. Liu, S.S. Wong, et al. 2021. Self-assembled iron-
containing mordenite monolith for carbon dioxide sieving. Science, 373, 315-320.

Ziegler, M.S. & J.E. Trancik. 2021.Re-examining rates of lithium-ion battery

29
technology improvement and cost decline. Energy Environ. Sci., 14, 1635.

30
Appendix A. Cost of trapping 2.5 kg of atmospheric carbon dioxide

All of the values below are approximations. The mordenite adsorbent can remove 5.68 mm
CO2/g of adsorbent (Zhou et al., 2021). So, 10,000 g (10 kg) of adsorbent can remove 56.8 moles
of CO2:

(10,000 g adsorbent) * (5.68 x 10-3 moles CO2/g adsorbent) = 56.8 moles of CO2.

Amount of air needed to capture 56.8 moles moles of CO2 is about 1.14 x 105 cubic feet:

(1 mole air/0.0004 moles CO2) * 56.8 moles CO2 = 1.42 x 105 moles air

The contemporary atmospheric carbon dioxide value is ~400 ppm (i.e., 0.000400 moles
CO2/mole air).

Convert to liters:

22.4 liters ~ one mole of air

1.42 x 105 moles air * (22.4 liters of air/mole of air) = 3.18 x 106 liters

Convert to cubic feet:

28 liters ~ 1 cubic foot

3.18 x 106 liters * (1 cubic foot/28 liters) = 1.14 x 105 cubic feet

One way to move air through the adsorbent is with a 6.5 hp blower that moves ~1121 cfm. It will
take about 100 minutes to blow enough air (1.14 x 105 cubic feet) to capture 56.8 moles of
carbon dioxide:

1.14 x 105 cubic feet /1121 cfm = 100 minutes

100 minutes = 1.7 hours

It would cost about $0.40 to capture 56.8 moles of CO2:

Convert horsepower to kW:

1 hp ~ 0.75 kW

(6.5 hp) * (0.75 kW/hp) = 4.9 kW

4.9 kW x 1.7 hours = 8.3 kWh

8.3 kWh x $0.05/kWh = $0.40 to adsorb 56.8 moles of CO2

31
(56.8 moles CO2) * (44 grams CO2/mole) = 2.5 kg

$0.40/2.5 kg = $0.16/kg CO2

($0.16/kg CO2) x (1000 kg/ton) = $160/ton CO2 removed

It will cost ~$160 to capture a ton of carbon dioxide.

How much electricity is needed to capture a ton of carbon dioxide:

(8.3 kWh/2.5 kg) * 1000 kg = 3000 kWh

The largest cost associated with the CD2G approach is energy. Energy costs will be about
$0.05/kWh. This is based on an estimate of $0.049/kWh for solar hybrid energy (US EIA, 2022,
Table 1b). This cost may decrease to $0.03/kWh over time as renewable energy and energy
storage technology mature, greatly cutting costs.

32
Appendix B. Cost of desorbing carbon dioxide and moving it to graphite reaction chamber.
This back-of-the-envelope estimate is derived from approximations.

It will cost about $0.01 to heat 10 kg of adsorbent by ~100 oK:

ΔQ=mcΔT

ΔQ = change in heat

m = 10 kg (mass)

c = 830 J/(kg oK) specific heat (using quartz sand as best guess)

ΔT = 100 oK

ΔQ = (10 kg) * (830 J/(kg oK) * (100 oK) = 8 x 105 J

Convert J to kwh:

1 kWh = 3.6 x 106 J

8.0 x 105 J * (1 kWh/3.6 x 106 J) = 0.2 kWh to release 2.5 kg of CO2 from 10 kg of adsorbent

$0.05/kWh

0.2 kWh * $0.05/kWh = $0.01 to release 2.5 kg of CO2

Power needed to release a ton of CO2:

(0.2 kWh/2.5 kg CO2) * (1000 kg/ton) = 80 kWh

Cost needed to release a ton of CO2:

80 kWh * 0.05 = $4.00

The cost of pumping 56.8 moles of carbon dioxide into the Bosch reaction chamber will be about
$0.10:

Volume of CO2:

(56.8 moles CO2) * (22.4 liters/mole) = 1.3 x 103 liters

A Fisherbrand™ MaximaDry™ Diaphragm Vacuum Pump (13-880-18) costs ~$2601, can

generate a ~6 torr vacuum and can move ~20 liters/minute. The estimated energy consumption is
about ~2 kW.

