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Statistics Notes

The document provides an overview of statistics, focusing on descriptive statistics and the importance of understanding data through key questions about who, what, when, where, why, and how. It categorizes data into qualitative (categorical) and quantitative types, detailing their characteristics and levels of measurement. Additionally, it illustrates the analysis of variables through examples, emphasizing the need to interpret data contextually.

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15 views

Statistics Notes

The document provides an overview of statistics, focusing on descriptive statistics and the importance of understanding data through key questions about who, what, when, where, why, and how. It categorizes data into qualitative (categorical) and quantitative types, detailing their characteristics and levels of measurement. Additionally, it illustrates the analysis of variables through examples, emphasizing the need to interpret data contextually.

Uploaded by

vivenmi23006b
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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STATISTICS NOTES

Unit 1 – Exploring One-Variable


Data
Section 1 – What can we learn from Data?
Statistics & Data
Statistics is the study of data, and it is divided into two main
branches:
1. Descriptive Statistics – This involves gathering data and
organizing it in ways that make it easy to understand. It
includes creating tables, graphs, and summary measures
like averages.
2. Inferential Statistics – This goes beyond the collected
data and makes predictions or generalizations about a
larger group (population) based on a sample.
For now, the focus is on descriptive statistics, which help in
summarizing and interpreting data.

Understanding Data
 Data Set – A collection of numbers or values. For example,
a teacher recording students’ test scores.
 Elements – The individuals or objects being studied. In this
case, the students.
 Observation – A recorded measurement for each element.
For example, each student’s test score.
 Context Matters! – Data is meaningless without
understanding what it represents and who it applies to.
Knowing the background of the data helps in making sense
of patterns and insights.

The "W"s of Data


A simple way to understand data better is by asking these key
questions:
1. Who? (Subjects or Units of Data)
o Who is providing the data?
o This could be:
 Respondents – People who answer surveys.
 Subjects/Participants – People involved in
experiments.
 Experimental Units – Non-human entities (e.g.,
animals, plants, machines) used in research.
o Knowing who the data is from helps us understand its
reliability and applicability.
2. What? (Variables)
o What is being measured?
o Variables are characteristics being observed.
 Dependent Variable – The outcome being
studied (e.g., test scores).
 Independent Variable – The factor that may
influence the outcome (e.g., hours studied).
 Controlled Variables – Factors kept constant to
ensure a fair test.
o Clear identification of variables helps in proper
analysis.
3. When & Where? (Time and Location)
o When was the data collected? – Data collected at
different times may show different trends.
o Where was the data collected? – Location can influence
results due to cultural, social, or economic factors.
4. Why? (Purpose of the Study)
o Why was the data collected?
o The goal of analysis shapes how data is interpreted.
Example:
 A study on sleep and test scores may ask:
 Is there a relationship?
 How strong is the relationship?
 Is it just coincidence or a real pattern?
5. How? (Data Collection Methods)
o How was the data gathered?
o Methods include:
 Surveys
 Experiments
 Observations
 Using existing data (secondary sources)
o The quality of the data depends on the method used.
 Example: Online surveys are fast but may be
biased if only certain groups respond.

Section 2 - The Language of


Variation: Variables
Understanding Data & Variables
 Data refers to collected information about individuals or
units with specific characteristics (called variables).
 The values that variables take on are also called data.
 Data can be classified into two main types:
o Categorical (Qualitative) Data – Describes
characteristics that cannot be measured numerically
(e.g., colors, names, labels).
o Quantitative Data – Represents numerical
measurements that can be analyzed mathematically
(e.g., age, income, height).

Categorical (Qualitative) Variables


Categorical variables represent groups or categories without
numerical meaning.
 Example: The color of a car, the name of a country, or a
person's marital status.
 These variables help classify data but cannot be used for
arithmetic operations like addition or averaging.
 Types of Categorical Variables:
o Nominal Variables: Categories with no meaningful
order (e.g., hair color, eye color, religion).
o Ordinal Variables: Categories with a meaningful
order or ranking (e.g., satisfaction levels: "poor," "fair,"
"good," "excellent").
Examples of Categorical Variables:
Variable Type Examples
Gender Nomin Male, Female, Non-binary
al
Education Ordin High School, Bachelor's,
Level al Master's
Employment Nomin Employed, Unemployed, Self-
Status al employed
Political Party Nomin Democrat, Republican,
al Independent
Satisfaction Ordin Low, Medium, High
Level al

Quantitative Variables
Quantitative variables represent measurable numerical
values that can be counted or measured.
 Example: A person's height, weight, income, or test score.
 These variables can be used for arithmetic operations
like addition, subtraction, and averaging.
 Types of Quantitative Variables:
o Discrete Variables: Take on whole number values
(e.g., number of siblings, number of pets).
o Continuous Variables: Can take any value within a
given range (e.g., height, weight, temperature).
Examples of Quantitative Variables:
Variable Type Examples
Age Continu 5.2 years, 21 years,
ous 67.8 years
Height Continu 5'8", 6'2", 170 cm
ous
Number of Discrete 0, 1, 3, 5
Pets
Monthly Continu $2,500, $4,700.50,
Salary ous $6,100
Number of Discrete 3, 4, 5, 7
Classes

Level of Measurement
The level of measurement determines how data can be
analyzed and what mathematical operations make sense.
Level Definition Examples
Nomin Data is categorized but has no Gender, Religion, Eye
al meaningful order Color
Ordin Data is categorized with a Satisfaction Levels
al meaningful order, but (Poor, Fair, Good),
differences between values are Education Level
not meaningful
Interv Data is ordered, has Temperature (°C, °F),
al meaningful differences, but no IQ Scores
true zero
Ratio Data is ordered, has Age, Income, Weight
meaningful differences, and
has a true zero

Example Question
Transportation Safety
The chart shows the number of job-related injuries in each of the
transportation industries in 1998.
Industry Number of injuries
Railroad 4520
Intercity bus 5100
Subway 6850
Trucking 7144
Airline 9950
1. What are the variables that we are studying?
Looking at the table, we can see that we have two variables; type
of industry and number of injuries.
2. Categorize each variable as quantitative or
qualitative.
The type of industry, of course, is a qualitative variable, as the
values are names for transportation. At the same time, the
number of job-related injuries is quantitative, as the values are
numbers.
3. Categorize each quantitative variable as discrete or
continuous.
The number of job-related injuries is discrete.
4. Identify the level of measurement for each variable.
The type of industry is nominal, and the number of job-related
injuries is a ratio.
5. The railroad is shown as the safest transportation
industry. Does that mean railroads have fewer
accidents than the other industries? Explain.
This question makes you think about what the number means to
you. The railroads do show fewer job-related injuries; however,
there may be other things to consider. For example, railroads
employ fewer people than the other transportation industries in
the study.
6. From the information given, comment on the
relationship between the variables.
We can see that the railroads have the fewest job-related
injuries. In contrast, the airline industry has the most job-related
injuries (more than twice those of the railroad industry). The
numbers of job-related injuries in the subway and trucking
industries are fairly comparable.
Bottom line: always look at data and see what you can see
behind, how they are related, and how they compare to each
other.

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