33
(1.3 x 103 liters)/(20 liter/minute) = 65 minutes = 1.08 hours

1.08 hours * 2kWh = 2.1 kWh

2.1 kWh * 0.05/kWh = $0.10.

34
Appendix C. Cost of converting carbon dioxide to graphite. These are approximations.

Energy needed to generate enough hydrogen to convert 57 moles of carbon dioxide into
graphite:

10 kg of adsorbant can capture ~57 moles of carbon dioxide (Appendix A).

Two moles of hydrogen are needed to convert one mole of carbon dioxide into one mole of
graphite (CO2 + 2H2 ===> C(graphite) + 2H2O); (Equation 1).

Converting ~57 moles of CO2 to graphite requires ~114 moles H2.

Splitting a mole of liquid water to produce a mole of hydrogen at 25°C requires 285.8 kJ of
energy—237.2 kJ as electricity and 48.6 kJ as heat.

It will take 34,200 kJ of energy to produce 114 moles of H2:

(114 moles H2) * (~300 kJ/mole H2) = 34,200 kJ

Since one kWh equals 3600 kJ, it will take 9.5 kWh at a cost of $0.48 to make 114 moles of
hydrogen:

(34,200 kJ) * (1kWh/3600kJ) = 9.5 kWh

9.5 kWh costs $0.48:

(9.5 kWh) * ($0.05/kWh) = $0.48

Cost of pumping the CO2 and H2 mixture through graphite synthesizer:

About the same as transferring CO2 into graphite synthesizer, $0.10 (Appendix B)

Heating the Bosch reactor will cost about $0.01:

ΔQ=mcΔT (Appendix B)

The iron catalyst for the graphite reactor will weigh 1 kg. The reactor temperature will be
increased by ~750 oK and the specific heat (c) of iron is ~450 J/(kg oK).

ΔQ = (1 kg) * (450 J/(kg oK)) * (750 oK) = 3.4 x 105 J

Convert J to kWh:

1 kwh = 3.6 x 106 J

(3.4 x 105 J) * (1 kWh/3.6 x 106 J) = 0.09 kWh

35
(0.09 kWh) * ($0.05/kWh) = $0.01.

Pumping carbon dioxide and hydrogen through the reactor is about the same cost as pumping
CO2 into the reactor: $0.10.

36
Appendix D: Estimated amount of carbon dioxide removed in a year using 10 kg of
adsorbant

It will take about ~100 minutes to trap 2.5 kg of CO2 (Appendix A).

It will take about ~65 minutes to release the trapped CO2:

It will take ~10 minutes to heat 10 kg of adsorbant by 100oC (estimate).

It will take ~55 minutes to desorb the CO2 from the mordenite using a pump (estimate).

It will take 17 minutes to cool the adsorbant trap with a ~1121 cfm flow rate (estimate).

The graphite can be synthesized while the CO2 trap is collecting (estimated at 30 minutes).

The total time to process 2.5 kg of CO2 is ~3 hours:

~20 kg of carbon dioxide can be removed from the atmosphere in a day or ~7,300 kg in a year.

37
Appendix E. Amount of oxygen produced for every ton of carbon dioxide captured

There are 2.3 x 104 moles of carbon dioxide in a ton of carbon dioxide:

(1000 kg CO2) * (1000 g/kg) * (1 mole/44 grams) = ~2.3 x 104 moles carbon dioxide.

It takes 2 moles of hydrogen to convert a mole of carbon dioxide into graphite:

CO2(g) + 2H2(g) ===> C(graphite) + 2H2O(g) Equation 1

It takes ~4.6 x 104 moles of hydrogen to convert ~2.3 x 104 moles of carbon dioxide into
graphite.

Splitting water to produce hydrogen will produce one mole of oxygen for every two moles of
hydrogen produced:

2H2O ===> 2H2 + O2

2.3 x 104 moles (~736 kg) of oxygen will be produced for every ton of carbon dioxide captured:

(2.3 x 104 moles oxygen) * (32 grams/mole) * (1kg/1000 grams) = 736 kg O2

38
Appendix F. Estimating the cost of compressing oxygen

If it costs ~$1 to compress 80 cu. ft. of oxygen, then it will cost ~$238 to compress 736 kg of
oxygen:

Convert 736 kg of oxygen (from Appendix E) to liters:

(736 x 103 grams oxygen) * (1 mole/32 grams) * (22.4 liters/mole) = 5.2 x 105 liters

Convert liters to cubic feet:

5.2 x 105 liters * 1 cu. ft./28 liters = 1.9 x 104 cu. ft.

1.9 x 104 cu ft * $1/80 cu. ft. = $238

39